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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Economics Solutions Chapter 7 Supply Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Economics Chapter 7 Question Answer Supply

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
Supply curve slopes upward from left to right.
Answer:
Supply curve is the geometrical representation of law of supply which shows the direct relationship between price & quantity supplied. So supply curve slopes downward from left to right.

Question 2.
Supply curve has a positive slope.
Answer:
Supply curve shows the direct relationship between price of a goods & its quantity so, It slopes upward from left to right showing a positive slope.

Question 3.
Supply of a goods differs from its stock.
Answer:
Stock refers to total quantity of goods stored by the producer; but supply of a goods refers to that part of the stock offered for sale at a given price. So, supply of a goods is a part of the stock.

Question 4.
Supply of good is different from stock of goods.
Answer:
Stock of goods refers to total quantity of goods brought & kept after production. But the supply of goods refers to quantities of a goods ofered for sale at different prices during a particular time period.

Question 5.
Supply function is a multi-variate function.
Answer:
Supply of a goods depends on price of that goods, price of related goods, cost of production, stage of technology etc. So it is a multivariate function.

Question 6.
Supply of a goods varies directly with price.
Answer:
According to law of supply, the supply of a goods increases with rise in prices & vice versa. It is due to profit motive of the producers.

Question 7.
Supply curve has a positive slope.
Answer:
As the supply of a goods is directly related to its price-level, the supply curve slopes upward from left to right. So supply curve has a positive slope.

Question 8.
Law of supply does not operate for rare goods.
Answer:
Rare goods have fixed supply. Its supply cannot be increased with rise in price-level. So law of supply does not operate in this case.

Question 9.
Stock may exceed supply but supply can never exceed stock.
Answer:
Stock refers to the goods already produced & in possession of seller. But supply of a goods refers to a part of stock brought for sale in the market at a given price.

Answer within Five/Six sentence :

(A) WRITE SHORT NOTES ON :

Question 1.
Supply Function.
Answer:
Supply refers to the quantities of goods offered for sale by the producer at given prices during a particular time period. It is associated with the production of goods. As such, supply of goods depends on the factors of production, price of goods supplied, state of technology, government policy etc. So supply function is a multi-variate function comprising of all these variables. Mathematically stated,
Sx = f (Px, Pa, Pb, Pr, T, G )
Where as Px → Price of goods, Pa, Pb → Price of inputs, Pr → price of related good, T → state of technology, G → Government policy. All these factor are classified into price-factors & non-price factors. Other things (Non-price factors) remaining constant, the quantity supplied of a goods increases with a rise in the price-level and decreases with a fall in the price-level.

Question 2.
Supply schedule.
Answer:
Supply schedule is a tabular expression on showing a list of various quantities of a goods supplied at different given prices. Supply schedule is a numerical statement of law of supply. It shows that more is supplied at higher price & less is supplied at lower price. Supply schedule is of two types i.e.Individual supply schedule & market supply schedule. Market supply schedule is considered while explaining “ Law of supply”. Market supply schedule is the aggregate of individual supply schedule that denotes quantities of goods of offered for sale to the market at different prices.

Question 3.
Law of Supply
Answer:
Law of supply is a guiding principle that shows a functional relationship between price of a good & its quantity supplied in an unchanged situation. According to this law, more of a good is supplied at higher price & less of the good is supplied at lower price. It just exhibits the direct relationship between price & quantity .of a goods supplied, it indicates that price & supply move in a same direction. For this operation, factor like price related goods, prices of inputs, technology should remain constant.

Question 4.
Supply Curve.
Answer:
Supply Curve is a geometrical representation of supply schedule. This graphical illustration of supply schedule reflects the operation of law of supply. This curve describes the direct functional relationship between price & quantity supplied. Hence, the supply curve slopes upward from left to right indicating more is supplied at higher price & less supplied at lower price. This supply curve has positive slope. ‘

Question 5.
Change in Supply.
Answer:
Supply is a multi-variate function. A number of factors like price of the goods supplied, prices of inputs, price of related goods, state of technology, government policy etc. influence the supply. Change in supply takes place due to the change in all those factors other than the price of good supplied. Price of the goods remaining constant, if these factos change, there shall happen either increase in or decrease in supply. Hence, the supply curve may shift downward to the right or upward to the left. Thus, change in supply occurs either in form of increase in supply or decrease in supply. Here, price of the goods acts as a passive factor.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is supply ? What are the factors influencing it ?
Answer:
Supply refers to the amount of goods offered for sale by the producer at a given price during a particular time period. Supply is a flow concept. It indicates flow of different quantities of goods to the market at a different prices during a given time period. Thus, supply is quoted with price & expressed for a particular time period.
Supply of any goods does not means the entire stock of it. Rather, it is a part to the stock which is offered for sale at different prices during a given period. Supply of a good can be expressed by the supply function like.
Sx = f (Px, Py, Pz, Pa, Pb, Pc, T…. )
Like demand, supply is also a multi-variate function. Supply of a goods not only depends on its price, rather it depends on price of related goods (Py,Pz) price of inputs (Pa, Pb, Pc) state of technology (f) etc. All these factors directly influence the supply of goods.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SUPPLY :
Being a multivariate function, the supply of any goods is influenced by numerous factors. The important factors influencing demand are mentioned below.

(i) Price of Goods : It is an important factor that directly influences the supply. Price & supply of goods are positively correlated. It implies that in an unchanged situation more is supplied at higher price & less is supplied at lower price. It establishes that there exists direct relationship between price of a good & its quantity supplied. It is because of the profit motive of the producer. Producer is able to earn more profit only at higher price. So he is attaracted with higher price & supply more of goods.

(ii) Prices of related Goods : The supply of a goods is greatly influenced by the price of related goods. Related goods may be a substitute goods or complementary goods. If the price of a goods substitute of other falls, the quantity supplied of it falls & the supply of the original goods increases. Similarly, a rise in price of a goods leads to a fall in the supply of other goods. On the other hand, in case of complementary goods, if price of goods rises, the quantity supplied of its complementary goods also increases. It just proves the prices of related good as an important factor.

(iii) Prices of inputs: The Prices of factors of production (inputs) are also influential in determining the quantum of supply. If the prices of factors of production rise, the supply of the concered commodity decreases. Thus, there exists inverse relationship between price of inputs & quantity supplied. For example, if the price of a raw material of a good rises, the profit margin is expected diminishing & hence the producer reduces the supply of it.

(iv) State of Technology : State of technology stands as an important determinant of supply. Technological progress or introduction of cost-saving technology reduces the cost of production & raises the supply. Because it creates higher profit expectations. Thus, new inventions or discoveries in respect of technology raises the supply of goods.

(v) Goals of Business : In a free market economy, profit-motive is an importation objective of the business. Profit maximisation is a common goal of business. As such, the producer becomes interested to supply more only at higher price. If the goal of the business is to maximise profit & the profit expectation is bright, then producer supplies more. In socialistic economy, it may not happen.

(vi) Natural Factors : Natural factors like rain fall, natural calamities etc can also influence the supply. Expected rainfall raises the agricultural productivity & hence the supply increases. On the contrary, natural calamities like flood, cyclone etc. reduces the supply.

(vii) Government Policy : Government plays a vital role in changing the pattern of supply. Imposition of higher tax increases the cost of production & thus reduces the supply of goods. For example, rise in sales Tax has adverse impact on supply of the good on which it is imposed. On the other hand, decrease in tax encourages the producer to supply more – Thus, taxation policy acts as a dominant factor in moulding the supply.
All those factors are non-priced factors. So any change in these factors cause changes in supply & the supply curve may shift either upward or downward on the basis of the nature of the change of these factors.

Question 2.
Explain the “Law of supply”. What are its limitations ?
Answer:
Supply refers to the quantity of a goods which are offered for sale at different prices during a given period of time. This very expression establishes that there exist certain relationship between price of a goods & quantity supplied. Law of supply tells about this relationship.

“Law of supply” speaks about the inter-relationship between the price of a goods & the quantity supplied of it. It describes the response or reaction of the sellers or producers with regard to supply of a goods to the prevailing price at a particular time-period. The price at which the goods are offered for sale (supplied) is called “Supply Price”. The supply price denotes the quantity or quantities of good supplied at different prices.
According to this law, “Other things remaing constant, the amount supplied of a good increases with the rise in its price & decreases with the fall in the price.”

So it clearly indicates a positive correlationship between price of a goods & its quantity supplied. This relationship holds goods in an unchanged situation i.e. some factors like price of related goods, Price of inputs, state of technology, Government Policy etc. should remain constant. In this situation, price of a goods & quantity supplied move in the same direction.

Illustration of law : The law of supply can be illustrated with the help of market supply schedule. Market supply schedule is a tabular expression showing a lilst of various quantities of a goods supplied at a different prices. This is purely a numerical exposition of law of supply.

MARKET SUPPLY SCHEDULE

Numerical Analysis Price of good (inRs.)	Amount of good Supplied (in units)
1	10
2	20
3	30
4	40
5	50

This numerical analysis revals that the quantity supplied of a goods increases with the rise in its price. It clearly shows a positive relation between price of a good & quantity supplied of it. When price of good X rises from Rs. 1 to Rs. 5 the quantity supplied of it increases from 10 units to 50 units. This is the theoretical aspect of “Law os supply.

Graphical Analysis.
The same theory can also be explain with the help of a graph.

The above figure shows that with the rise in price (measured on OY-axis) the quantity supplied (Measured on OX – axis) increases. When price is Rs. 1.00 the quantity supplied is 100 units. When the price rises to Rs 2.00,3.00,4.00 & 5.00, the quantity supplied increases to 20 unit, 30 units, 40 units, 40 units respectively. It just shows the direct positive relationship between the quantity supplied & price of a goods. By joining all these points, the supply curve can be obtained. Supply curve is, thus a graphical representation of supply schedule. It slopes upwards from left to right showing a positive slope. SS is the supply curve.

LIMITATIONS
Law of supply suffers from certain limitations which are presented below.
(a) Fixed supply : In case of some goods, the supply is found to be a fixed. The supply of such goods can not be increased irrespective of any change in its price. For example, the supply of rare collections, ancient coins, ancient manuscripts can not be increased with the change in price. Thus the law of supply does not operate in these cases.

(b) Change in other things : The law of supply does not hold goods if the non-price factors do change. In case of change in technology, prices of inputs, price of related goods, Government policy etc. the direct relationship between price of a good & its supply can not be proved.

(c) Prestigious Goods : The law is also not applicable to prestigious goods bearing a symbol of social status. Because, the supply of such goods are limited. So in spite of rise in price of these goods, the supply remains unchanged.

(d) Supply of labour : Through the law of supply speaks about the direct relationship between price of a good & quantity supplied of it, yet this does not hold good in case of supply of labour. Wage is the price of labour. A rise in wage creates more income to labour for- less horns work. So the labourer at higher wage rate prefers leisure to work. As such, the supply of labour gets reduced at higher wage rate.

(e) Future Expectation of Price-Change : If future change, in price is expected, the supply is also influenced. If the there is apprehension of fall in price in future, there shall be more supply at a currect price & vice-versa. As such, the law of supply loses its theoretical validity.

(f) Clearance Sale : In case of auction or clearance sale, the law of supply does not operate. In this case, more is supplied at lower price.

(g) Change in Taste & Preference : If any change in taste & preference of the consumer is observed the supply of goods decreases without any change in price.

In spite of all these limitations, the law of supply is treated as a universal law for its practical implications & tremendous significance. No doubt, the law of supply has practical validity for which it is appreciated.

Question 3.
What is change in supply ? What are the factors responsible for this ?
Answer:
Supply is a multi-valued function comprising of certain price & non-price elements. The direct relationship between price of a good & its quantity supplied can be proved only when these non-price factors remain unchanged. The change in these non-price factors shifts the supply curve either upwards or down-wards on the basis of the nature of change. This is truly called “ change in supply”.

Change in supply denotes increase or decrease in the supply as a result of the change in the factors other then the price of goods. Rise in price of inputs, rise in price of related goods, change in technology change in Government policy leads to, change in supply. In case of such change, the supply curve shifts either upwards or downward. Thus, it needs to analyse increase or decrease in supply & to discuss about the factors causing this increase or decrease.

Increase in Supply
Increase in supply takes place when more is supplied at same price & same is supplied at lower price. This figure presented below clarifies this concept.

SS is the intial supply curve at OP price (on OY – axis) the quantity supplied (on OX – axis) is OQ.

In case of increase in supply, the supply curve shifts to the right (S₁S₁) Price remaining same it is clear that more of goods OR can be supplied at OP price due to increase in supply. On the other hand, same quantity (OQ) can also be supplied at the lower price OP because of increase in supply.
Decrease in Supply : Decrease in supply takes place when less is supplied at same price & same is supplied at higher price. The figure presented shows the concept of decrease in supply.

The figure shows the shift of supply curve to the left & becomes S₁S₁ Intially, at OP price OQ quantity is supplied. But as a result of change in supply, less (OR) is supplied at same price (OP) & same (OQ) is supplied at higher price(OS).

Causes of Increase or decrease in Supply.
(a) Change in Price of inputs : If the price of the factors of production decreases, the cost falls & there results higher profit expectation. So the supply increases even price remains constant. On the contrary, if the price of inputs rises, the supply gets reduced at the same price.

(b) Price of Related goods : The price of substitute goods & complementary goods also causes change in supply. If the price of substitutes falls, it reduces the supply of this goods & it raises the supply of the original goods in question. Its reverse case leads to decrease in supply.

(c) Change W Technology : In case of technological progress the cost of production gets reduced & its supply increases. In case of traditional technology, the supply gets decreased.

(d) Tax Policy : Imposition of tax on good leads to increase in the cost of production which reduces the supply of goods. On the other hand, if the tax rate on goods gets reduced, the supply of goods increases because of lower cost.

(e) Future Price Expectation : If the price of the goods is expected to rise in fixture, its quantity supplied at present gets reduced & in its reverse case i.e. expectation of fall in price in future, the supply at present price increases.
All these factors cause a change in supply of the goods. In all the case, the price of the goods remains unchanged, only the non-price factors leads to increase in or decrease in supply.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
In economics, supply of a goods refers to
(i) stock of the goods
(ii) total production of the goods
(iii) quantity offered for sale
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) quantity offered for sale

Question 2.
According to law of supply, supply of a goods & its price are
(i) inversely related
(ii) directly related
(iii) proportionately related
(iv) disproportionately related
Answer:
(ii) directly related

Question 3.
Supply made by the producer mainly depends on
(i) cost of production
(ii) price of the goods
(iii) willingness of the producer
(iv) ability to sell
Answer:
(ii) price of the goods

Question 4.
If the cost of production increases, the supply of goods
(i) increases
(ii) decreases
(iii) remains same
(iv) all of the above
Answer:
(ii) decreases

Question 5.
Supply is always quoted with
(i) cost of production & time period
(ii) price of goods & time period
(iii) technological development
(iv) transport cost
Answer:
(ii) price of goods & time period

Question 6.
The supply curve slopes
(i) upward from left to right
(ii) downward from left to right
(iii) like a vertical straight line
(iv) like a horizontal straight line
Answer:
(i) upward from left to right

Question 7.
When the seller has the fear of fall in price of a goods in future, its supply will
(i) increase
(ii) decrease
(iii) remains unaffected
(iv) cannot say
Answer:
(i) increase

Question 8.
Supply of commodity and stock of it are:
(i) Different concepts
(ii) All of the above
(iii) Same concepts
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(i) Different concepts

Question 9.
With the rise in price of the substitutes supply of a goods will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Decrease

Question 10.
With the rise in cost of production, supply tends to :
(i) Decrease
(ii) Increase
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of he above
Answer:
(i) Decrease

Question 11.
If the rise in price is expected in future, the supply of a commodity will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Decrease

Question 12.
If a fall in price in future is apprehended, the supply will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(i) Increase

Question 13.
Supply curve has a :
(i) Positive slope
(ii) Negative slope.
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above.
Answer:
(i) Positive slope

Question 14.
According to Law of Supply, there exists :
(i) Indirect relationship between price and quantity supplied.
(ii) Direct relationship between price and quantity supplied
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Direct relationship between price and quantity supplied

Question 15.
If the price of a rare painting increases, its supply will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) Remain the same

Question 16.
Increase in supply refers to :
(i) Same supply at same price
(ii) Same supply at more price
(iii) More supply at same price
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) More supply at same price

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
Supply varies _____ with price.
Answer:
directly.

Question 2.
Price & _____ of a goods moves in same direction.
Answer:
supply

Question 3.
Supply curve & _____ schedule provides same information.
Answer:
supply

Question 4.
Supply curve has a _____ slope.
Answer:
positive

Question 5.
Supply of a goods depends on its _____
Answer:
price.

Question 6.
A fall in price of substitute goods leads to _____ in its supply.
Answer:
decrease

Question 7.
Supply of a goods _____ with the rise in price of its Substitutes.
Answer:
decreases

Question 8.
Supply tends to _____ with the rise in cost of production.
Answer:
fall

Question 9.
Supply of a commodity _____ if the rise in price is expected.
Answer:
decreases

Question 10.
Supply of a commodity _____ if a fall in prices in future is apprehended.
Answer:
increases

Question 11.
Supply curve has a _____ slope.
Answer:
positive

Question 12.
Supply remains _____ to any price change of rare paintings.
Answer:
Unchanged

Question 13.
_____ in supply refers to more supply at same price or same supply at less price.
Answer:
Increase

Question 14.
Decrease in supply refers to _____ supply at same price.
Answer:
less

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Supply refers to the total quantities of goods produced during a particular time period.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply refers to the quantities of goods offered for sale at different prices during a particular time period.

Question 2.
Stock is a part of the supply.
Answer:
Incorrect :
Correct: Supply is a part of the stock.

Question 3.
Supply Schedule is a numerical statement of law of supply.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 4.
Supply varies indirectly with price.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply varies directly with price.

Question 5.
Price & supply of a good moves in opposite direction.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Price & supply of a goods moves,in same direction.

Question 6.
Supply curve & supply schedule provides same information.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 7.
Supply curve has a negative slope.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply curve has a positive slope.

Question 8.
Price of a goods depends on its supply.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply of a goods depends on its price.

Question 9.
Supply of a goods is more when its price is higher.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 10.
A fall in price of a substitute goods leads to increase in its supply.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: A fall in price of substitute goods leads to decrease in its supply.

Question 11.
Change in supply can be explained on same supply curve.
Answwer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Change in supply can be explained on different supply curve.

Question 12.
Supply curve shifts upward in case of increase in supply.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply curve shifts downward in case of increase in supply.

Question 13.
Supply of a commodity and stock of it are same concepts.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a commodity and stock of it are different concepts.

Question 14.
Supply of a goods increases with the rise in price of its substitutes.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a goods decreases with the rise in price of its substitutes.

Question 15.
Supply tends to increase with the rise in cost of production.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply tends to fall with the rise in cost of production.

Question 16.
Supply of a commodity increases if the rise in price is expected in future.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a commodity decreases if the rise in price is expected.

Question 17.
Supply of a commodity decreases if a fall in price in future is apprehended.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a commodity increases if a fall in prices in future is apprehended.

Question 18.
Supply curve has a negative slope.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply curve has a positive slope.

Question 19.
According to Law of supply there exists direct relationship between price and quantity supplied.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 20.
If the price of a rare painting increases, its supply increases.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply remains unaffected to any price change of rare paintings.

Question 21.
Increase in supply refers to same supply at same price or same supply at more price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Increase in supply refers to more supply at same price or same supply at less price.

Question 22.
Decrease in supply refers to less supply at same price.
Answer:
Correct.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
What is supply ?
Answer:
Supply refers to quantity of commodity offered for sale at different given prices during a prticular time period.

Question 2.
What is supply function ?
Answer:
The supply function shows the functional relationship between the supply of a goods & its price-level, while other things remaining constant.

Question 3.
What sort relationship exists between price of a goods & its quantity supplied ?
Answer:
There exists direct relationship between price of a goods & its quantity supplied.

Question 4.
What happens to supply of a goods if the price of its substitute rises ?
Answer:
The supply of goods decrease if the price of its substitutes rises.

Question 5.
What happens to supply of a goods if its price of inputs rises ?
Answer:
The supply of goods decreases if its price inputs rises.

Question 6.
What happens to supply of goods if higher price is expected in future.
Answer:
The supply of goods decreases if higher price is expected in future.

Question 7.
What is a supply schedule ?
Answer:
Supply schedule is a tabular expression showing various quantities of goods offered for sale at each prices during time period.

Question 8.
What is law of supply ?
Answer:
Law of supply states that more is supplied at higher price & less is supplied at lower price in an unchanged situation.

Question 9.
What similarity exists between supply schedule & supply curve ?
Answer:
Both supply schedule & supply curve explains law of supply.

Question 10.
What supply curve ?
Answer:
Supply curve is a n upwards sloping curve showing more quantities supplied at higher price & vice-versa.

Question 11.
What is the slope if supply curve ?
Answer:
Supply curve has positive slope.

Question 12.
In which case law of supply does not operate ?
Answer:
In case of Auction sale, the law of supply does not operate.

Question 13.
What is the shape of the supply curve ?
Answer:
Supply curve slopes upward from left to right.

Question 14.
State a reason for which supply curve slopes upward ?
Answer:
Profit motive of the producer causes upward sloping of supply curve.

Question 15.
What is change in supply ?
Answer:
Change in supply refers to increase or decrease in supply that happens due to the factors other than the price of goods.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 6 Experimental Methods of Mill Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 6 Question Answer Experimental Methods of Mill

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What do you mean by experimental methods?
Answer:
(i) The word experiment relates to experience, so experience includes both observation and experiment.
(ii) So the methods are called experimental methods as they are based on experience.

Question 2.
Write the names of different methods of mill.
Answer:
(i) Mill has given 5 experimental methods.
(ii) These are, agreement, difference, joint method of agreement and difference, method of concomitant variation and the method of residues.

Question 3.
State the mills cannon of method of Agreement.
Answer:
Mill’s Canon of method of Agreement:
“If two or more instances of the phenomenon undo- investigation have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which alone all the instances agree is the cause of the given phenomenon.”

Question 4.
State the advantages of the method of Agreement.
Answer:
(i) Being a method of observation, it has a wide range and it can applied where experiment is not possible.
(ii) By this method we can discover cause from effect and effect from cause, since it is a method of observation.

Question 5.
Give a symbolic example of the method of residues.
Answer:
ABC are followed by abc.
BC are known to the cause of be
∴ A is the cause of a.

Question 6.
Why are the experimental methods called inductive method?
Answer:

1. The experimental methods are called inductive methods because they are inductive in character.
2. Here the whole process is empirical.
3. Here the major premise is a result of inductive generalisation, the minor premise is obtained by observation and the conclusion is probable.

Question 7.
What is the principle of elimination applied by the method of agreement?
Answer:
The method of agreement is based on the first principle of elimination which states that
“whatever antecedent can be left out without prejudice to the effect can be no part of the cause”.

Question 8.
What methods of mill are not fundamental and why?
Answer:

1. The joint method of agreement, the method of concomitant variations and the method of residues are not fundamental.
2. They are not fundamental because they are the modifications of either the method of agreement or the method of difference.

Question 9.
How can the method of concomitant variations be applied in permanent causes?
Answer:

1. The method of concomitant variations can be applied in the causes of permanent cases of permanent causes.
2. The permanent causes cannot be dropped but they can be increased or decreased.
3. We can apply this method in the cases of heat, friction, gravitation and study their effects on the human body and other bodies.

Question 10.
Is the method of residues essentially a method of deduction?
Answer:
(i) The method of residues is essentially a method of deduction because we follow it to reach at the conclusion.
(ii) Here we adopt the method of substraction.

Question 11.
How can the method of concomitant variations be a graphic method ?
Answer:
(i) The method of concomitant variation is called as graphic method or statistical method because it is based on the quantiative aspect of causation.

(ii) Here the quantitative charges in both the causes and the effect can be represented graphically.

Question 12.
State the characteristics of the method of difference.
Answer:
(i) The method of difference is said to be a method of single difference.
(ii) It is a method of experiement
(iii) It is a method of proof and the result of this method is certain.

Question 13.
State any three advantages of the method of difference.
Answer:
(i) This method requires only two instances in order to find out the cause.
(ii) It conclusively establish a causal relation between cause and effect.
(iii) The result of this method is reliable and dependable.

Question 14.
What are the merits of joint method.
Answer:
(i) It’s scope is very wide.
(ii) It’s conclusion is more certain.
(iii) This method is free from the defects arising out of the plurality of causes.

II. Answer within Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
State the advantages of the method of difference.
Answer:
(i) As this method requires only two instances, so the trouble of collecting a large number of instances in avoided.
(ii) Under ideal conditions it can establish a casual relation conclusively.
(iii) The result of this method is reliable when based on experiment.

Question 2.
State three disadvantages of the joint method.
Answer:
(i) The joint method cannot distinguish Cause from condition.
(ii) It cannot distinguish causation from coexistence.
(iii) It is inapplicable in cases of permanent causes.

Question 3.
State the advantages of the method of concomitant variation.
Answer:
(i) This method is applicable in case of permanent causes.
(ii) As this method is a modification of the method of difference, so it called a method of proof.
(iii) It is useful in cases of intermixture of effect.

Question 4.
Why the method-of Residues is called as a method of discovery?
Answer:
The method of Residues is said to be method of discovery rather than method of proof, because many important disooveries have been made by this method. The planet Neptune and the gas Argon were discovered by this method. As, the result of this method in hypothetical and does not end with the deductive work of substructure, so mellone called if as finger post to fee unexplained.

Question 5.
Which experimental method of , mill is called method of double Agreement?
Answer:
Joint method of mill is called the method of double Agreement, because it has an agreement in the presence in the positive set and also a agreement in the absence in the negative set. So fowler calls it, the double method of Agreement and Bain calls it the method of double Agreement.

Question 6.
Why the method of Agreement is said to be the method of single agreement? Explain.
Answer:
The method of Agreement is said to be the method of single agreement, because in third method different instances agree on a single point. But if the instances agree on a number of circumstances it will be difficulty by this method to ascertain which one of them in the cause. The singleness of the agreement generates our belief in the causal connection. This method in called “the method of single agreement”.

Group-B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
State and Explain Mill’s method Difference.
Answer:
Mill’s Canon : “If an instance in which the Phenomenon under investigation occurs and an instance in which it does not occur have every circumstance in which alone the two instance differ in the effect, or the cause or an indispensable part of the cause of the phenomenon”.

Concrete examples :
(i) In a lighted rooom the furniture are visible at night. When the light is switched off, visibility is lost. So we conclude that light the cause of human visibility.

(ii) Some one sips coffee and finds that it does not taste well. Then he adds a bit of sugar and it becomes tasteful. So sugar is an indispensable part of the cause of the taste of coffee. Principle of elimination : The method of difference is based on the principle. “Which an antecedent can not be left out without the consequent disappearing, such an antecedent must be the cause or a part of the cause”.

Characteristics :
(1) The method of difference is said to be the method of single difference : In this method on comparison of two instance, we find that they differ only in one respect. It is the singleness of the difference that constitutes the ground of proof. Hence Mellone and coffey call this method the method of single difference.

(2) The method of difference is mainly a method of experiment : The essential requirement of this method is the two instances are special type. They must be exactly alike except that in one, the phenomenon under investigation is present and in other it is absent. It can be found only when the situation is under our control. Unless we examine, how can we know that our thirst can be quenced after drinking of water. So this method is truly called a method of experiment.

(3) The method of difference is said to be a method of proof in cases of experimental observation: The method of agreement does not prove the causal connection, but merely suggests something to be the cause. But the method of difference can prove the causal connection by experiment. Since this method faces many difficulties, it can not completely establish the causal connection.

Advantages :

1. The method of difference requires only two instance, though of a special kind. So the trouble of collecting a large number of instance is a avoided.
2. It can concresively establish a causal relation, under ideal conditions.
3. When applied experimentally the result obtained by this method is reliable.

Disadvantages :
(1) The method of difference can not eradicate the difficult arising out of the plurality of causes : According to Mellone, it proves a cause but not the cause. In a particular case, this method can conclusively prove that x is the cause of y, but it does not prove that x is the only cause of y.

(2) In the method of difference, we are liable to commit the fallacy of post hoc er go proper hoc : This fallacy literally means, after this therefore due to this. When this method is wrongly used in out daily lige. We commit this fallacy. Anew bridge is the cause of my father’s death then my argument is certainly fallacious.

(3) This method falls to distinguish between cause and condition : Sometimes this method takes one condition to be cause. But this view is wrong. For example : Addition of bit of sugar brings about the right taste of coffee, but sugar alone is not the cause of the taste.

(4) The method of difference can not proceed from effect to cause : By experiment we can proceed from cause to effect, but not from effect to cause. So as a method of experiment, this method cannot proceed from effect to cause.

(5) The method of difference is inapplicable in the case of permanent causes : Because the permanent causes like friction, gravitation on the surface of the Earth etc. cannot totally eliminated. So this method is not applicable in such cashes.

(6) The scope of the method of difference is limited : As the method of difference is based on the method of experiment and experiment is not possible in all cases, that is why it’s scope is limited.

(7) The method of difference can not be applied where the phenomenon is complex and beyond our control.

Question 2.
State and explain the joint method of Agreement and difference.
Answer:
Mill’s Canon : “If two or more instances in which the phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance in common, while two or more instance in which it does not occur have nothing in common save the absence of that circumstance, the circumstance in which alone the two sets of instances differ is the effect or the cause or an indispensable part of the cause of the phenomenon.

Symbolic example :

• Positive Set :
  1. ABC are followed by abc.
  2. ACD are followed by acd.
  3. ADC are followed by ade.
• Negative Set :
  1. BCD are followed by bed.
  2. DEC are followed by dec.
  3. EFD are followed by efd.

From these two sects of instances we inter that ‘A’ is the cause of a. Concrete examples :
(i) We collect the instances and find that where there is malaria fever, there are mosquitoes and where there is no malaria fever, there is no mosquitoes. So mosquito is the cause if malaria fever.

(ii) The students who are sincere in their study succeed in their examination and who are insincere in their study do not succeed in the examination. So sincere study is cause of success in the examination.

Principle of Elimination : The joint method is a modification of the method of a agreement and the method of difference. So the principles of elimination of both these methods are employed here.

1. Whatever antecedent can be left out without prejudice to the effect can be no part of the cause.
2. When an antecedent can not be left out without consequent disappearing, such antecedent must be the cause or part of the cause.

Characteristics :
(1) The joint method is a method of double agreement: This method is not a primary method, but it is considered to be a double application of the method of agreement and method of difference. It has an agreement in the presence in the positive set and also an agreement in the absence in the negative set. So fowler calls it, the double method of  agreement. Mill calls this method, “The indirect method of difference, “Because the negative instances are obtained noi by experiment but indirectly by showing what would be the result it experiment could be made.

(2) According to venn, this method is called as the method of exclusion because in this method all the circumstances are eliminated except one.

(3) This method is said to be a method of proof, because the causal connection suggested by the positive instances is confirmed by the negative instances.

Advantages :

1. The joint method being a method of observation has a wide range of application. The scope of this method is wider because observation is universally applicable. Besides it helps discover by suggesting a hypothesis about cause.
2. This method is free from the difficulties arising out of the plurality of causes. This method takes that the common antecedent and common consequent are causally related. If the negative instances contain all the circumstances other that what is uniformaly present in the positive set, there is no change of plurality of causes.
3. The joint method is applicable in the field of experiment.
4. This method can confirm the casual connection.

Disadvantages :

1. The joint method fails to distinguish between cause and co-existence. Lightning and thunder are co-effects but they may be supposed to be cause and effect by this method.
2. It is inapplicable in cases of permanent causes, such as heat, gravitation etc. Because in the these cases we can not find a negative set.
3. It cannot distinguish between cause and condition. If may be shown that salt is uniformly present in several dishes of palatable curries but the same dishes become unpalatable when no salt is given. By this method we are liable to conclude that salt alone is responsible for palatableness of the curries.
4. This method requires that different antecedents and consequent must be separately distinguishable. So it can not deal with the intermixture of effects where the separate effects are indistinguishable.

Question 3.
State and explain the method of residues.
Answer:
Mill’s Cannon : “Subduct from any given Phenomenon such part as is known by previous inductions to the effect of certain antecedents and the residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining antecedents.”

Symbolic example :
ABC ………… abc
BC …………… be
∴ A is the cause of a.

Concrete example :
(1) The shopkeeper weights the empty tin and then filled up the tin with oil, then weights it. Now by subtracting the weight of the empty tin from the total weight he determines the weight of the oil.

(2) You purchased a shirt, a banyon and a pant, you paid Rs 70. You know the price of the shirt is Rs 25 and banyan is Rs 5. So the price of the.pant is Rs 40.

The Principle of Elimination :
This method is based on the principle that what is the cause of one thing cannot be the cause of a different thing. When we are dealing with a complex set a phenomena and we already know the cause of same of them, we conclude that the cause of the reminder or residual phenomenon is to be found among the remaining antecedents.

• Characteristics :
  1. It is a method of discover rather than proof.
  2. It is a special modification of method of difference.
  3. It is essentially method of deduction. We calculated the effect of known causes and substract this calculated effect from the total effect.
• Advantages :
  1. This method is applicable of complex phenomena.
  2. It is capable of proving casual relation where the data are collected by experiment.
• Disadvantages :
  1. The method of residues is inapplicable in cases where previous knowledge of causal relation is a lacking.
  2. The method of residues is in applicable when the complex effect is unanalysed.

Question 4.
Di$cuss critically mill’s method of Agreement.
Answer:
Mill’s common : If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which alone all the instances agree is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon.

Symbolic Example :
ABC are followed by abc
ADE are followed by ade
AFG are followed by afg.
∴ A is the cause of a or a is the effect of A.

Concrete example : Female anopheles mosquito biting is the common antecedent of malaria fever. So female anopheles mosquito biting is the cause of malaria.

Principle of Elimination : The method of Agreement is based on the principle ‘Whatever antecedent can be left out without prejudice to the effect can be no part of the cause”.

Characteristics :
(1) The method of Agreement is said to be the method of single agreement:
Agreement on a single point or factor is important in this method. If the instance agree on a number of points, the real cause among them will be difficult to be found. Because we can not be sure which are among these points of agreement is the cause of the event.

(2) It is a method of observation : By observation we find instances for this method. Because it is based on observation, it has a wider range of application, there are certain areas where we can not experiment. For example, the planetory movement. In such cases, observation is the only way. This method of agreement has some advantages and some disadvantages. Let us discuss them.

Advantages:

1. The scope of the method is wide. This method is based on observation and observation has a wider range of application than experiment. So this method is applicable to cases where experiment is not possible.
2. In observation, we can go from cause to effect and also from effect to cause. So, as this method is based on observation, we get this advantage in the method. We can discover the cause and also the effect of an event.

Disadvantages :
1. This method fails to eradicate the difficulties arising out of pluraling of causes. Salt is the common element in all tasty curries. The method of agreement may declare salt as the cause of taste which is not the case.

2. There is the possibility of committing the fallacy of non-observation in this method. As this method collects its instances from observation, there always remains a possibility that we have overlooked certain circumstances. Those hidden factors may be responsible for the creation of effect of course, this difficulty can be removed to some extent by careful observation and manipulation of instances.

3. The method of Agreement fails to distinguish between cause and condition. We may mistake a condition to be the cause. The common antecedent may be a part of the cause but not the total cause!

4. It can not deal with intermixture of effects. There may be a case where the effect is a joint one from several causes. In atherwords, several causes together have produced an intermixture of effects. In such case, it is almost impossible to point out which effect is of which cause.

5. The result of this method is probable : This method depends only on the observation. There is always a possibility that we have not observed all the relevant facts. The probability only increases with more and more number of cases. Inspite of some disadvantages the method of agreement of mill is regarded as very important method.

Question 5.
What is the method of concomitant variation. Discuss critically.
Answer:
Mill’s Common : “Whatever phenomenon varies in any manner whenever another phenomenon varies in some particular manner is either a cause or an effect of that phenomenon, or is connected with it through same fact of causation”.

Symbolic Example :
A₁BC followed by a,be.
A₂BC followed by a₂bc.
A₃BC followed by a₃bc.
∴ A is the cause of a.

Concrete Example:
When the temperature rises, the mercury in the thermometer expands. So temperature is the cause of the expansion of mercury.

Principle of Elimination:
The method is based on the principle – “An antecedent and a consequent rising and falling together in numerical concomitance are to be held as cause and effect”.

Characteristics: The characteristics of the method given by J.S. Mill are

1. This method of comitant variation is the modification of either the method of agreement or the method of difference. It is not a primary method.
2. It is based on the quantitative aspect of causation. It can be represented graphically. So, this method is also called graphic method or statistical method.
3. It is a method of discovery. When two phenomenon change simultaneously in a particular pattern, a casual connection is suspected.
4. This method of concomitant variation has some advantages and also some disadvantages. All of them are discussed below.

Advantages :

1. It is a method of proof. Because this method is a modification of the method of difference.
2. This method is useful in case of permanent cause. Permanent causes like that, friction, etc. can not be totally eliminated. This method does not need total elimination of any factor.
3. It is useful in case of intermixture of effects. Even when effects are blended together, variation in antecedent indicate a variation consequent and thereby a casual connection is established.

Disadvantages :

1. This method is applicable to a certain limit. Exercise increase physical strength. But excess of it deterioates the strength.
2. The method is not applicable in case of qualitative change. Only in case of variation in quantity this method is applicable.
3. It fails to distinguish between cause and condition. Two things may changer together But that does not mean that they are cause and effect. One may be a condition.
4. It is not free from the difficulties arising out of plurality of causes when it is a method of observation.
5. This is the method of concomitant variation advanced by J.S. Mill to find the cause of an event.

Question 6.
Elaborate the advantages and the dis-advantages of the joint method of agreement and difference.
Answer:
The joint method of agreement and difference is a logical approach employed in the process of reasoning and argumentation. This method, developed by the philosopher John Stuart Mill, is a part of Mill’s broader system of inductive reasoning known as the Methods of Experimental Inquiry. The joint method involves identifying the common factors (agreements) and differences in a set of instances to arrive at more reliable conclusions. While the joint method has advantages in certain contexts, it also has its limitations and potential drawbacks.

Advantages of the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference :

1. Increased Reliability : The joint method combines the strengths of both the method of agreement and the method of difference. By considering both agreements and differences among instances, the reasoning process becomes more comprehensive and less susceptible to errors.

2. Robust Inductive Reasoning : The joint method enhances the robustness of inductive reasoning by addressing multiple aspects of the observed phenomena. It allows for a more thorough analysis of patterns, making the conclusions drawn from the data more reliable and well-founded.

3. Effective in Identifying Causal Factors : When used to analyze causal relationships, the joint method is effective in identifying factors that are consistently present (agreements) or consistently absent (differences) when a phenomenon occurs or does not occur. This can contribute to a better understanding of causation.

4. Versatility in Application : The joint method is versatile and applicable across various disciplines. Whether in scientific research, social sciences, or other fields, it provides a structured approach to analyze patterns and draw meaningful conclusions from observed data.

5. Guided Hypothesis Formation : The joint method guides the process of hypothesis formation by focusing on factors that consistently accompany or differ in instances under investigation. This can streamline the formulation of hypotheses that can be tested and refined through further empirical research.

6. Facilitates Comparative Analysis : Comparative analysis is inherent in the joint method, as it involves comparing instances to identify both commonalities and differences. This facilitates a nuanced understanding of the subject matter, contributing to more accurate generalizations.

Disadvantages of the Joint Method of Agreement and Difference :
1. Complexity and Resource Intensiveness : The joint method may be complex and resource-intensive, particularly when dealing with a large number of instances. Analyzing agreements and differences in a comprehensive manner requires careful consideration and detailed examination, which can be time-consuming.

2. Dependency on Quality of Data : The effectiveness of the joint method depends on the quality and reliability of the data used for analysis. If the data are flawed, incomplete, or biased, the conclusions drawn from the joint method may also be compromised.

3. Assumption of Relevance : The joint method assumes that the factors being considered (agreements and differences) are relevant to the observed phenomena. If important factors are overlooked or if irrelevant factors are included, the conclusions may be inaccurate or incomplete.

4. Limited Applicability in Some Contexts : While versatile, the joint method may not be equally applicable to all types of research questions or phenomena. In some cases, alternative methods or approaches may be more suitable for drawing meaningful conclusions.

5. Difficulty in Identifying Unobservable Factors : The joint method may face challenges in situations where certain factors are unobservable or difficult to measure. If critical factors are not considered due to their invisibility or complexity, the conclusions may be incomplete.

6. Potential for Overfitting : Overfitting occurs when an analysis is tailored too closely to the specific data set at hand, leading to conclusions that do not generalize well to new data. The joint method, if not carefully applied, may be susceptible to overfitting.

7. Limited Insight into Dynamic-Processes : The joint method may not be as effective in capturing dynamic or evolving processes where causal factors change over time. In such cases, alternative methods that account for temporal dynamics might be more appropriate.

Conclusion:
The joint method of agreement and difference offers a valuable approach to inductive reasoning by considering both commonalities and variations among instances. Its advantages lie in the increased reliability of conclusions, the robustness of inductive reasoning, and its effectiveness in identifying causal factors.

However, the method has its limitations, including potential complexity, dependency on data quality, and challenges in identifying unobservable factors. Researchers and analysts should carefully consider the context and nature of the phenomenon under investigation when deciding whether to apply the joint method or explore alternative methods that may better suit their specific research questions.

Question 7.
What is the special feature of the method of residues?
Answer:
The method of residues, also known as the method of differences, is a mathematical technique used for solving problems in various fifelds, including calculus, number theory, and physics. This method, attributed to the French mathematician Francis Viete, is characterized by its special feature of isolating and manipulating the “residue” or remaining part of a given quantity after subtracting known components. Understanding the special features of the method of residues requires exploring its principles, applications, and advantages.

Principles of the Method of Residues :
1. Isolation of the Residue : The primary objective is to isolate and identify the residue in the given quantity. This is achieved by subtracting known components from the total quantity, leaving behind the residue. The residue represents the part of the quantity that is not accounted for by the known components.

2. Manipulation of Residue : Once the residue is isolated, mathematical operations are performed on it to obtain the desired result or solution. This manipulation often involves simplifying the residue or transforming it into a more manageable form.

Special Features of the Method of Residues :
1. Focused on the Remaining Quantity : The distinctive feature of the method of residues is its focus on the remaining or residual part of a quantity after subtracting known components. This allows mathematicians to direct their attention specifically to the part that requires further analysis or computation.

2. Utilization in Various Mathematical Disciplines : The method of residues finds applications in diverse mathematical disciplines, including calculus, complex analysis, number theory, and combinatorics. Its adaptability and versatility contribute to its widespread use in solving different types of problems.

3. Integration with Complex Analysis : In complex analysis, the method of residues is closely linked to the theory , of residues, which involves evaluating complex integrals using the residues of functions. The residues are residues of meromorphic functions, and their properties contribute to the evaluation of integrals.

4. Application in Combinatorics : The method of residues is employed in combinatorics to count certain types of objects or arrangements. The residue is often associated with a counting function, and its manipulation leads to the determination of combinatorial quantities.

5. Solution of Linear Recurrences : In number theory, the method of residues is utilized to solve linear recurrence relations, providing a systematic approach to finding closed-form expressions for sequences defined by recurrence relations.

6. Inverse Process of Synthesis : The method of residues can be viewed as an inverse process of synthesis, where a complex quantity is broken down into simpler components. This inverse approach is particularly valuable in solving problems where direct synthesis is challenging

7. Advantageous for Simplification : The method of residues is advantageous for simplifying complex mathematical expressions. By isolating the residue, mathematicians can focus on specific terms or components, making it easier to analyze and manipulate the expression.

8. Application in Indeterminate Analysis : The method of residues is applied in indeterminate analysis, where it aids in finding limits and evaluating indeterminate forms. The residue plays a crucial role in expressing the limit of a function as the residue of a corresponding function.

Applications and Examples:
1. Calculus and Integration: In complex analysis, the method of residues is applied to calculate integrals by identifying residues at singular points. This is particularly useful for integrals involving rational functions or functions with poles.

2. Combinatorial Enumeration: In combinatorics, the method of residues is used to count the number of objects satisfying certain conditions. The residue is often associated with a generating function, and its manipulation yields information about the combinatorial structure.

3. Linear Recurrence Relations: In number theory, the method of residues is employed to solve linear recurrence relations. By transforming the recurrence relation into a generating function, the residue can be used to find a closed-form expression for the sequence.

4. Evaluation of Indeterminate Forms: The method of residues is applied to evaluate indeterminate forms, such as limits involving 0/0 or ∞/∞. By isolating the residue, mathematicians can simplify the expression and determine the limit.

Advantages of the Method of Residues :
1. Versatility and Applicability : The method of residues is versatile and applicable to various mathematical disciplines, providing a unified approach to solving problems in calculus, complex analysis, number theory, and combinatorics.

2. Focus on Essential Components : By isolating the residue, the method of residues allows mathematicians to focus on the essential, remaining part of a quantity. This simplifies the analysis and facilitates the solution of complex problems.

3. Inverse Synthesis Approach : The method of residues offers an inverse approach to synthesis, breaking down complex quantities into simpler components. This can be advantageous in situations where the direct synthesis is challenging or impractical.

4. Integration with Complex Analysis : In complex analysis, the method of residues is a powerful tool for evaluating integrals involving meromorphic functions. Its integration with complex analysis enhances its effectiveness in solving problems in this domain.

Limitations of the Method of Residues :
1. Dependency on Quality of Data : The effectiveness of the method of residues depends on the quality, and accuracy of the data or functions involved. If the initial expressions are poorly defined or contain errors, the conclusions drawn from the method may be
compromised.

2. Complexity and Resource Intensiveness : The method of residues can be complex and resource-intensive, especially when dealing with intricate mathematical expressions. The manipulation of residues may involve intricate algebraic steps, requiring careful analysis

3. Applicability to Specific Problem Types : While versatile, the method of residues may not be equally applicable to all types of mathematical problems. Certain problems may have more efficient or suitable methods for solution, and reliance solely on the method of residues may not be optimal.

Conclusion :
The method of residues, characterized by its focus on isolating and manipulating the remaining part of a quantity, is a valuable mathematical tool with wide-ranging applications. Its principles, versatility, and integration with complex analysis contribute to its effectiveness in solving problems in calculus, number theory, and combinatorics.

However, like any method, the approach has its limitations, including dependence on data quality and potential complexity. Understanding the special features, advantages, and limitations of the method of residues is essential for mathematicians and researchers seeking to apply this method judiciously in various mathematical contexts.

Group -C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
How many type principles of elimination are there in Mill’s experimental method?
(i) One
(ii) Two
(iii) Three
(iv) Four
Answer:
(iii) Three

Question 2.
Who has given five experimental methods in inductive logic?
(i) Mill
(ii) Jevons
(iii) Bain
(iv) Carveth Read
Answer:
(i) Mill

Question 3.
Which method is called as graphic or statistical method?
(i) The method of concomitant variations
(ii) The joint method of Agreement and Difference
(iii) The method of Difference
(iv) The method of Agreement
Answer:
(i) The method of concomitant variations

Question 4.
Which method is said to be a method of Deduction?
(i) The method of Agreement
(ii) The method of Difference
(iii) The method of concommitant variation
(iv) The method of Residues
Answer:
(iv) The method of Residues

Question 5.
Which method of is said to be method of proof?
(i) The method of Agreement.
(ii) The method of Difference, Joint method and the method of concomitant variations.
(iii) The method of Residues
(iv) The method of concomitant variations.
Answer:
(ii) The method of Difference, Joint method and the method of concomitant variations.

Question 6.
Which method is called the method of Discovery?
(i) The method of Difference
(ii) The method of Residues
(iii) The method of Agreement and the method of concommitant variations.
(iv) The joint method of Agreement and Difference.
Answer:
(iii) The method of Agreement and the method of concommitant variations.

Question 7.
Which method is called as the method of experiment?
(i) The method of Difference
(ii) The method of Agreement.
(iii) The joint method of Agreement and Difference.
(iv) The method of concommitant variations
Answer:
(i) The method of Difference

Question 8.
In which method we are liable to commit the fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc?
(i) The method of Agreement
(ii) The joint method of Agreement and difference
(iii) The method of Difference
(iv) The method of Residues
Answer:
(iii) The method of Difference

Question 9.
Which method is called as a method of exclusion?
(i) Method of Agreement
(ii) Method of difference
(iii) Joint Method of Agreement and difference.
(iv) Method of Residues.
Answer:
(iii) Joint Method of Agreement and difference.

Question 10.
Mill has puforth how many kinds of explanation?
(i) Three types
(ii) Four types
(iii) Five types
(iv) Six types
Answer:
(i) Three types

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
The method of Agreement in a method of ______.
Answer:
Discovery

Question 2.
The method of ______ is applicable in case of permanent causes.
Answer:
Concomittant variation

Question 3.
The method of ______ cannot distinguish between cause and condition.
Answer:
Agreement

Question 4.
In joint method we are unable to distinguish causation from ______.
Answer:
Co-existence.

Question 5.
The method of concern ittant variation is called ______ method.
Answer:
Graphic or statistical

Question 6.
There are ______ experimental methods in Logic.
Answer:
Five

Question 7.
There are ______ principles of elimination.
Answer:
Three

Question 8.
The experimental methods are called the methods of elimination because ______.
Answer:
By applying these methods the accidental circumstances are discarded and the essential circumstances are determined.

Question 9.
The first principle of elimination says ______.
Answer:
An absent circumstances cannot be the cause.

Question 10.
The method of Agreement is based on ______ principle.
Answer:
The first

Question 11.
The method of difference is based on the ______ principle.
Answer:
Second

Question 12.
The method of concomitant variation is based on the ______ principle.
Answer:
Third

Question 13.
The joint method is modification of ______.
Answer:
The method of Agreement and the method of difference.

Question 14.
The method of Residues is modification of ______.
Answer:
The method of difference

Question 15.
The method of agreement is essentially a method of ______.
Answer:
observation

Question 16.
The method of Agreement is used in. those cases where ______.
Answer:
The phenomenon is beyond our control

Question 17.
The method of Agreement suffers from the defects of ______.
Answer:
Plurality of causes and non-observation

Question 18.
The method of difference is pre-eminently a method ______.
Answer:
Experiment

Question 19.
When the method of difference is applied in the sphere of simple observation if leads to the fallacy of ______.
Answer:
Post hoc propter hoc

Question 20.
______ method is called a graphic or statistical method.
Answer:
Method of concomitant variation

Question 21.
Method of ______ is said to be a method of deduction.
Answer:
Residues

Question 22.
______ method is called a method of double agreement.
Answer:
Joint method

Question 23.
______ calls the method of difference as the method of single difference.
Answer:
Mellone

Question 24.
Venn calls the Joint method as the ______.
Answer:
method of exclusion

Question 25.
The method of ______ is based on the quantitative aspect of causation.
Answer:
Agreement

Question 26.
The method of concomitant variation is useful’in cases of ______.
Answer:
Intermixture of effects

Question 27.
The method of concomitant variation is not applicable in cases of ______ .
Answer:
qualitative variation

Question 28.
The method of concomitant variation does not enable us to distinguish causation from ______
Answer:
Co-existence

Question 29.
According to Mellone, Method of Residues is called ______.
Answer:
A finger post to the unexplained

Question 30.
The method of Residues is useful in cases of ______.
Answer:
Complex effect.

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
The method of Agreement is said to be the method of single difference.
Answer:
The method of Agreement is said to be the method of single agreement.

Question 2.
The method of Agreement is said to be mainly method of Experiment.
Answer:
The method of Agreement is said to be^nainly a method of observation.

Question 3.
The method of Agreement is said to be a method of proof rather than a method of Discovery.
Answer:
The method of Agreement is said to be a fttetfrod of discovery rather than a method of proof.

Question 4.
In the method of Agreement we are liable to commit the fallacy of Petitio Principii.
Answer:
In the method of Agreement we are liable to commit the fallacy of Non-observation.

Question 5.
The result of the method of agreement is certain.
Answer:
The result of the method of agreement is probable.

Question 6.
The method of difference is said to be the method of single Agreement.
Answer:
The method of difference is said to be the method of single difference.

Question 7.
The method of difference is mainly a method of observation.
Answer:
The method of difference is mainly a method of experiment.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
Which method is said to be mainly a method of observation?
Answer:
Agreement

Question 2.
The method of Agreement is said to be a method of discovery rather than a method of what?
Answer:
Proof

Question 3.
The result of tae method of Agreement is only what?
Answer:
Probable

Question 4.
Which method is said to be the method of single difference?
Answer:
Difference

Question 5.
The method of difference is mainly a method of what?
Answer:
Experiment

Question 6.
In which method we are liable to commit the fallacy of “post hocergo propter hoc”?
Answer:
Difference

Question 7.
Which method is not useful in cases of intermixture of effects?
Answer:
Joint method

Question 8.
Which method is called Graphic or statistical method?
Answer:
Concomitant – Variation

Question 9.
Which method is said to be essentially a method of deduction?
Answer:
Residues

Question 10.
Which method is called “a finger post to the unexplained”?
Answer:
Residues

Question 11.
Which method is called the method of Inclusion?
Answer:
Joint method

Odisha State Board BSE Odisha 7th Class Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 20 ସମ୍ଭାଷଣମ୍ Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

BSE Odisha Class 7 Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 20 ସମ୍ଭାଷଣମ୍

१. उत्तराणि लिखतु ‍
(ଉତ୍ତରାଣି ଲିଖତୁ) ଉତ୍ତର ଲେଖନ୍ତୁ:

(क) विवेकानन्दः बाल्ये कीदृशः आसीत् ?
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ବାଲ୍ୟ କୀଦୃଶୀ ଆସୀତ୍ ?
(ପିଲାଦିନେ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ କିପରି ଥିଲେ ?)
उत्तर :
विवेकानन्द: बाल्ये साहसी आसीत्।
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ବାଲ୍ୟ ସାହସୀ ଆସୀତ୍ଵ ।

(ख) प्रतिदिनं विवेकाननदः किं खादति स्म ?
ପ୍ରତିଦିନଂ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ କିଂ ଖାଦତି ସ୍ମ ?
(ପ୍ରତିଦିନ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ କ’ଣ ଖାଉଥିଲେ ?)
उत्तर :
प्रतिदिनं विवेकानन्द: निरामिषं खादति स्म ।
ପ୍ରତିଦିନଂ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ନିରାମିଶଂ ଖାଦତି ସ୍ଵ।

(ग) विवेकानन्दः कं गुरुरूपेण स्वीकरोति स्म?
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ କଂ ଗୁରୁରୂପେଣ ସ୍ଵୀକରୋତି ସ୍ମ ?
(ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ କାହାକୁ ଗୁରୁଭାବରେ ଗ୍ରହଣ କରିଥିଲେ।)
उत्तर :
विवेकानन्द: रामकृष्णदेवं गुरुरूपेण स्वीकरोति स्म।
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ରାମକୃ ଷ୍ଣଦେବଂ ଗୁରୁରୂପେଣ ସ୍ତ୍ରୀକରୋତି ସ୍ଵ।

(घ) क्विकानन्दस्य बाल्यनाम किं भवति स्म ?
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦସ୍ୟ ବାଲ୍ୟନାମ କିଂ ଭବତି ସ୍ମ ?
(ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦଙ୍କ ପିଲାଦିନର ନାମ କ’ଣ ଥୁଲା ? )
उत्तर :
विवेकानन्दस्य बाल्यनाम नरेन्द्र: भवति स्म ।
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦସ୍ୟ ବାଲ୍ୟନାମ ନରେନ୍ଦ୍ର ଭବତି ସ୍ଵ।

(ङ) क: भारतीयसंस्कृतिम् उपदिशति स्म ?
କଃ ଭାରତୀୟସଂସ୍କୃତିମ୍ ଉପଦିଶତ ସ୍ଵ ?
(କି ଏ ଭାରତୀୟ ସଂସ୍କୃତି ଉପଦେଶ ଦେଉଥିଲେ ? )
उत्तर :
विवेकानन्द: भारतीयसंस्कृतिम् उपदिशति स्म।
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ଭାରତୀୟ ସଂସ୍କୃତିମ୍ ଉପଦିଶତ ସ୍ଵ।

२. उचितपदेन शून्यस्थानं पूरयतु ।
(ଉଚିତପଦେନ ଶୂନ୍ୟସ୍ଥାନଂ ପୂରୟ।)

(क) ………… विषये अन्यः कोऽपि विशेषः
(ख) विवेकानन्दः ………… करोति स्म ।
(ग) धर्मविषये ………… पृच्छति स्म ।
(घ) नूतनं विषयं ………… |
(ङ) वयं विवेकानन्दविषये ………… इच्छामः।
(जनसेवां, तस्य, ज्ञास्यामः, ज्ञातुम्, गुरुजनान्)
उत्तर :
(क) तस्य (ତଥ୍ୟ)
(ख) जनसेवां (ଜନସେବାଂ)
(ग) गरुरजनान् ( ଗୁରୁଜନାନ୍)
(घ) ज्ञास्याम: (ଜ୍ଞାସ୍ୟାମ)
(ङ) ज्ञातुम् (ଜ୍ଞାତୁମ୍)

३. स्तम्भं मलेयतु (…….)

‘क’ स्तम्भ: — ‘ख’ स्तम्भ:
माता — गच्छति स्म
दक्षिणेश्वरं — खादति स्म
निरामिषं — वदति स्म
विश्ववविख्यातः — इच्छति स्म
संहतिम् — भवति स्म
उत्तर :
‘क’ स्तम्भ:  — ‘ख’ स्तम्भ:
माता — वदति स्म
(ମାତା) — (ବଦତି ସ୍କ)
दक्षिणेश्वर — गच्छति स्म
(ଦକ୍ଷିଣେଶ୍ଵରଂ) — (ଗଚ୍ଛତି ସ୍କ)
निरामिषं — खादति स्म
(ନିରାମିଶଂ) — (ଖାଦତି ସ୍କ)
विश्वविख्यात: — भवति स्म
(ବିଶ୍ୱବିଖ୍ୟାତଃ) — (ଭବତି ସ୍କ)
संहतिम् — इच्छति स्म
(ସଂହତିମ୍ ) — (ଇଚ୍ଛତି ସ୍କ)

शिक्षकड्क प्रति (ଶିକ୍ଷକଙ୍କ ପ୍ରତି) ଶିକ୍ଷକଙ୍କ ଉଦ୍ଦେଶ୍ୟରେ:

• ସମ୍ଭାଷଣଟିକୁ କେତେକ ଛାତ୍ର ମିଶି ବିଭିନ୍ନ ଭୂମିକାରେ ଅଭିନୟ କରିପାରିବେ ।
• ଶିକ୍ଷକ ଛାତ୍ରମାନଙ୍କଦ୍ଵାରା ଅନ୍ୟ କିଛି ବର୍ତ୍ତମାନକାଳୀନ କ୍ରିୟା ପଦରେ ‘ସ୍ମ’ ଯୋଗକରି ଅତୀତକାଳ ବୋଧକ କ୍ରିୟା ସଂଗ୍ରହ କରିପାରିବେ ।

ଯଥା :

• पठति स्म (ପଠତି ସୁ) ପଢୁଥିଲା
• लिखति स्म (ଲିଖତି ସ୍ଵ) ଲେଖୁଥିଲା
• पश्यति स्म (ପଶ୍ୟତି ସ୍ଵ) ଦେଖୁଥିଲା
• खादति स्म (ଖାଦତି ସୁ) ଖାଉଥିଲା
• हसति स्म (ହସତି ସ୍ଵ) ହସୁଥିଲା
• क्रन्दति स्म (କ୍ରନ୍ଦତି ସ୍କ) କାନ୍ଦୁଥିଲା
• ददाति स्म (ଦଦାତି ସ୍ଵ) ଦେଉଥ୍ଲା
• धावति स्म (ଧାବତି ସ୍ଵ) ଧାଉଁଥୁଲା
• नयति स्म (ନୟତି ସ୍ଵ) ନେଉଥୁଲା
• स्मरति स्म (ସ୍ମରତି ସ୍କ) ମନେରଖୁଥିଲା
• गायति स्म (ଗାୟତି ସ୍ମ) ଗାନ କରୁଥିଲା
• वहति स्म (ବହତି ସ୍ଵ) ବହନ କରୁଥିଲା
• आयाति स्म (ଆୟାତି ସ୍ଵ) ଆସୁଥୁଲା
• विभेति स्म (ବିଭେତି ସ୍ମ) ଭୟ କରୁଥିଲା
• लभते स्म (ଲଭତେ ସ୍ଵ) ଲାଭ କରୁଥିଲା

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अनुवादं कुरुत।
(क) विवेकानन्दः बाल्ये साहसी आसीत्।
उत्तर :
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ପିଲାଦିନେ ସାହସୀ ଥିଲେ ।

(ख) स: प्रतिदिनं निरामिषं खादति स्म।
उत्तर :
ସେ ପ୍ରତିଦିନ ନିରାମିଷ ଖାଉଥିଲେ ।

(ग) रामकृष्णदेवं गुरुरूपेण स्वीकरोति स्म।
उत्तर :
ରାମକୃଷ୍ଣ ଦେବଙ୍କୁ ଗୁରୁ ଭାବରେ ଗ୍ରହଣ କଲେ ।

(घ) सः सर्वदा संहतिम् इच्छति स्म।
उत्तर :
ସେ ସବୁବେଳେ ଏକତା ଇଚ୍ଛା କରୁଥିଲେ ।

(ङ) तस्य बाल्यनाम नरेन्द्र: भवति स्म।
उत्तर :
ତାଙ୍କ ପିଲାଦିନର ନାମ ନରେନ୍ଦ୍ର ଥିଲା ।

(च) स: देशे विदेशे भ्रमति स्म।
उत्तर :
ସେ ଦେଶ ବିଦେଶରେ ବୁଲୁଥିଲେ ।

(छ) विवेकानन्द: जनसेवा करोति स्म।
उत्तर :
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ଲୋକମାନଙ୍କ ସେବା କରୁଥିଲେ ।

२. विक्षिप्तवर्णानां मेलनेन शुद्धपदं रचयत।
(क) त् आ सी
उत्तर :
ଆସୀତ୍

(ख) भाण प्र वे
उत्तर :
ପ୍ରଭାବେଣ

(ग) दि प्र ति नं
उत्तर :
ପ୍ରତିଦିନଂ

(घ) वे न्द：का वि न
उत्तर :
ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ

(ङ) य र भा ती
उत्तर :
ଭାରତୀୟ

३. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) अद्य
उत्तर :
ଆଜି

(ख) क्रीडतीस्म
उत्तर : ଖେଳୁଥିଲା

(ग) संहतिम्
उत्तर : ଏକତା

(घ) गुरुजनान्
उत्तर : ଗୁରୁଜନମାନଙ୍କୁ

(ङ) कालान्तरे
उत्तर : ପରବର୍ତ୍ତୀ ସମୟରେ

४. रेखाड़ितपदानां भ्रमसंशोधनं कुरुत।
(क) स：बहु क्रीडन्ति स्म।
उत्तर :
ଧଃ ବହୁ କ୍ରୀଡତି ସ୍ମ ।

(ख) मम माताः वदति स्म।
उत्तर :
ମମ ମାତା ବଦତି ସ୍ମ ।

(ग) विवेकानन्द：जनसेवया करोति स्म।
उत्तर :
ବବକୋନନ୍ଦ ଜନସେବାଂ କରୋତି ସ୍ମ ।

(घ) तस्य प्रभावेण युवकाः संघटितः।
उत्तर :
ତସ୍ୟ ପ୍ରଭାବେଣ ଯୁବକା ସଂଘଟିତାଃ ।

(ङ) तस्या: बाल्यनाम नरेन्द्र：।
उत्तर :
ତସ୍ୟ ବାଲ୍ୟନାମ ନରେନ୍ଦ୍ର ।

५. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) क: बहु क्रीडति स्म ?
(a) विवेकानन्द:
(b) आनन्द:
(c) विवेक:
(d) सुनन्द:
उत्तर :
(a) ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ

(ख) कस्मिन् विषये गुरुजनान् पृच्छति ?
(a) कर्मविषये
(b) धर्मविषये
(c) मर्मविषये
(d) श्रमविषये
उत्तर :
(b) ଧର୍ମବିଷୟ

(ग) विवेकानन्दः किंकरोति स्म ?
(a) मनसेवा
(b) धनसेवा
(c) वनसेवां
(d) जनसेवां
उत्तर :
(d) ଜନସେବାଂ

(घ) स: सर्वदा किम् इच्छति स्म ?
(a) बलम्
(b) जलम्
(c) संहतिम्
(d) अहिंसाम्
उत्तर :
(c) ସଂହତିମ୍

(ङ) तस्य प्रभावेण के संघटिता: भवन्ति स्म ?
(a) युवका:
(b) जना:
(c) मूर्खा:
(d) वृद्धा:
उत्तर :
(a) ଯୁବକା

विद्यालय: (ସମ୍ଭାଷଣମ୍) ବାର୍ତ୍ତାଳାପ

शिक्षक: – भो छात्रा:! अद्य किम् इच्छन्ति ?
ଶିକ୍ଷକଃ – ଭୋ ଛାତ୍ର ! ଅଦ୍ୟ କିମ୍ ଇଚ୍ଛନ୍ତି ?
ଅନୁବାଦ – ହେ ଛାତ୍ରମାନେ ! ଆଜି କ’ଣ ଋହୁଁଛନ୍ତି ?

छात्रा: – श्रीमन् ! अद्य वयं विवेकानन्दविषये ज्ञातुम् इच्छामः।
ଛାତ୍ରା – ଶ୍ରୀମନ୍ ! ଅଦ୍ୟ ବୟଂ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦବିଷୟେ ଜ୍ଞାତୁମ୍ ଇଚ୍ଛାମଃ ।
ଅନୁବାଦ – ସାର୍ ! ଆଜି ଆମେ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦଙ୍କ ପିଲାଦିନ ବିଷୟରେ ଜାଣିବାକୁ ଚାହୁଁ।

शिक्षक: – उत्तमम् । विवेकानन्दस्य बाल्यकालविषये जानन्ति वा ?
ଶିକ୍ଷକଃ – ଉତ୍ତମମ୍ । ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦସ୍ୟ ବାଲ୍ୟକାଳବିଷୟେ ଜାଣନ୍ତି ବା ?
ଅନୁବାଦ – ଭଲ କଥା । ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦଙ୍କ ପିଲାଦିନ ବିଷୟରେ ଜାଣିଛ କି ?

मानसः – विवेकानन्द: बाल्ये कीदृशः आसीत् ? स: किं किं करोति स्म ?
ମାନମଃ – ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ବାଲ୍ୟ କୀଦୃଶୀ ଆସୀତ୍ ? ସ୍ୱ କିଂ କିଂ କରୋତି ସ୍ମ ?
ଅନୁବାଦ – ବିବେକାନ୍ଦ ପିଲାଦିନେ କିପରି ଥିଲେ ? ସେ କ’ଣ କ’ଣ କରୁଥିଲେ ?

शिक्षक: – विवेकानन्द: बाल्ये साहसी आसीत्। सः बहु क्रीड़ति स्म ।
प्रतिदिनं देवालयं गच्छति स्म। धर्मविषये गुरुजनान् पृच्छति स्म ।
ଶିକ୍ଷକଃ – ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ବାଲ୍ୟ ସାହସୀ ଆସୀତ୍ । ଡଃ ବହୁ କ୍ରୀଡ଼ତି ସୃ । ପ୍ରତିଦିନଂ ଦେବାଳୟଂ ଗଛତି ସ୍ମ। ଧର୍ମବିଷୟ ଗୁରୁଜନାନ୍ ପୃଚ୍ଛତି ସ୍ଵ।
ଅନୁବାଦ – ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ବାଲ୍ୟକାଳରେ ସାହସୀ ଥିଲେ । ସେ ବହୁତ ଖେଳୁଥିଲେ। ପ୍ରତିଦିନ ଦେଉଳକୁ ଯାଉଥଲେ। ଧର୍ମ ବିଷୟରେ ଗୁରୁଜନଙ୍କୁ ପଚାରୁଥିଲେ।

लता – सः अन्यत् किं करोति स्म ?
ଲତା – ଧଃ ଅନ୍ୟତ୍ କିଂ କରୋତି ସ୍ମ ?
ଅନୁବାଦ – ସେ ଅନ୍ୟ କ’ଣ କରୁଥିଲେ ?

शिक्षक: – विवेकानन्द: जनसेवां करोति स्म।
स: प्रतिदिनं निरामिषं खादति स्म ।
ଶିକ୍ଷକଃ — ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ଜନସେବାଂ କରୋତି ସ୍ଵ। ସ୍ୱ ପ୍ରତିଦିନଂ ନିରାମିଷ ଖାଦତି ସ୍ମ ।
ଅନୁବାଦ – ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ଲୋକମାନଙ୍କ ସେବା କରୁଥିଲେ। ସେ ନିତିଦିନ ନିରାମିଷ ଖାଦ୍ୟ ଖାଉଥିଲେ।

उमेशः – श्रीमन् ! मम माता वदति स्म – यत्
विवेकानन्द्: दक्षिणेश्वरमन्दिरं गच्छति स्म।

शिक्षक: – आम् । स प्रतिदिनं दक्षिणेश्वरं गच्छति स्म।
रामकृष्णदेवं गुरुरूपेण स्वीकरोति स्म ।

ଶିକ୍ଷକଃ – ଶ୍ରୀମନ୍ ! ମମ ମାତା ବଦତି ସ୍କୃ – ଯତ୍ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ଦକ୍ଷିଣେଶ୍ଵରମନ୍ଦିରଂ ଗଚ୍ଛତି ସ୍ଵ।
ଅନୁବାଦ – ଆଜ୍ଞା ! ମୋର ମାଆ କହୁଥିଲେ ଯେ ବିବେକାନନ୍ଦ ଦକ୍ଷିଣେଶ୍ଵର ମନ୍ଦିରକୁ ଯାଉଥିଲେ।

शिक्षक: – आम् । स प्रतिदिनं दक्षिणेश्वरं गच्छति स्म।
रामकृष्णदेवं गुरुरूपेण स्वीकरोति स्म ।
ଶିକ୍ଷକଃ – ଆମ୍ବ । ଡଃ ପ୍ରତିଦିନଂ ଦକ୍ଷିଣେଶ୍ଵରଂ ଗଚ୍ଛତି ସ୍ମ। ରାମକୃଷ୍ଣଦେବଂ ଗୁରୁରୂପେଣ ସ୍ଵୀକରୋତି ସୃ।
ଅନୁବାଦ – ହଁ। ସେ ପ୍ରତିଦିନ ଦକ୍ଷିଣେଶ୍ଵର ଯାଉଥିଲେ। ରାମକୃଷ୍ଣଦେବଙ୍କୁ ଗୁରୁଭାବରେ ଗ୍ରହଣ କରୁଥିଲେ।

गीता – तस्य विषये अन्य: कोऽपि विशेष: ?
ଗୀତା – ତସ୍ୟ ବିଷୟେ ଅନ୍ୟ କୋଽପି ବିଶେଷ ?
ଅନୁବାଦ – ତାଙ୍କ ବିଷୟରେ ଅନ୍ୟ କିଛି ବିଶେଷ ବର୍ଣନା ଅଛି କି ?

शिक्षक: – स: सर्वदा संहतिम् इच्छति स्म। तस्य प्रभावेण युवकाः संघटिता: भवन्ति स्म। तस्य बाल्यनाम नरेन्द्र: भवति स्म । कालान्तरे सः विश्वविख्यातः भवति स्म। स: देशे विदेशे भ्रमति स्म । भारतीयसंस्कृतिम् उपदिशति स्म ।

ଶିକ୍ଷକଃ – ଡଃ ସର୍ବଦା ସଂହତିମ୍ ଇଚ୍ଛତି ସ୍ମ। ତଥ୍ୟ ପ୍ରଭାବେଣ ଯୁବକାଂ ସଂଘଟିତଃ ଭବନ୍ତି ସ୍ଵ। ତସ୍ୟ ବାଲ୍ୟନାମ ନରେନ୍ଦ୍ର ଭବତି ସ୍ଵ। କାଳାନ୍ତରେ ଡଃ ବିଶ୍ୱବିଖ୍ୟାତଃ ଭବତି ସ୍ମ । ସ୍ୱ ଦେଶ ବିଦେଶେ ଭ୍ରମତି ସ୍ମ। ଭାରତୀୟ- ସଂସ୍କୃତିମ୍ ଉପଦିଶତି ସ୍ମ ।

ଅନୁବାଦ – ସେ ସବୁବେଳେ ସଂହତି ଇଚ୍ଛା କରୁଥିଲେ। ତାଙ୍କ ପ୍ରଭାବରେ ଯୁବକମାନେ ସଂଘଟିତ ହେଉଥିଲେ। ତାଙ୍କ ପିଲାଦିନର ନାମ ନରେନ୍ଦ୍ର ଥିଲା। ପରବର୍ତ୍ତୀ ସମୟରେ ସେ ବିଶ୍ଵପ୍ରସିଦ୍ଧ ହୋଇଥିଲେ । ସେ ଦେଶ ଓ ବିଦେଶରେ ବୁଲୁଥିଲେ। ଭାରତୀୟ ସଂସ୍କୃତିର ଉପଦେଶ ଦେଉଥିଲେ । ହେଉ ଆଜି ଯଥେଷ୍ଟ ହେଲାଣି । ଆସନ୍ତା କାଲି ପୁଣି ନୂଆ ବିଷୟ ଜାଣିବା ।

शब्दार्थ (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 5 Symbolic Logic Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 5 Question Answer Symbolic Logic

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
State the characteristics of symbolic logic.
Answer:
(i) It uses ideograms
(ii) It uses deductive method.
(iii) It uses constants and variables.

Question 2.
What is variable?
Answer:
(i) Variable means that varies or changes from time to time.
(ii) Variable is a symbol which has no fixed meaning.
(iii) Three types of variables are used in symbolic logic
Prepositional variables = p, q, r, s, t, etc. predicate variable f, g,h and individual variables, x, y, z etc

Question 3.
What, is called propositional variable?
Answer:
(i) The variable which is used in order to symbolise any prepositional that is called propositional variable.
(ii) Example : Ram is intelligent and A Hari is clever can be symbolised as p and q.

Question 4.
What do you mean by constant?
(i) Constant means which is not changeable. It meaning is always same and it has a fixed meaning.
(ii) Different logical constants are used in the symbolic logic. These are conjunction (.), Disjunction (v), alternation (∧), implication (>), equivalence (=), negation (~)

Question 5.
What is truth function?
(i) When the truth of falsity of a proposition depends upon the truth of falsify of another proposition, then the first one is called the truth function of the second one.

(ii) Example;
Madhavi is beauty = P
Madhavi is not beauty = ~P

Question 6.
What is called conjuctive function?
(i) When two propositions are joined together with the word and that is called conjunctive function.
(ii) Example; Mira is beauty and Sarita is clever can be symbolised p. q

Question 7.
What is tautology?
(i) In a truth table, if the main result is always truth that is called tautology,
(ii) Examples;

Question 8.
What is contradictory truth table?
Answer:
(i) In a truth table, if the main result is always false that is called contradictory truth table.
(ii) Example;

Question 9.
Construct the truth table of the following;
Answer:

Question 10.
What is ideogram?
Answer:
(i) The soundless symbols are called ideograms.
(ii) All the written symbols like +, -, × , √ etc are called ideograms.

Question 11.
Fallacy of ambiguous minor :
Answer:
When the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument that is called the fallacy of ambiguous minor.

Question 12.
Fallacy of amphiboly.
Answer:
(i) The fallacy of amphibody arises due to the wrong construction of a sentence.
(ii) He was given twice two amd three rupees. It may mean that he was given either seven or ten rupees.

Question 13.
Fallacy of Division.
Answer:
(i) When we pass from the collective use of term to its distributive use, that is called the fallacy of division.

(ii) Example; the students of this college are intelligent.
Rani is a student of this college.
∴ Rani is intelligent

Question 14.
What is the fallacy of composition?
Answer:
(i) This fallacy arises, when we pass from the distributive use to a collective use of a term in our argument.
(ii) Example; Nine and one are odd numbers
Ten is nine and one
∴ Ten is an odd number

Question 15.
What is a called the fallacy of accent ?
Answer:
(i) When the emphasis is given on a particular word in a sentence at that time we commit the fallacy of accent.
(ii) Example : Thou shalt not insult thy parents

Question 16.
Fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc.
Answer:

1. “Post hoc ergo propter hoc” literally means after this, therefore due to this.
2. It arises when we take any and every antecedent to be the cause :
3. Example; A crow sits on the palm tree and a palm falls down, so it is said that crow is the cause of the falling of the palm.

Question 17.
Fallacy of neglecting the negative condition.
Answer:
(i) When we take only positive conditions to be the cause and neglect the negative conditions then we commit this fallacy.
(ii) Example; Intelligence does not lead to success, as a large number or intelligent students are unemployed.

Question 18.
Fallacy of mistaking the co-effects of a cause and effect.
Answer:
(i) Cause is the antecedent and effect is the consequent. But if we take one of the coeffects of a common cause as the cause of its effect, we commit this fallacy.

(ii) Examples; Day invariably preceded night, so day is the cause of night.

Question 19.
Fallacy of undue assumption.
Answer:
(i) When we unduly assume a premise at that time we commit the fallacy of undue assumtpion.
(ii) Example; The people of America are wealthy, because they are industrious.

II. Answer within Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
What are the main characteristics of symbolic Logic?
Answer:
The Logician C. I. Lews has suggested three different kinds of characteristics regarding the nature of symbolic Logic. These are;

1. Symbolic Logic uses ideograms not phonograms
2. It applies deductive method
3. It uses constant and variables.

Question 2.
What is variable?
Answer:
A variable in a symbol which can stand for any one of a given range of values. Three types of variables are used in Logic, such as :
Prepositional variables, P, q, r, s, t etc (stand for the symbols of propositions) predicate variables, f, g, h (stand for the symbols of predicate), Individual variables x, y, z, (stands for the symbols of any individual.

Question 3.
What is Logical constant?
Answer:
Logical constant is a symbol whose meaning is remains same in any Logical expression. Logical constants are also called Logical connectives, because they connect propositions and build compound ones. The Logical connectives or constants are; Conjunction (.), Alternation (v), implication (a), Equivalence (s), Negation (u).

Question 4.
What is truth function?
Answer:
Borrowing the term ‘function’ from Mathematics, any expression with Logical constants is said to be a truth function of its Propositional variables, because the truth value of that expression depends value 01 that expression depends on the truth value of the prepositional variables.
Example: up is a truth function, of P, because the truth or falsity of ~p depends on the truth or falsity of‘up’.

Question 5.
Briefly explain the truth table.
Answer:
Truth table is a convenient way to show the truth-value of a truth function, taking into consideration all possible truth-values of the prepositional variables involved in it. Every proposition in either true or false, so the truth value of every constituent propositional variable can be written as true (T/I) or False (F/O).

Question 6.
What is conjunctive function?
Answer:
When two propositions are related with each other on the basis of conjuction or and (•) that is called conjunctive function. The conjunctive function will be true, when both antecedent and consequent are true together, otherwise if will be false.
Example:

Question 7.
Construct the truth table of Alternative function.
Answer:

Question 8.
What is called tauto Logical truth table?
Answer:
A tautological truth table is that truth table where the main result in always true (T/I).
Example:

Question 9.
What is Tautology ? Give an example.
Answer:
In a truth table, if the main result is always true (T/I) that is called Tautology.
For examples;

Question 10.
What is contingent truth table?
Answer:
In a truth table, if the result of many connective is mixed with true and false that is called contingent truth table For example:

Question 11.
What is contradictory Truth Table?
Answer:
In a truth table, if the main result is always false that is called contradictory truth table. For example, if we negate an affirmative proposition then we get its negative result. “Ram is a man” is a positive proposition but ‘Ram is not a man’ is a negative proposition. Let’s construct the truth false.

Question 12.
Fallacy of Equivocation.
Answer:
The fallacy of equivocation arises due to the use of ambiguous terms in an argument. A syllogism has three terms – the middle, the major and the minor. This fallacy arises if either the middle term or the major term or the minor term is used ambiguously or in more than one sense in the same argument.

Question 13.
Fallacy of Ambiguous middle :
Answer:
When the middle term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time the fallacy arises, Which is called the fallacy of Ambiguous middle.
Example : Light is pleasant
(Light = opposite of darkness) His injury is pleasant.

Question 14.
Ambiguous major :
Answer:
When the major term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time we commit the fallacy of ambugous major.
Example : No courageous creatures fly.
(Fly = run away)

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain the nature of symbolic Logic.
Or, State and explain the different characteristics of symbolic logic.
Or, What is symbolic Logic ? How it is different from classical or traditional Logic ? Explain.
Answer:
Symbolic logic is nothing but it is the recent or modem development of traditional logic. In otherwords we can say symbolic logic is called symbolic because certain symbols are used in it. We read symbolic logic because by the using of certain symbols. We simplety a great expression into a simple one within few minutes. That is why it is said that symbolic logic is very much necessary for us in modem age.

But the symbolic logic is definitely different from traditional or classical logic. Because in case of traditional logic we were using certain concrete examples but here in symbolic logic we are using certain symbolic examples. Aristotle is the father of traditional or classical logic. It is said that the foundation of logic were so brilliantly and thoroughly said by Aristotle in the 4th century B.C. That is seemed to most of Aristotle’s successors to be a finished science.

If we took out in the traditional logic then we can find out that he has given in syllogism certain premises and has drawn certain conclusion out of that premises. By this process he has proved that there are only 19 valid moods in syllogism. In this sense we can say Aristotles view carries only small branch of logic so it has a long history.

But latter on the great Mathematician and logicians like George Boole, Gowvon, Leibnitz, Basson and connor have proved there are 19 valid moods which have already seen given by Aristotle. According to them if we analyse Properly we will find actually there are not 19 valid moods but only 15 valid moods are there.

The main aim of philosophy is to know the idea of truth. As logic is the branch of philosophy so its business is to know whether an argument is valid or invalid. The logician have borrowed the idea of ‘truth’ from geometry and mathematics. As the conclusion of mathematics is always true in the similar way the conclusion of logic is always certain. As the structure traditional or classical logic is totally changed, then it is taken a new form which is known as symbolic logic. In this sense it is said that it has short history.

It is said that sometimes the traditional logicians have criticized the work at symbolic logician and vice-versa. But whatever may be now the logician are generally agree, that modern or symbolic logic is a development of concepts and techniques which were complicietely in the work of Aristotle. Thus according to Basson and connor, classical logic is related to symbolic logic as embryo to adult organism.

From this above discussion, it is said that tradition as or classical logical and symbolic logic are not differ in kind, yet the difference between them is only that of different stages of development. So symbolic logic is a developed stage of traditional of classical logic.

C.I. Lasisis a distinguished modern logician and a mathematician has cited three important characteristics regarding the nature of symbolic logic.

1. The use of ideogram.
2. The use of deductive method.
3. The use of constant and variable.

Let’s analyse the above three characteristics in details.
(1) The use of ideogram: Ideogram means the soundless symbols.
Example: All the written symbols like ? +, -, x, V etc. are called ideogram. But phonogram means soundful symbol. For example all the written words like question mark, plus, minus etc are called phonograms. So the ideogram directly stands for concept or symbols.

(2) The use of Deductive Method : In deductive method we clarify the complication. It is distributed in geometry. By the application of deductive method we can drawn a conclusion of out of premise. This method is used in case of symbolic logic and also in. traditional logic. But the difference is that in case of traditional logic we were used the concrete examples like. If there is sun then there is light.

(3) The use of constant and variable : A variable is different from constant. Constant is that which never changes. But variable means always changeable. It means we can take any variable for any proposition. The logician have borrowed this idea from geometry and mathematics. As we have seen in case of Geometry and mathematics. As we have seen in case of Geometry and mathematics, there are certain constant and variables are use such as x, y, z etc. are variables, But +,-,x, are constants like geometry and mathematics there are certain constants and variables used in case of symbolic logic.

Logical Constants:

1. Conjuctive (And) (.)
2. Disjuctive (either…or) (A) p,q,r,s,f etc.
3. Alternative (either …. or) (A.)
4. Equivalence (equalto) (‘=’)
5. Contradiction (Negation) (N)

Logical variables:

1. Prepositional variables
2. Predicate variables s, f, g, h etc.
3. Individual variable s, y, z etc.

Question 2.
What is Truth-function? Distinguish between variable and constant.
Answer:
All these concepts of truth-function, variable and constants are the concepts used is symbolic logic. The notion of function is very familiar in mathematics. Symbolic logic borrows this concept from Mathematics. An expression is said to be a function of a given variable or variables, if the value of the expression is uniquely determined when the variable or variables take a define value. The truth value of the expression is dependent on the truth value of the prepositional variables used in the expression. In Algebra, the formula ‘x – y + 5 ’ means the value of ‘x’ is dependent on the value of ‘y’. So ‘x’ is the function of‘y + 5′ If the value of ‘y’ is 3, then the value of x is (3 + 5) = 8. If the value of ‘y’ is 7, then the value of x is (7 + 5) 12. Similarly, the truth – value of ‘p⊃q’ is dependent on the truth – value of the variables ‘p’ and ‘q’. SO ‘p⊃q’ is the ‘truth – function’ of the prepositional variables p and q.

There is a lot of difference between variable and constant. A variable is a symbol which can stand for any one of a given range of values. Any letter of the alphabet may be taken as the symbol to represent any proposition, whatever may be its contents. Normally, ‘p’, ‘q’ ‘r’, etc. or p…p₂, p₃,, etc are used as prepositional variables. They constant for any proposition. These variables. They constant for any proposition. These variables are similar to the numerical variables are similar to the numerical variables x,y,z, etc of Algebra. Because they represent any number indifferently.

Logical constants are different from variables because the meaning oflogical constants always remains same in any logical expression. The symbol ‘V’ stands for ‘or’, stands for equivalence, etc. In the expression ‘pVq’ p and q are two variables standing for any two propositions. But the symbol ‘V’ stands for “either….. or…..” for example, if the variable ‘p’ stands for ‘Grass is green and ‘q’ stands for ‘Grass is red’ the ‘pVq’ will mean “Either grass is green or grass is red’. If ‘p’ stands for Grass is red and ‘q’ stands for “Birds are biped”, then the same expression ‘p v q’ stands for “Either grass is red or birds are biped”.

Question 3.
Draw the truth – tables of Negation, Conjuction Implication. Disjunction and Equivalence.
Answer:
Truth-Table of Negation or contradictory function: If the proposition ‘p’ is true, then its negation or contradiction ‘~p’ is false. Again, if ‘p’ is false, its negation ‘~p’ is true. The truth-table of negation or contradiction is given below, here ‘1’ means true and ‘o’ means false.

It is the truth-table of negation. Its matrix number is 01. Suppose, ‘p’ stands for ‘cat is white. If cat is white’ is true, then its negation ‘cat is not white’ is false. If cat is white is false, its hegation ‘cat is not white is true’.

Truth-Table of conjunctive Function:
Let ‘p’ and ‘q’ stand for two propositions ‘cat is white’ and ‘swan is white’ respectively. The conjunctive function ‘p q’ is true only when its constituent both propositions are true. In othe words, ‘p q’ is true only when ‘p’ is true and ‘q’ is true. If either of or both of them are false, the whole expression is false. Ther truth-table is

As we see in the above truth-table the conjuctive function is true only when both of the variables are true. Its matrix number is 1000.

Truth-Table of Disjunctive Function :
Let ‘p’ and ‘q’ be two propositions The truth-value of ‘p v q’ depends on the truth-value of ‘p’ and ‘q’. The symbol of disjunction is ‘v’ which means “either …. or ….” According to this function ‘p v q’ is true, when at least one of them is true. The function is false, when both of them are false. So the truth – table of disjunction is as below.

Disjunctive function is also called by some logicians as alternative function. The matrix – number of the truth table is 1110.

Truth – Table of Implicative function :
The symbol of implication is which stands for “If…. then….”. If‘p’ and ‘q’ are two variables stand for any two propositions, then ‘If p the q is symbolised as “P⊃q”, “P⊃q” is false only when p is true and q is thus.

The matrix number of the function is 1011.

Truth table of equivalence :
If p and q stand for any two propositions, then p equivalent to q is symbolised as p….q. p….q is true when both the propositions are true or both are false. The truth-table of equivalence is—

The matrix-number of equivalence is 1001. Two propositions are said to be equivalent when the meaning of both is same.

Question 4.
Determine the truth table of atternative function.
Answer:
When two propositions are related with each other on the basis of aftemative sign (A) that is called alternative function. It is always in the form of “either … or …. hot” both Here the word ‘or’ is used in the inclusive senser (weak sense).

For example:
Ramababu is either an M.L.A or an m.p but not both. Let’s take the symbol ‘p’ for the proposition Ramababu is an M.L.A. and the symbol ‘q’ for the proposition Ramababu is M.P.

Rule: When both antecedent and consequent are true together and false together at that time alternative function will be false, otherwise it will be true. Let’s construct the truth table of alternative function.

Question 5.
Explain the basic connectives of propositional logic.
Answer:
Propositional logic, also known as sentential logic, is a branch of formal logic that’deals with the manipulation and analysis of propositions. Propositions are declarative statements that are either true or false but not both. The language of propositional logic employs various logical connectives to form compound propositions from simpler ones. These basic connectives are fundamental building blocks in constructing logical expressions. Let’s explore the basic connectives of propositional logic:

1. Negation (~) : The negation connective, denoted by ~, is a unary operator that operates on a single proposition, changing its truth value. If P is a proposition, then ~P is the negation of P. The truth value of ~P is the opposite of the truth value of P.
For example, if P is “It is raining,” then ~P is “It is not raining.”

2 Conjunction (∧) : The conjunction connective, denoted by ∧, is a binary operator that combines two propositions, P and Q, to -form a compound proposition P ∧ Q. The compound proposition is true only when both P and Q are true; otherwise, it is false. For example, if P is “It is sunny” and Q is “It is warm,” then P ∧ Q is “It is sunny and warm.”

3. Disjunction (∨): The disjunction connective, denoted by (v is another binary operator that combines two propositions, P and Q, to form a compound proposition P ∨ Q. The compound proposition is true if at least one of P or Q is true. It is false only when both P and Q are false. For instance, if P is “It is a weekday” and Q is “It is a holiday,” then P ∨ Q is “It is either a weekday or a holiday.”

4. Implication (→) : The implication connective, denoted by →, is a binary operator that represents the relationship “if P, then Q.” The compound proposition P → Q is true unless P is true, and Q is false; in all other cases, it is true. It does not require P to cause Q, only that if P is true, then Q must also be true. For example, if P is “It is raining” and Q is “1 carry an umbrella,” then P → Q is “If it is raining, then I carry an umbrella.”

5. Biconditional (↔) : The biconditional connective, denoted by ↔, is a binary operator that represents the relationship “P if and only if Q.” The compound proposition P ↔ Q is true when both P and Q have the same truth value (either both true or both false). If they have different truth values, the compound proposition is false. For instance, if P is “It is noon” and Q is “The sun is at its zenith,” then P ↔ Q is “It is noon if and only if the sun is at its zenith.”

6. Exclusive Disjunction (XOR): While not always included in the basic set, the exclusive disjunction is a binary operator denoted by ⊕ or XOR. The compound proposition P ⊕ Q is true when either P or Q is true, but not both. It is false when both P and Q have the same truth value. For example, if P is “It is day” and Q is “It is night,” then P ⊕ Q is “It is either day or night, but not both.”

Understanding the properties and truth tables associated with these basic connectives is crucial for working with propositional logic. Truth tables provide a systematic way to evaluate the truth values of compound propositions based on the truth values of their constituent propositions. The logical connectives serve as tools for expressing relationships between propositions, and they play a fundamental role in various brandies of logic and computer science, including formal reasoning, artificial intelligence, and programming.

Question 6.
Distinguish between disjunction and alternation. Is alternation a basic connective? Discuss.
Answer:
In propositional logic, the terms “disjunction” and “alternation” are often used interchangeably, but it’s important to note that they can have nuanced meanings depending on the context. In this discussion, we will first distinguish between disjunction and alternation and then explore whether alternation can be considered a basic connective in propositional logic.

Distinguishing Disjunction and Alternation :
1. Disjunction (v) : Disjunction is a basic logical connective represented by the symbol ∨. In propositional logic, the disjunction of two propositions, P and Q, denoted as P ∨ Q, is true if at least one of P or Q is true. It is false only when both P and Q are false. Disjunction encompasses the idea of “or,” indicating that either P is true, or Q is true, or both. For example, if P is “It is sunny,” and Q is “It is warm,” then the disjunction P ∨ Q is true when either or both conditions are satisfied.

2. Alternation : The term “alternation” is more context-dependent and might not have a standardized symbol in propositional logic like disjunction. In some contexts, alternation refers to a similar concept as disjunction, indicating a choice between two options or the occurrence of either of two events. For instance, if P represents “Heads on a coin toss,” and Q represents “Tails on a coin toss,” then the alternation of P and Q could be seen as the concept of heads or tails.

In other contexts, “alternation” might be used to describe a more structured pattern of switching or oscillation between different states. This sense of alternation doesn’t necessarily align with the specific definition of disjunction in propositional logic but may have applications in ‘ other areas, such as temporal logic or automata theory.

Is Alternation a Basic Connective in Propositional Logic?
While disjunction is a recognized and well-defined basic connective in propositional logic, the term “alternation” itself is not typically considered a distinct basic connective within the formalism of propositional logic. Basic connectives in propositional logic are usually limited to a set that includes negation (~), conjunction (∧), disjunction (∨), implication (→), and biconditional (↔).

The absence of “alternation” as a basic connective does not diminish its significance in various logical discussions or applications. If alternation is used as a synonym for disjunction or is meant to convey a specific choice between alternatives, it aligns with the broader concept captured by the disjunction connective (v). However, if alternation is used in a more specialized context, such as temporal logic, it may involve different structures or operators beyond the basic connectives of propositional logic.

In certain logical systems, especially those dealing with temporal aspects or modalities, operators like “until” or “eventually” may be considered, but these go beyond the basic set of connectives in classical propositional logic.

Conclusion :
In summary, disjunction is a well-defined basic connective in propositional logic, represented by the symbol v, which captures the concept of “or.” On the other hand, “alternation” is a term that can be context-dependent and may be used to describe various patterns of choice or switching between alternatives. While “alternation” itself is not considered a basic connective in propositional
logic, it can be expressed using the disjunction connective when referring to a choice between two or more propositions. The specific interpretation of “alternation” may vary based on the context in which it is used, and it might, have specialized applications in specific logical systems.

Question 7.
Explain the indirect method of truth table decision.
Answer:
The indirect method of truth table decision, also known as the method of perfect induction or the method of exhaustion, is an approach used in propositional logic to determine the validity or satisfiability of logical formulas. This method involves constructing a truth table for a given formula and indirectly establishing its truth by showing that there are no cases where the formula is false. The indirect method is particularly useful when demonstrating the validity of logical arguments or proving the logical equivalence of two formulas. Let’s break down the steps involved in the indirect method of truth table decision :

1. Constructing the Truth Table : Start by constructing a truth table for the given logical formula. List all possible combinations of truth values for the atomic propositions involved in the formula. Each row in the truth table represents a unique combination of truth values.

Example :
Consider the formula (P → Q) ∧ (~ P ∨ Q). The truth table might look like this :

2. Identifying a Counterexample : A counterexample is a row in the truth table where the formula evaluates to false. In the indirect method, the goal is to show that no counterexample exists, indirectly establishing the truth of the formula.
Example:
In the truth table above, there is no row where (P ’! Q) ”'(¬p (“ Q) is false. Therefore, there is no counterexample, suggesting the formula is true in all cases.

3. Applying Perfect Induction: Perfect induction involves demonstrating that if the formula is true for a certain number of cases, it must be true for all cases. This is achieved by dividing the cases into subcases and showing that if the formula is true for each subcase, it is true for the entire set.
Example :
Subdivide the cases based on the truth values of P and Q :
Case 1: P is true.
Case 2: P is false.
Now, consider each subcase and verify that (P → Q) ∧ (~P ∨ Q) is true in each.
Subcase 1.1: P is true, Q is true. Formula is true.
Subcase 1.2: P is true, Q is false. Formula is true.
Subcase 2.1: P is false, Q is true. Formula is true.
Subcase 2.2: P is false, Q is false. Formula is true.
Since the formula is true for all subcases, it holds for all cases.

4. Generalizing for Ail Cases: Once it’s established that the formula is true for a set of cases, generalize the result to claim that the formula is true for all possible cases. This step involves making a general statement based on the perfect induction conducted in the previous step.
Example:
“Since (P → Q) ∨ (~P ∨ Q) is true for all possible combinations of truth values of P and Q, it is true for all cases.”

Advantages of the Indirect Method :
1. Simplicity and Systematic Approach : The indirect method provides a systematic and straightforward approach to proving the truth of a logical formula. By constructing a truth table and demonstrating the absence of counterexamples, it simplifies the process of establishing the validity or satisfiability of the formula.

2. General Applicability : The method of perfect induction is applicable to a wide range of logical formulas. It can be used to prove the validity of arguments, establish logical equivalence, or demonstrate the satisfiability of formulas in various contexts.

3. Rigorous Logical Analysis : The method encourages a rigorous analysis of all possible cases, ensuring that the formula is evaluated for every combination of truth values. This thorough examination contributes to a robust and convincing proof.

In conclusion, the indirect method of truth table decision is a valuable tool in propositional logic for proving the validity or satisfiability of logical formulas. By constructing a truth table, identifying counterexamples, applying perfect induction, and generalizing the result, one can establish the truth of a formula indirectly. This method provides a clear and systematic approach, contributing to a rigorous and convincing logical analysis.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers:

Question 1.
What is the truth value of p & q and if p = 0 and q = 1?
(i) 0
(ii) 1
(iii) undecided
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) 0

Question 2.
An argument is valid of the truth function corresponding to it is :
(i) A tautology
(ii) Contingent
(iii) Contradictory
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) A tautology

Question 3.
A disjunctive function in the exclusive sense (P k q) is true :
(i) When both p and q are true
(ii) When atleast one of them is true
(iii) When exactly one of them in true
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iii) When exactly one of them in true

Question 4.
Symbolic logic is the developed stage of what?
(i) Deductive logic
(ii) Inductive logic
(iii) Traditional logic
(iv) Formal logic
Answer:
(iii) Traditional logic

Question 5.
Who has given the three important characteristics of symbolic logic?
(i) Aristotle
(ii) Plato
(iii) C.I. Lewis
(iv) J.S.Mill
Answer:
(iii) C.I. Lewis

Question 6.
Which of the following is the feature of Symbolic Logic?
(i) Use of ideogram
(ii) Use of variables
(iii) Application of the rules of deduction
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(i) All of these

Question 7.
Symbolic Logic builds?
(i) A deductive system
(ii) An inductive system
(iii) Both deductive and inductive system
(iv) Neither deductive nor inductive system
Answer:
(i) A deductive system

Question 8.
The soundless symbols are called what?
(i) Ideograms
(ii) Phonograms
(iii) Variables
(iv) Constants
Answer:
(i) Ideograms

Question 9.
The Letters like p,q,r, etc stand for :
(i) Prepositional variables
(ii) Logical constants
(iii) Truth function
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(i) Proposition variables

Question 10.
Variables are divided into
(i) Three types
(ii) Four types
(iii) Five types
(iv) Six types
Answer:
(i) Three Types

Question 11.
The letters like f, g, h etc stand for
(i) Prepositional variables
(ii) Predicate Variables
(iii) Individual variables
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Predicate Variables

Question 12.
The symbol ‘⊃’ stands for which of the following
(i) Conjunction
(iii) Implication
(ii) Disjunction
(iv) Equivalence
Answer:
(iii) Implication

Question 13.
The symbol ‘V’ stands for what?
(i) Conjuction
(ii) Disjunction
(iii) Alternation
(iv) Implication
Answer:
(iii) Alternation

Question 14.
The symbol ‘=’ stands for what?
(i) Conjunction
(ii) Equivalence
(iii) Alternation
(iv) Implication
Answer:
(ii) Equivalence

Question 15.
The symbol ‘A’ stands for what?
(i) Disjunction
(ii) Alternation
(iii) Disjunction
(iv) Alternative
Answer:
(i) Disjunction

Question 16.
The Symbol ‘•’ stands for what?
(i) Conjunction
(ii) Disjunction
(iii) Implication
(iv) Equivalence.
Answer:
(i) Conjuction
(ii) Disjunction
(iii) Alternation
(iv) Equivalence

Question 17.
The symbol stands for what?
(i) Conjuction
(ii) Alternation
(iii) Disjunction
Answer:
(iv) None of these

Question 18.
In which fruth tabular method, the main connective is always true? (iv) None of these
(i) Direct
(ii) Indirect
(iii) Tautology
(iv) Negation
Answer:
(iii) Tautology

II. Fill in the blanks:

Question 1.
Symbolic logic is the developmental stage of _____.
Answer:
Traditional logic

Question 2.
According to _____ there are three important characteristics of symbolic logic.
Answer:
C.I.Lewis

Question 3.
The three important characteristics of symbolic logic are _____,_____and _____.
Answer:
Use of ideogram, use of deductive method, use of constant and variable

Question 4.
The soundful symbols are called.
Answer:
Phonograms.

Question 5.
The soundless symbols are cal)ed _____.
Answer:
Ideograms:

Question 6.
Every talking word is called _____.
Answer:
Phonograms

Question 7.
If Aristotelian logic is a seed then symbolic logic is _____.
Answer:
Tree

Question 8.
Symbolic logic and traditional logic are related with each other just like embryo with
Answer:
Adult organism

Question 9.
The symbols that stand for proposition are called _____.
Answer:
Prepositional variables

Question 10.
The symbols that stand for relations of proposition are called _____.
Answer:
Logical constants

Question 11.
Variable is divided into _____ types.
Answer:
Three

Question 12.
The symbols like p,q,r,s,t etc are called _____.
Answer:
Prepositional variables

Question 13.
The symbols like f, g, h. etc are called _____.
Answer:
Predicate variables

Question 14.
The symbols like x,y,z are called _____.
Answer:
Individual variables

Question 15.
_____ stands for idea or concept directly.
Answer:
Ideogram

Question 16.
The symbol of contradiction or negation is _____.
Answer:
‘∼’

Question 17.
The symbol of conjunction is _____.
Answer:
‘•’

Question 18.
The symbol of disjunction is _____.
Answer:
‘∧’

Question 19.
The symbol of Alternation is _____.
Answer:
‘V’

Question 20.
The symbol of implication is_____
Answer:
‘⊃’

Question 21.
The symbol of equivalence is _____.
Answer:
‘s’

Question 22.
Symbolic logic uses _____ method.
Answer:
Deductive

Question 23.
Modem logicians are very much interested only for ideogram, not for .
Answer:
Phonogram

Question 24.
Truth tables are mainly divided into _____ types.
Answer:
Three

Question 25.
In a truth table, if the main result is always truth that is called _____ .
Answer:
Tautology

Question 26.
In a truth table, if the main result is always false that is called _____.
Answer:
Contradiction

Question 27.
In a truth table,-if the main result is mixed with truth and falsify (T/F) that is called
Answer:
contingent

Question 28.
Logical constants are also called as _____.
Answer:
Logical connectives

Question 29.
The truth values of an expression is a function of its constituent _____.
Answer:
Prepositional variables

Question 30.
PV~P is the example of _____ truth table.
Answer:
Tautological

Question 31.
P~P is the example of _____ truth table.
Answer:
Contradictory

Question 32.
The premises and the conclusion are connected by _____.
Answer:
Implication

Question 33.
Logical constants are _____ constants.
Answer:
Binary

Question 34.
When the truth value of a proposition is expressed in a tabular way then that is called _____.
Answer:
Truth table

Question 35.
The truth value of a proposition is _____ and _____.
Answer:
True or False

III. Correct the Sentences:

Question 1.
Symbolic makes the use of Phonograms.
Answer:
Symbolic makes the use of ideograms.

Question 2.
The letters like, p, q, r, s, t, etc are Logical constants.
Answer:
The letters like, p, q, r, s, t, etc are prepositional variables.

Question 3.
Aristotle has given three important characteristics of symbolic Logic.
Answer:
C.l. Lewis has given three important characteristics of symbolic Logic.

Question 4.
Ideograms are soundful symbols.
Answer:
Ideograms are soundless symbols.

Question 5.
Phonograms are soundless symbols.
Answer:
Phonogrmas are soundful symbols.

Question 6.
Symbolic Logic uses inductive method.
Answer:
Symbolic Logic uses deductive method.

Question 7.
The symbol stand for disjunction.
Answer:
The symbol V stands for conjunction.

Question 8.
The symbol‘V’stands for implication.
Answer:
The symbol ‘V’ stands for Alternation.

Question 9.
The symbol of implication is ____ .
Answer:
The symbol of implication is‘o’. .

Question 10.
When two propositions are related with each other in the form of if then that is called equivalence function.
Answer:
When two propositions are related with each other in the form of if then that is called implicative function.

Question 11.
When two propositions are related with each other in the form if “either… or” that is called _____ conjunctive function.
Answer:
When two propositions are related with each other in the form if “either… or” that is called alternative function.

Question 12.
A tautology is always false.
Answer:
A tautology is always true.

Question 13.
A contradictory function is sometimes true and sometimes false.
Answer:
A contingent function is sometimes true and sometimes false.

Question 14.
A contingent function is always false.
Answer:
A contradictory function is always false.

Question 15.
The letters like, f, g, g ete are called individual variables.
Answer:
The letters like f, g, h etc are called predicate variables.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
Which logic is called the development stage of traditional logic?
Answer:
Symbolic

Question 2.
The symbol which directly stands for idea or concept, it is called what?
Answer:
Ideogram

Question 3.
What is the symbol of Negative?
Answer:
‘−’

Question 4.
What is the symbol of Conjunction?
Answer:
‘•’

Question 5.
What is the symbol of Alternation?
Answer:
‘∨’

Question 6.
What is the symbol of Implication?
Answer:
‘⊃’

Question 7.
What is the symbol of equivalence?
Answer:
‘≡’

Question 8.
How many truth values are possible for a propositional variable, P?
Answer:
Two

Question 9.
If P = 1, what is the truth value of its contradictory function?
Answer:
Zero (0)

Question 10.
What is the truth value of ‘p≡q’ if p = 0 and q = 0?
Answer:
1

Question 11.
What is the truth function which is always true called?
Answer:
Tautology

Question 12.
Whether symbolic logic makes the use of ideograms or phonograms?
Answer:
Ideograms

Question 13.
How many truth combinations are possible if there are ‘n’ propositional variables in a truth function?
Answer:
2

Question 14.
What is the truth function which is always false called?
Answer:
Contradiction

Question 15.
What is truth function which is sometimes true and sometimes false called?
Answer:
Contigent

Question 16.
The letters like, p, q, r, s, t etc are coming under which variables?
Answer:
Propositional

Question 17.
The symbols like f, g, h etc. are coming under which variables?
Answer:
Predicate

Question 18.
When two propositions are related with each other in the form of if then that is called what?
Answer:
Implication

Odisha State Board BSE Odisha 7th Class Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 5 ସଂଖ୍ୟା Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

BSE Odisha Class 7 Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 5 ସଂଖ୍ୟା

१. कति सन्ति अक्षरेण लिखतु
କତି ସନ୍ତା ଅକ୍ଷରେଣ ଲିଖନ୍ତୁ (କେତୋଟି ଅଛି ଅକ୍ଷରରେ ଲେଖନ୍ତୁ)

(१) मस्तकम्
(୧) ମସ୍ତକମ୍ ।
उत्तर :
एकं मस्तकम् ।
ଏବଂ ମସ୍ତକମ୍ ।

(२) फले
(୨) ଫଳେ ।
उत्तर :
द्वे फले ।
ସ୍ଵେ ଫଳେ ।

(३) पुस्तकानि
(୩) ପୁସ୍ତକାନି ।
उत्तर :
त्रीणि पुस्तकानि ।
ତ୍ରୀଣି ପୁସ୍ତକାନି ।

(५) अङुलय:
(୫) ଅଙ୍ଗୁଳୟଃ
उत्तर :
पश्च अड्गुलयः ।
ପଞ୍ଚ ଅଙ୍ଗୁଳୟ ।

(६) ग्रहा:
(୬) ଗ୍ରହ
उत्तर :
षट् ग्रहा:।
ଷଟ୍ ଗ୍ରହଃ ।

(७) दिवसा:
(୭) ଦିବସା ।
उत्तर :
सप्त दिवसा:
ସପ୍ତ ଦିବସା ।

(३ २) दन्ता:
(୩୨) ଦନ୍ତା
उत्तर :
द्वात्रिंशत् दन्ताः।
ଦ୍ବାତ୍ରିଂଶତ୍ ଦନ୍ତୀ ।

(१०) अवतारा:
(୧୦) ଅବତାରାଃ ।
उत्तर :
दश अवतारा:।
ଦଶ ଅବତାରାଃ ।

(१ २) मासा:
(୧୨) ମାସା
उत्तर :
द्वादश मासाः।
ଦ୍ବାଦଶ ମାସ ।

(२४) सोपानानि
(୨୪) ସୋପାନାନି ।
उत्तर :
चतुर्विंशतिः सोपानानि।
‘ଚତୁର୍ବିଂଶତିଃ ସୋପାନାନି।

(२८) वानरा;
(୨୮) ବାନରଃ ।
उत्तर :
अष्टविंशति वानराः।
ଅଷ୍ଟାବିଂଶତିଃ ବାନରଃ ।

(३५) पत्राणि
(୩୫) ପତ୍ରାଣି ।
उत्तर :
पश्चत्रिंशत् पत्राणि:
ପଞ୍ଚତ୍ରିଂଶତ୍ ପତ୍ରାଣି ।

(४०) बालिका:
(୪୦) ବାଳିକା ।
उत्तर :
चत्वारिंशत् बालिकाः।
ଚତ୍ୱାରିଂଶତ୍ ବାଳିକା ।

(૪६) पुत्तलिका:
(୪୬) ପୁତ୍ତଳିକା ।
उत्तर :
षड्चत्वारिंशत् पुत्तलिका:।
ଷଡ଼ଚତ୍ବାରିଂଶତ୍ ପୁତ୍ତଳିକା ।

(५ २) स्तम्भा:
(୫୨) ସ୍ତମ୍ଭ ।
उत्तर :
द्विपश्चाशत् स्तम्भाः।
ଦ୍ବିପଞ୍ଚାଶତ୍ ସ୍ତମ୍ଭା ।

(४८) करवस्त्राणि
(୪୮) କରବସ୍ତ୍ରାଣି ।
उत्तर :
अष्टपञ्चाशत् करवस्त्राणि।
ଅଷ୍ଟପଞ୍ଚାଶତ୍ କରବସ୍ତାଣି ।

(६४) कला:
(୬୪) କଳା ।
उत्तर :
चतुषष्टि: कला:।
ଚତୁଷଷ୍ଟି କଳା ।

(६५) घट:
(୬୫) ଘଟା ।
उत्तर :
पञ्चषष्टि: घटाः।
ପଞ୍ଚଷଷ୍ଟି ଘଟା ।

(७ १) द्रोण्य:
(୭୧) ଦ୍ରୋଣ୍ୟ ।
उत्तर :
एकसप्तति: द्रोण्य:।
ଏକସପ୍ତତଃ ଦ୍ରୋଣଂ ।

(७५) व्याघ्रा:
(୭୫) ବ୍ୟାଘ୍ରା
उत्तर :
पंचसप्तति: व्याघ्राः।
ପଞ୍ଚସପ୍ତତଃ ବ୍ୟାଘ୍ରା ।

(७८) शिक्षिका:
(୭୮) ଶିକ୍ଷିକାଂ
उत्तर :
अष्टसप्ततिः शिक्षिका:।
ଅଷ୍ଟସପ୍ତତଃ ଶିକ୍ଷିକା ।

(२४) पत्रिका:
(୨୪) ପତ୍ରିକା
उत्तर :
चतुर्विंशतिः पत्रिकाः।
ଚତୁର୍ବିଂଶତିଃ ପତ୍ରିକା ।

(२ २) पिपीलिका:
(୨୨) ପିପୀଲିକା
उत्तर :
द्वाविंशतिः पिपीलिकाः।
ଦ୍ୱାବିଂଶତିଃ ପିପୀଳିକା ।

(६ १) इष्टिका:
(୬୧) ଇଷ୍ଟିକା
उत्तर :
एकषष्टि: इष्टिकाः।
ଏକଷଷ୍ଟି ଇଷ୍ଟିକା ।

(६७) दीपा:
(୬୭) ଦୀପା
उत्तर :
सप्तषष्टि: दीपाः।
ସପ୍ତଷଷ୍ଟି ଦୀପା ।

(१००) लोकयानानि
(୧୦୦) ଲୋକଯାନାନି
उत्तर :
शतं लोकयानानि
ଶତଂ ଲୋକଯାନାନି ।

२. अड्केन लिखतु
(ଅଙ୍କନ ଲିଖତୁ) ସଂଖ୍ୟାରେ ଲେଖନ୍ତୁ:

एकादश – ________.
अष्टादश – ________.
विंशति: – ________.
चतुर्विशति: – ________.
सप्तविंशति: – ________.
द्वाविंशत् – ________.
पत्रत्रिंशत् – ________.
चत्वारिंशत् – ________.
त्रिचत्वारिंशत् – ________.
नवचत्वारिंशत् – ________.
एकपत्राशत् – ________.
द्विषष्टि: – ________.
सप्तषष्टि: – ________.
पश्चसप्ततिः – ________.
द्वयशीति – ________.
चतुर्नवतिः – ________.
उत्तर :

३. स्तम्भं योजयतु –
(ସ୍ତମଂ ଯୋଜୟତୁ) ସ୍ତମ୍ଭ ମିଳନ କର :

अष्टादश २२
द्वाविंशतिः २५
त्रयस्त्रिंशत् ३७
पश्चविंशतिः १८
सप्तत्रिंशत् ३३
उत्तर :

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अनुवादं कुरुत

(क) अप्यविंशति: व्याघा:।
उत्तर :
ଅଠାଇଶ ବାଘ

(ख) अष्टाविंशतिः छात्रा
उत्तर :
ଏକତିରିଶ ଛାତ୍ର

(ग) द्वाविंशतिः दीपा:
उत्तर :
ବାଇଶ ଦୀପ

(घ) नवतिः फलानि
उत्तर :
ନବେ ଫଳ

(ङ) सप्ततिः दिवसा:
उत्तर :
ସତୁରୀ ଦିନ

(च) अशीतिः दन्ता:
उत्तर :
ଅଶୀ ଦାନ୍ତ

(छ) पंचअझुलयः
उत्तर :
ପଞ୍ଚ ଆଙ୍ଗୁଳି

२. एकपदेन उत्तरं लिखत।

(क) पंचविंशतिः पदस्य कोऽर्थः
उत्तर :
୨୫

(ख) विंशतिः पदस्य कोऽर्थः ?
उत्तर :
୨୦

(ग) अशीति पदस्य कोऽर्थ: ?
उत्तर :
୮୦

(घ) नवतिः पदस्य कोर्शः ?
उत्तर :
୯୦

(ङ) सप्तत्रिंशत् पदस्य कोऽर्थ: ?
उत्तर :
୩୭

(च) अष्टादश पदस्य कोऽर्थः ?
उत्तर :
୧୮

(छ) द्वाविंशतिः पदस्य कोऽर्थः ?
उत्तर :
୨୨

३. शून्यस्थानं पूरयत।

(क) सहस्तमयुतं ______।
उत्तर :
ତଥା

(ख) पद्मश्च सागरं।
उत्तर :
ଣଙ୍

(ग) एकं _____ शतं चैव।
उत्तर :
ଦଶ

(घ) कोटिर्र्वुदमेव ______।
उत्तर :
ବ

(ङ) अन्त्यं ______ पदार्यं चं।
उत्तर :
ମଧ୍ଯ

५. स्तम्भमेलनं कुरूत।

उत्तर :

७. मातृभाषया अर्थं लिखत।

(क) एकादश
उत्तर :
ଏଗାର

(ख) सप्त
उत्तर :
ସାତ

(ग) पंचदश
उत्तर :
ପନ୍ଦର

(घ) द्वात्रिंशत्
उत्तर :
ବତୀଶ

(ङ) पंचाशत्
उत्तर :
ପାଚାଶ

८. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।

(क) षष्टि:
(a) ୧୦
(b) ୨୦
(c) ୪୦
(d) ୬୦
उत्तर :
(d) ୬୦

(ख) पंचाशत्
(a) ୪୦
(b) ୫୦
(c) ୬୦
(d) ୭୦
उत्तर :
(b) 80

(ग) सप्ततिः
(a) ୬୦
(b) ୭୦
(c) ୮୦
(d) ୯୦
उत्तर :
(b) ୭୦

(घ) एकविंशत्
(a) ୨୧
(b)୨୨
(c) ୩୧
(d) ୩୨
उत्तर :
(d) ୬୦

(ङ) नवविंशति:
(a) ୯୦
(b) ୮୦
(c) ୨୯
(d) ୬୦
(c) ୨୯

९. संशोधनं कुरुत ।

(क) विंशतय: छात्राः।
उत्तर :
ବିଂଶତିଃ ଛାତ୍ରା ।

(ख) एकादशाः जनाः।
उत्तर :
ଏକାଦଶ ଜନାଃ ।

(ग) अष्टविंशतिः कलानि।
उत्तर :
ଅଷ୍ଟାବିଂଶତିଃ ଫଳାନି।

(घ) सप्ततयः अश्वा:
उत्तर :
ସପ୍ତତଃ ଅଶ୍ବାସ

(ङ) पंचवींशतिः अजाः।
उत्तर :
ପଞ୍ଚ ବିଂଶତିଃ ଅଜାଃ ।

पठतु जानातु
(ପଠତୁ ଜାନାତୁ) ପଢ଼ନ୍ତୁ ଜାଣନ୍ତୁ :

पठतु अवगच्छतु
(ପଠତୁ ଅବଗଛତୁ) ପଢ଼ି ବୁଝ :

श्लोकं पठतु स्मरतु
(ଶ୍ଳୋକଂ ପଠତୁ ସ୍ମରତୁ) ଶ୍ଳୋକ ପଢ଼ନ୍ତୁ ଓ ମନେରଖନ୍ତୁ :

एकं दश शत चैव सहस्रमयुतं तथा
लक्षं च नियुतं चैव कोटिर्र्बुदमेव च
वृन्दं खर्वो निखर्वश्च शङ्छः पद्मश्च सागरः
अन्त्यं मध्यं परार्धं च दश वृद्ध्या यथा क्रमम्।

ଏବଂ ଦଶ ଶତଂ ଚୈବ ସହସ୍ରମୟୁତଂ ତଥା
ଲକ୍ଷ୍ୟ ଚ ନିୟୁତଂ ଚୈବ କୋଟିରର୍ବୁଦମେବ ଡ଼
ବୃନ୍ଦ ଖର୍ବୋ ନିଖର୍ବଶ୍ଚ ଶଙ୍ଖ ପଦ୍ମଶ୍ଚ ସାଗରଃ
ଅନ୍ତ୍ଯ ମଧ୍ଯ ପରାଶଂ ଡ଼ ଦଶ ବୃଦ୍ଧା ଯଥାକ୍ରମମ୍ ।।

शिक्षकं प्रति :

ପଦର ଶେଷରେ, ବାକ୍ୟର ଶେଷରେ ଏବଂ ସ୍ଵରବର୍ଷ ପୂର୍ବରୁ ‘ମ୍’ ରହିବ । ବ୍ୟଞ୍ଜନବର୍ଷ ପୂର୍ବରୁ ଅନୁ ସ୍କା ର (°) ରହିବ । ବିଦ୍ୟାର୍ଥୀମାନଙ୍କୁ ଏହି ବିଷୟରେ ଉଦାହରଣ ଦେଇ ବୁଝାଇ ଦେବେ ଯଥା- ମଧୁରମ୍, ଏକମ୍, ଏବଂ ଫଳମ୍ବ, ଫଳମ୍ ଆନୟ, ଜଳଂ ପିବାମି ।

Odisha State Board BSE Odisha 7th Class Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 21 ଶିଶୁଗୀତମ ଭାରତଭକ୍ତାଃ Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

BSE Odisha Class 7 Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 21 ଶିଶୁଗୀତମ ଭାରତଭକ୍ତାଃ

भारतभक्ता:
(ଭାରତଭକ୍ତା) ଭାରତ ଭକ୍ତମାନେ

वयं बालका: भारतभक्ता:
ବୟଂ ବାଳକା ଭାରତଭକ୍ତା

वयं बालिका: भारतभक्ता:
ବୟଂ ବାଳିକା ଭାରତଭକ୍ତା

वयं हि सर्वे भारतभक्ता:
ବୟଂ ହି ସର୍ବେ ଭାରତଭକ୍ତା

भुवनत्रयं विजेतुं शक्ताः । वयम् …
ଭୁବନତ୍ରୟଂ ବିଜେପୁଂ ଶକ୍ତା । ବୟମ୍ …

वयं सुधीरा: वयं सुवीरा:
ବୟଂ ସୁଧୀରଃ ବୟଂ ସୁବୀରା

हृष्टमानसाः पुष्टशरीरा:
ହୃଷ୍ଟମାନସ ପୁଷ୍ଟଶରୀରା

सम्यक् पठाम: सम्यक् लिखाम:
ସମ୍ୟକ୍ ପଠାମଃ ସମ୍ୟକ୍ ଲିଖାମ

लोकसेवायां युक्ता: भवामः। वयम् …
ସମ୍ୟକ୍ ପଠାମଃ ସମ୍ୟକ୍ ଲିଖାମ

जातिधर्ममतभेदं त्यक्त्वा
ଜାତିଧର୍ମମତଭେଦଂ ତ୍ୟକ୍ସା

भारतवर्षं पूज्यं मत्वा
ଭାରତବର୍ଷ ପୂଜ୍ୟ ମତ୍ସ୍ୟ

ऐक्यभावं हृदये धृत्वा
ଐକ୍ୟଭାବଂ ହୃଦୟେ ଧୃତ୍ଵ

देशसेवायामनुरक्ता ….. । वयम् ।
ଦେଶସେବାଯାମନୁରକ୍ତା … । ବୟମ୍ ।

शब्दार्थ (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम् (ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) वयं
उत्तर : ଆମେମାନେ

(ख) जेतुम्
उत्तर : ଜୟ କରିବାକୁ

(ग) सम्यक्
उत्तर : ଭଲ

(घ) ऐक्यभावम्
उत्तर :ଏକତାଭାବ

(ङ) मत्वा
उत्तर : ମନେକରି

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) के भारतभक्ता：？
(a) वालका：
(b) शालका：
(c) कृषकाः
(d) कारकाः
उत्तर :
(a) ବାଳକା

(ख) कस्यां युक्ता：भवामः ？
(a) सेवायां
(b) कार्ये
(c) लोकसेवाया
(d) पशुसेवायां
उत्तर :
(c) ଲୋକସେବାୟଂ

(ग) जातिधर्ममतभेदं किं कुर्मः ?
(a) जानीम:
(b) पश्याम:
(c) कुर्म:
(d) त्यजाम:
उत्तर :
(d) ତ୍ୟଜାମ

(ग) जातिधर्ममतभेदं किं कुर्मः ?
(a) जानीम:
(b) पश्याम:
(c) कुर्म:
(d) त्यजाम:
उत्तर :
(b) ଏକ୍ୟ

(ङ) वयं कस्याम् अनुरक्ता: भवाम: ?
(a) देशसेवाया
(b) वृक्षसेवाया
(c) पशुसेवायां
(d) मत्स्यसेवायां
उत्तर :
(b) ଏକ୍ୟ

प्रहेलिका (उत्तरं वदतु) ପ୍ରହେଳିକା (ଉତ୍ତର କୁହ)

कस्तुरी जायते कस्मात् ？
କସ୍ତୁରୀ ଜାୟତେ କସ୍ମାତ୍ ?

को हन्ति करिणां कुलम् ？
କୋ ହନ୍ତି କରିବାଂ କୁଳମ୍ ?

किं कुर्यात् कातरो युद्धे ？
କିଂ କୁର୍ଯ୍ୟାତ୍ କାତରୋ ଯୁଦ୍ଧେ ?

मृगात् सिंहः पलायते ।
ମୃଗାତ୍ ସିଂହଃ ପଳାୟତେ

वृक्षाग्रवासी न च पक्षिराज：
ବୃକ୍ଷାଗ୍ରବାସୀ ନ ଚ଼ ପକ୍ଷିରାଜଃ

त्रिनेत्रधारी न च शूलपाणिः।
ତ୍ରିନେତ୍ରଧାରୀ ନ ଚ଼ ଶୂଳପାଣି

त्वग्वस्त्रधारी न च सिद्धयोगी
ତ୍ବଗୁଧାରୀ ନ ବୃ ସିଦ୍ଧଯୋଗୀ ।

जलं च बिभ्रन्न घटो न मेघः।
ଜଳଂ ବୃ ବିଭ୍ରନ୍ନ ଘଟୋ ନ ମେଘ ।

कं संजधान कृष्णः
କଂ ସଂଜଧାନ କୃଷ୍ଣ

का शीतलवाहिनी गड्गा
କା ଶୀତଳବାହିନୀ ଗଙ୍ଗା

के दारपोषणरता:
କେ ଦାରପୋଷଣରତଃ

कं वलवन्तं न वाधते शीतम् ।
କଂ ବଳବନ୍ତ ନ ବାଧତେ ଶୀତମ୍ ।

अपदो दूरगामी च साक्षरो न च पणिडतः।
ଅପଦୋ ଦୂରଗାମୀ ଚ ସାକ୍ଷରେ ନ ଚ ପଣ୍ଡିତଃ ।

अमुखः स्कुटवक्ता च यो जानाति स पण्डितः ।।
ଅମୁଖ ସ୍କୁଟବକ୍ତା ଚ ୟୋ ଜାନାତି ସ ପଣ୍ଡିତଃ ||

न तस्यादिर्न तस्यान्तः मध्ये यस्तस्य तिष्ठति ।
ନ ତସ୍ୟାଦିର୍ନ ତସ୍ୟାନ୍ତଃ ମଧ୍ଯ ଯସ୍ତସ୍ୟ ତିଷ୍ଠତି ।

तवाप्यस्ति ममाप्यस्ति यदि जानासि तद् वद ।।
ତବାପ୍ୟସ୍ତି ମମାଧ୍ୟସ୍ଥି ଯଦି ଜାନାସି ତଦ୍ ବଦ ।।

कठिनशब्दार्थः  (କଠିନଶବ୍ଦ) କଠିନ ଶବ୍ଦ :

• जायते (ଜାୟତେ) – ଜାତ ହୁଏ
• हन्ति (ହନ୍ତି) – ହତ୍ୟା କରେ
• करिणाम् (କରିଣାମ୍) – ହାତୀମାନଙ୍କର
• कातरः (କାତରଃ) – ଭୀରୁ
• शूलपाणि: (ଶୂନଃପାଣି) – ଶିବା ଶଙ୍କର
• विभ्रन् ଭଗବାନ (ବିଭ୍ରନ୍) – ଧାରଣ କରୁଥିବା
• जघान (ଜଘାନ) – ମାରିଥିଲେ
• पोषणरता: (ପୋଷଣରତାଃ) – ପୋଷଣକାରୀ
• स्कुटवक्ता (ସ୍ଫୁଟବକ୍ତା) – ଯଥାର୍ଥ ବକ୍ତା
• त्वग्वस्त्रधारी (ଦ୍ବିଗବସ୍ତ୍ରଧାରୀ) – ବକଳ ବସ୍ତ୍ରଧାରୀ
• वाधते (ବାଧତେ) – ବାଧାଦିଏ
• वृक्षाग्रवासी (ବୃକ୍ଷାଗ୍ରବାସୀ) – ବୃକ୍ଷ ଅଗ୍ରଭାଗରେ ଯିଏ ବାସକରେ।
• दूरगामी (ଦୂରଗାମୀ) – ଦୂରସ୍ଥାନକୁ ଯାତ୍ରାକରେ ଯେ
• पणिडत: (ପଣ୍ଡିତଃ) – ବିଦ୍ବାନ୍
• अमुख: (ଅମୁଖ) – ମୁଖ ନାହିଁ ଯାହାର
• तद् (ତଦ୍) – ତାହା

सन्धि (ସନ୍ଧି):

तस्य + आदि + न = तस्यादिर्न
ତଥ୍ୟ + ଆଦି + ନ = ତସ୍ୟାଦିର୍ନ

य: + तस्य = यतस्य
ଯଃ + ତଥ୍ୟ = ଯତସ୍ୟ

मम + अपि + अस्ति = ममाप्यस्ति
ମମ + ଅପି + ଅସ୍ଥି = ମମାପ୍ୟସ୍ତ

तस्य + अन्त: = तस्यान्त:
ତସ୍ୟ + ଅନ୍ତଃ = ତସ୍ୟାନ୍ତଃ

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम् (ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) जायते
उत्तर : ଜାତହୁଏ

(ख) कातरः
उत्तर : ଭୀରୁ

(ग) वाधते
उत्तर : ବାଧାଦିଏ

(घ) विभ्रन्
उत्तर : ଧାରଣ କରୁଥିବା

(ङ) पण्डितः
उत्तर : ବିଦ୍ବାନ୍

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) मृगात्क：पलायते ？
(a) सिंह：
(b) मार्जार：
(c) शृगाल：
(d) मृग：
उत्तर :
(a) ସିଂହ

(ख) वृक्षाग्रवासी न च …………
(a) राज：
(b) पक्षीराज：
(c) पशुराज：
(d) स्वराज：
उत्तर :
(b) ପକ୍ଷୀରାଜଃ

(ग) ……………. न च पण्डितः।
(a) अक्षरो
(b) प्रक्षरो
(c) साक्षरो
(d) चक्षरो
उत्तर :
(c) ସାକ୍ଷରୋ

(घ) य: जानाति स: ……………. |
(a) मूर्ख:
(b) वाचाल:
(c) गुणी
(d) पण्डित:
उत्तर :
(d) ପଣ୍ଡିତଃ

(ङ) त्रिनेत्रधारी न च ………. पाणि:।
(a) शूल
(b) तिल
(c) निल
(d) नील
उत्तर :
(a) ଶୂଳ

सुभाषितानि ସୁଭାଷିତାନି (ସୁଭାଷିତ)

माता शत्रु : पिता वैरी येन बालो न पाठितः ।
न शोभते सभामध्ये हंसमध्ये बको यथा ।।१।।
ମାତା ଶତ୍ରୁ ପିତା ବୈରୀ ଯେନ ବାଳୋ ନ ପାଠିତଃ
ନ ଶୋଭତେ ସଭାମଧେ ହଂସମସ୍ତେ ବକୋ ଯଥା ।।୧।।

अर्थः (ଅର୍ଥ)
या माता बालं न पाठयति सा माता शत्रु भवति।
यः पिता न पाठयति । सः पिता वैरी भवति ।
हंसमध्ये वक: यथा न शोभते तथा अयं
मूर्ख: बाल: सभामध्ये न शोभते ।
ଯା ମାତା ବାଳଂ ନ ପାଠୟତି ସା ମାତା ଶତଃ ଭବତି।
ଯଃ ପିତା ନ ପାଠୟତି। ଡଃ ପିତା ବୈରୀ ଭବତି।
ହଂସମସ୍ତେ ବୟଃ ଯଥା ନ ଶୋଭତେ ତଥା
ଅୟଂ ମୂର୍ଖ ବାନଃ ସଭାମଧେ ନ ଶୋଭିତେ।

शब्दार्थ (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

• पाठयति (ପାଠୟତି) – ପଢ଼ାଏ
• स: (ନଃ) – ସେହି
• सा (ସା) – ସେହି
• वैरी (ବୈରୀ) – ଶତ୍ରୁ
• यथा (ଯଥା) – ଯେପରି
• तथा (ତଥା) – ଯେପରି
• शोभते (ଶୋଭତେ) – ଶୋଭାପାଏ

ଅର୍ଥ :
ଯେଉଁ ମାଆ ପିଲାକୁ ପଢ଼ାଏ ନାହିଁ । ସେ ମାଆ ଶତ୍ରୁ ଅଟେ । ଯେଉଁ ପିତା ପାଠ ପଢ଼ାଏ ନାହିଁ। ସେ ପିତା ଶତ୍ରୁ ଅଟେ । ହଂସ ମଧ୍ୟରେ ବଗ ଯେପରି ଶୋଭା ପାଏ ନାହିଁ । ସେହିପରି ଏହି ମୂର୍ଖ ବାଳକ ସଭା ମଧ୍ଯରେ ଶୋଭା ପାଏ ନାହିଁ।

पठतो नास्ति मूर्खत्वं जपतो नास्ति पातकम् ।
मौनिनः कलहः नास्ति न भयं चास्ति जाग्रतः।।२।।
ପଠତୋ ନାସ୍ତି ମୂର୍ଖତଂ ଜପତୋ ନାସ୍ତି ପାତକମ୍ ।
ମୌନିନଃ କଳହୋ ନାସ୍ତି ନ ଭୟଂ ଚାସ୍ତି ଜାଗ୍ରତଃ

अर्थः (ଅର୍ଥ)

पठत: जनस्य मूर्खत्वं नास्ति ।
जपत: लोकस्य पातकं नास्ति ।
मौनिजनस्य कलह: नास्ति ।
जाग्रत: जनस्य भय: नास्ति ।
ପଠତଃ ଜନସ୍ୟ ମୂର୍ଖତଂ ନାସ୍ତି ।
ଜପତଃ ଲୋକସ୍ୟ ପାତକଂ ନାସ୍ତି।
ମୌନିଜନସ୍ୟ କଳହ ନାସ୍ତି।
ଜାଗ୍ରତଃ ଜନସ୍ୟ ଭୟ ନାସ୍ତି।

शब्दार्थ (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

• पठतः (ପଠତଃ) – ପଢୁଥ‌ିବା
• नास्ति (ନାସ୍ତି) – ନାହିଁ
• जपतः (ଜପତଃ) – ଜପ କରୁଥିବା
• पातकं (ପାତକଂ) – ପାପ
• मौनिजनस्य (ମୌନିଜନସ୍ୟ )–ନୀରବ ଥିବା ଲୋକର
• कलहः(କଳହଃ) – ବିବାଦ
• जाग्रतः (ଜାଗ୍ରତଃ) – ଜାଗ୍ରତ ଥିବା

ଅର୍ଥ :
ପାଠ ପଢ଼ୁଥିବା ଲୋକର ମୂର୍ଖତ୍ଵ ରହେ ନାହିଁ । ଜପ କରୁଥିବା ଲୋକର ପାପ ରହେ ନାହିଁ । ନୀରବ ରହୁଥିବା ଲୋକର ବିବାଦ ଉପୁଜେ ନାହିଁ । ଜାଗ୍ରତ ଥିବା ଲୋକର ଭୟ ରହେ ନାହିଁ ।

विद्या ददाति विनयं विनयाद् याति पात्रताम् ।
पात्रत्वाद् धनम् आप्नोति धनाद्वर्मं ततः सुखम् ।।३ ।।
ବିଦ୍ୟା ଦଦାତି ବିନୟଂ ବିନୟାଦ୍ ଯାତି ପାତ୍ରତାମ୍
ପାତ୍ରତ୍ବାଦ୍ ଧନମ୍ ଆପ୍ଳୁତି ଧନାଦ୍ ଧର୍ମ ତତଃ ସୁଖମ୍ ।।୩ । ।

अर्थः (ଅର୍ଥ)
विद्या विनयं ददाति । विनयात् पात्रतां याति ।
पात्रत्वात् धनम् आप्नोति । धनात् धर्मं ततः सुखम् आप्नोति।
ବିଦ୍ୟା ବିନୟଂ ଦଦାତି । ବିନୟାଦ୍ ପାତ୍ରତାଂ ଯାତି।
ପାତ୍ରତ୍ୱାତ୍ ଧନମ୍ ଆପ୍ଳୁତି।
ଧନାତ୍ ଧର୍ମ ତତଃ ସୁଖମ୍ ଆଷ୍ଟୋତି।

शब्दार्थ (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

• ददाति (ଦଦାତି) – ଦାନକରେ
• विनयं (ବିନୟଂ) – ନମ୍ରତା
• विनयात् (ବିନୟାତ୍) – ନମ୍ରତାରୁ
• पात्रताम् (ପାତ୍ରତାମ୍) – ଯୋଗ୍ୟତାକୁ
• आप्नोति (ଆପ୍ଳୁତି) – ଲାଭ କରେ
• ततः (ତତଃ ) – ସେଥୁରୁ
• सुखम् (ସୁଖମ୍ ) – ସୁଖ

ଅର୍ଥ :
ବିଦ୍ୟା ନମ୍ରତା ଦାନ କରେ। ନମ୍ରତାରୁ ଯୋଗ୍ୟତା ଜାତ ହୁଏ। ଯୋଗ୍ୟତାରୁ ଧନ ପ୍ରାପ୍ତି ହୁଏ। ଧନରୁ ଧର୍ମ ଏବଂ ସେଥୁରୁ ସୁଖ ମିଳେ।

वृक्षः पुष्पाणि शाकं सस्यं फलानि प्राणवायुं
(अम्लजानं) छायां च ददाति। अतः वृक्षस्य रोपणं कुरु ।
ବୃକ୍ଷେ ଦଦାତି ପୁଷ୍ପାଣି ଶାକଂ ସସ୍ୟ ଫଳାନି ତୁ ।
ପ୍ରାଣବାୟୁ ଚ ଛାୟାଂ ବୈ କୁରୁ ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ ରୋପଣମ୍ ।।୪।।

अर्थः (ଅର୍ଥ )
वृक्षः पुष्पाणि शाकं सस्यं फलानि प्राणवायुं (अम्लजानं)
छायां च ददाति। अतः वृक्षस्य रोपणं कुरु ।
ବୃକ୍ଷ ପୁଷ୍ପାଣି ଶାକଂ ସସ୍ୟ ଫଳାନି
ପ୍ରାଣବାୟୁ ଚ ଦଦାତି । ଅତଃ ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ ରୋପଣଂ କୁରୁ।

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

• पुष्पाणि (ପୁଷ୍ପାଣି) – ଫୁଲଗୁଡ଼ିକ
• शाकं (ଶାକଂ) – ଶାଗ
• सस्यं (ସସ୍ଯ) – ଶସ୍ୟ
• प्राणवायुं (ପ୍ରାଣବାୟୁ) – ଅମ୍ଳଜାନ
• छायां (ଛାୟା) – ଛାଇ
• अतः (ଅତଃ) – ଏଣୁ
• रोपणं कुरु (ରୋପଣଂ କୁରୁ) – ରୋପଣ କରା ଲଗାଅ

ଅର୍ଥ :
ଗଛ, ଫୁଲ, ଶାଗ, ଶସ୍ୟ, ଫଳ ଓ ପ୍ରାଣବାୟୁ ପ୍ରଦାନ କରେ। ଏଣୁ ବୃକ୍ଷ ରୋପଣ କର।

अर्थः (ଅର୍ଥ)
अयं निजः परो वेति गणना लघुचेतसाम् ।
उदारचरितानां तु वसुधैव कुटुम्बकम् ।।५।।
ଅୟଂ ନିଜଃ ପରେ ବେତି ଗଣନା ଲଘୁଚେତସାମ୍ ।
ଉଦାରଚରିତାନାଂ ତୁ ବସୁଧୈବ କୁଟୁମ୍ବକମ୍ ।।୫।।

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

• निज: (ନିଜଃ) – ନିଜର ଆପଣାର
• परः (ପରଃ) – ଶତ୍ରୁ
• इति (ଇତି) – ବୋଲି ବି କିମ୍ବା
• गणना (ଗଣନା) – ବିଚାର
• लघुचेतसाम् (ଲଘୁଚେତସାମ) – ନୀଜମନା ଲୋକଙ୍କର
• उदारचरितानां (ଉଦାରଚରିତାନାଂ) – ଉଦାରମନା ଲୋକଙ୍କର
• तु (ତୁ) – କିନ୍ତୁ
• वसुधा (ବସୁଧା) – ପୃଥ‌ିବୀ
• कुटुम्बकम् (କୁଟୁମ୍ବକମ୍) – ପରିବାର/ କୁଟୁମ୍ବ

ଅର୍ଥୀ :
ଏହା ନିଜର କିମ୍ବା ଶତ୍ରୁର ଏହିପରି ବିଚାର ନୀଚ୍ଚମନା ଲୋକଙ୍କର ଥାଏ। ମାତ୍ର ଉଦାରହୃଦୟ ଲୋକଙ୍କ ବିଚାର ସାରା ସଂସାର ହିଁ ଏକ ପରିବାର।

पृथिव्यां त्रीणि रत्नानि जलम अन्त्रं सुभाषितम् ।
मूढै: पाषाणखण्डेषु रत्नसंज्ञा विधीयते ।।६।।
ପୃଥବ୍ୟା ତ୍ରୀଣି ରତ୍ନାନି ଜଳମ୍ ଅନଂ ସୁଭାଷିତମ୍ ।
ମୂଜଃ ପାଷାଣଖଣ୍ଡେଷୁ ରତ୍ନସଂଜ୍ଞା ବିଧୀୟତେ ।।୬।।

अर्थः (ଅର୍ଥ)
जलम् अन्नं सुभाषितम् इति त्रीणि रत्नानि पृथिव्यां सन्ति।
मूढा: जना: पाषाणखण्डेषु रत्नम् इति विचारयन्ति ।
ଜଳମ୍ ଅନଂ ସୁଭାଷିତମ୍ ଇତି ତ୍ରୀଣି ରତ୍ନାନି ପୃଥବ୍ୟା ସନ୍ତି ।
ମୂଢା ଜନଃ ପାଷାଣଖଣ୍ଡେଷୁ ରତ୍ନମ୍ ଇତି ବିଚାରୟନ୍ତି।

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

• जलम् (ଜଳମୂ) – ପାଣି
• अन्नं (ଅନଂ) – ଖାଦ୍ୟ
• पृथिव्यां (ପୃଥୁବ୍ୟା) – ପୃଥ‌ିବୀରେ
• मूढा: (ମୂଢା) – ମୂର୍ଖମାନେ
• पाषाणखण्डेषु (ପାଷାଣଖଣ୍ଡେଷୁ)—ପଥରଖଣ୍ଡମାନଙ୍କରେ
• संज्ञा (ସଂଜ୍ଞା) – ନାମ
• विधीयते (ବିଧୀୟତେ) – ବିଧାନ କରନ୍ତି

ଅର୍ଥୀ :
ଜଳ ଅନ୍ନ ଏବଂ ସୁଭାଷିତ ତିନିଗୋଟି ରତ୍ନ ପୃଥ‌ିବୀରେ ରହିଛି । ମୂର୍ଖମାନେ ପାଷାଣଖଣ୍ଡମାନଙ୍କରେ ରତ୍ନ ବୋଲି ନାମକରଣ କରନ୍ତି ।

हस्तस्य भूषणं दानं सत्यं कण्ठस्य भूषणम् ।
श्रोत्रस्य भूषणं शास्त्रं भूषणै : किं प्रयोजनम् ।।७।।
ହସ୍ତସ୍ୟ ଭୂଷଣଂ ଦାନଂ ସତ୍ୟ କଣ୍ଠସ୍ୟ ଭୂଷଣମ୍
ଶ୍ରୋତ୍ରସ୍ୟ ଭୂଷଣଂ ଶାସ୍ତ୍ର ଭୂଷଣି କିଂ ପ୍ରୟୋଜନମ୍ ||୭||

अर्थः (ଅର୍ଥ)
ଦାନଂ ହସ୍ତସ୍ୟ ଭୂଷଣମ୍। ସତ୍ୟ କଣ୍ଠସ୍ୟ ଭୂଷଣମ୍ । ଶାସ୍ତ୍ର ଶ୍ରୋତ୍ରସ୍ୟ ଭୂଷଣମ୍। ଅତଃ ଭୂଷଣି କିଂ ବା
ପ୍ରୟୋଜନମ୍ ।

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

• भूषणम् (ଭୂଷଣମ୍) – ଅଳଙ୍କାର
• कण्ठस्य (କଣ୍ଠସ୍ୟ) – କଣ୍ଠର
• श्रोत्रस्य (ଶ୍ରୋତ୍ରସ୍ୟ) – କାନର
• अतः (ଅତଃ) – ଏଣୁ
• किं (କିଂ) – କ’ଣ
• प्रयोजनं (ପ୍ରୟୋଜନଂ) ଆବଶ୍ୟକ

ଅର୍ଥ :
ଦାନ ହାତର ଅଳଙ୍କାର । ସତ୍ୟ କଣ୍ଠର ଭୂଷଣ। ଶାସ୍ତ୍ର କଣ୍ଠିର ଭୂଷଣ। ଏଣୁ ଅନ୍ୟ ଭୂଷଣରେ କ’ଣ ବା ପ୍ରୟୋଜନ।

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) शोभते
उत्तर :
ଶୋଭାପାଏ

(ख) कलहः
उत्तर :
ବିବାଦ

(ग) भूषणम्
उत्तर :
ଅଳଙ୍କାର

(घ) वर्तुधा
उत्तर :
ପୃଥ୍ବୀ

(ङ) ददाति
उत्तर :
ଦାନ କରେ

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) जपतः किं नास्ति ?
(a) पातकं
(b) जातकं
(c) शतकं
(d) नतकं
उत्तर :
(a) ପାତଙ୍କ

(ख) पात्रत्वात् किम् आप्नोति ?
(a) जनम्
(b) धनम्
(c) मानम्
(d) ध्यानम्
उत्तर :
(b) ଧନମ୍

(ग) हस्तस्य भूषणं किम् ?
(a) कङ्कणम्
(b) सुवर्णम्
(c) दानम्
(d) चन्दनम्
उत्तर :
(c) ଦାନମ୍

(घ) अयं निजः परो वेति केषा गणना ?
(a) मानवाना
(b) जनाना
(c) मूर्खाणां
(d) लघुचेतसा
उत्तर :
(d) ଲଘୁଚେତସାଂ

(ङ) वृक्षः कानि ददाति ?
(a) पुष्पाणि
(b) जलानि
(c) मलानि
(d) क्रीडनकानि
उत्तर :
(a) ପୁଷ୍ପାଣି

के च ते (କେ ବୃ ତେ) ସେମାନେ କିଏ ?

बानुरः
पश्यत वानरराजं दक्षम्
कूर्दति वृक्षादन्यं वृक्षम् ।

ବାନରଃ
ପଶ୍ୟତ ବାନରାଜଂ ଦକ୍ଷମ୍
କୃର୍ଦତି ବୃକ୍ଷାଦନ୍ୟ ବୃକ୍ଷମ୍ ।

कुक्कुरः
दृष्ट्वा रात्रौ एकं चौरम्
भषति कुक्कुरो वारं वारम् ।

କୁକ୍କୁର
ଦୃଷ୍ଟା ରାତ୍ରି ଏକଂ ଚୌରମ୍
ଭଷତି କୁକୁରେ ବାରଂ ବାରମ୍ ।

मार्जारी
माजारीयं खादति मीनम्
पिबति च दुग्धं तिष्ठति म़ौनम् ।

ମାର୍ଜାରୀ
ମାକାରୀୟଂ ଖାଦିତ ମୀନମ୍
ପିବତି ବୃ ଦୁଗ୍ଧ ତିଷ୍ଠତି ମୌନମ୍ ।

मधुपः
मधुपोऽयं विहरति सानन्दम्
पायं पायं मधुमकरन्दम्

ମଧୁପଃ
ମଧୁପୋଽୟଂ ବିହରତି ସାନନ୍ଦମ୍
ପାୟଂ ପାରଂ ମଧୁମକନ୍ଦମ୍ ।

हस्ती
हस्ती गच्छति मन्दं सुमन्दम्
जनयति चासौ नयनानन्दम् ।

ହସ୍ତୀ
ହସ୍ତୀ ଗଳ୍ପତି ମୟଂ ସୁମନ୍ଦମ୍
ଜନୟତି ଚାସୌ ନୟନାନନ୍ଦମ୍ ।

शशक:
शशकः सततं कुरुते क्रीडाम्
ततः परमनुभवति पीडाम् ।

ଶଶକଃ
ଶଶକଃ ସତତଂ କୁରୁତେ କ୍ରୀଡ଼ାମ୍
ତତଃ ପରମନୁଭବତି ପୀଡ଼ାମ୍ ।

सन्धिविच्छदः (ସନ୍ଧିବିଚ୍ଛେଦଃ )

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

श्लोकार्था :

१. यूयं दक्षं वानरराजं पश्यत ।
असौ वृक्षात् अन्यं वृक्षं कूर्दति ।
ଯୂୟଂ ଦକ୍ଷୀ ବାନରରାଜ୍ୟ ପଶ୍ୟତ।
ଅସୌ ବୃକ୍ଷାତ୍ ଅନ୍ୟ ବକ୍ଷ କତି ।

२. रात्रौ एकं चौरं दृष्ट्ववा कुक्कुरः वारं वारं भषति।
ରାତ୍ରି ଏବଂ ଚୌରଂ ଦୃଷ୍ଟା କୁକୁରଃ ବାରଂ ବାରଂ ଭଷତି।

३. इयं मार्जारी मीनं खादति ।
दुग्धं पिबति । मौनं च तिष्ठति ।
ଇୟଂ ମାର୍ଜାରୀ ମୀନଂ ଖାଦତି।
ଦୁଗ୍ଧ ପିବତି । ମୌନଂ ଚ ତିଷ୍ଠତି।

४. अयं मधुप: मधुमकरन्दं पायं पायं सानन्दं विहरति।
ଅୟଂ ମଧୁରଃ ମଧୁମକରଣଂ ପାୟଂ ପାୟଂ ସାନନ୍ଦ ବିହରତି ।

५. हस्ती मन्दं सुमन्दं गच्छति ।
नयनानन्दं च असौ जनयति ।
ହସ୍ତୀ ମନଂ ସୁମନଂ ଗଚ୍ଛତି ।
ନୟନାନନ୍ଦ ଚ ଅସୌ ଜନୟତି ।

६. शशक: सततं क्रीड़ां कुरुते ।
ततः परं पीडाम् अनुभवति ।
ଶଶକଃ ସତତଂ କ୍ରୀଡ଼ା କୁରୁତେ ।
ତତଃ ପରଂ ପୀଡ଼ାମ୍ ଅନୁଭବତି ।

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातूभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) कूर्दति
उत्तर : ଡେଉଛି

(ख) रात्रौ
उत्तर :
ରାତିରେ

(ग) मीनम्
उत्तर :
ମାଛକୁ

(घ) मधुपः
उत्तर :
ଭ୍ରମର

(ङ) शशक：
उत्तर :
ଠେକୁଆ

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) क：वृक्षादन्यं वृक्षं कूर्दति ？
(a) वानरराज：
(b) मकरः
(c) शशक：
(d) मानव：
उत्तर :
(a) ବାନରରାଜଃ

(ख) रात्रौ कं दृष्ट्वा कुक्कुरः भषति ？
(a) जनं
(b) चौरं
(c) सर्पं
(d) कीटं
उत्तर :
(b) ଚୌରଂ

(ग) मधुपः किं पिबति ?
(a) रसं
(b) मधुं
(c) मधुमकरन्दं
(d) पुष्परसं
उत्तर :
(c) ମଧୁମକରଫ

(घ) का मीनं खादति ?
(a) कच्छप:
(b) बक:
(c) कुलीरक:
(d) मार्जारी
उत्तर :
(d) ମାର୍କାରୀ

(ङ) हस्ती कथं गच्छति ?
(a) सुमन्दं
(b) द्रुतं
(c) क्षिप्रं
(d) सत्वरं
उत्तर :
(a) ସୁମଙ୍ଘ

सुप्रभातम्  (ସୁପ୍ରଭାତମ୍) ସୁପ୍ରଭାତ

उदिते सूर्ये धरणी विहसति ।
ଉଦିତେ ସୂର୍ଯ୍ୟ ଧରଣୀ ବିହସତି ।

पक्षी कूजति कमलं विकसति ॥ १ ॥
ପକ୍ଷୀ କୂଜତି କମଳଂ ବିକସତି ।। ୧ ।।

नदति मन्दिरे उच्चै : ढक्का ।
ନଦତି ମନ୍ଦିରେ ଉଚ୍ଚି ଢକ୍କା ।

सरितः सलिले चलति नौका ।। २ ।।
ସରିତଃ ସଲିଳେ ଚଳତି ନୌକା ।। ୨||

पुष्पे पुष्पे नानारङ्गः ।
ପୁଷ୍ପ ପୁଷ୍ପ ନାନାରଙ୍ଗା ।

तेषु डयते चित्रविहझुगः।। ३ ।।
ତେଷୁ ଜୟତେ ଚିତ୍ରବିହଙ୍ଗା ।। ୩ ।।

वृक्षे वृक्षे नूतनपत्रम् ।
ବୃକ୍ଷେ ବୃକ୍ଷେ ନୂତନପତ୍ରମ୍ ।

विविधै : वर्णं: विभाति चित्रम् ॥
ବିବିଧଃ ବହିଃ ବିଭାତି ଚିତ୍ରମ୍ ।। ୪ ।।

गहने विपिने व्याघ्रो गर्जति ।
ଗହନେ ବିପିନେ ବ୍ୟାଘ୍ର ଗର୍ଜତି ।

उच्चै : तत्र सिंहः क्रोशति ।। ५ ।।
ଉଚ୍ଚୈଃ ତତ୍ର ସିଂହଃ କ୍ରୋଶତି ।। ୫ ।।

हरिणोऽयं खादति नवघासम् ।
ହରିଣୋଽୟଂ ଖାଦତି ନବଘାସମ୍ ।

सर्वत्र च पश्यति सविलासम् ।। ६ ।।
ସର୍ବତ୍ର ବୃ ପଶ୍ୟତି ସବିଳାସମ୍ || ୬ ||

घोटकराज : क्षिप्रं धावति ।
ଘୋଟକରାଜଃ କ୍ଷିପୁଂ ଧାବତି ।

धावनकाले किमपि न खादति ।। ७ ।।
ଧାବନକାଳେ କିମପି ନ ଖାଦତି || ୭ ||

पश्यत भल्लुकमिमं करालम्
ପଶ୍ୟତ ଭଲୁକମଂ କରାଲମ୍

नृत्यति थर्थधै कुरु करातालम् ।। ८।।
ନୃତ୍ୟତି ଥଥଥୈ କୁରୁ କରାତାଳମ୍ ।। ୮ ।।

सन्धिविच्छदः (ସନ୍ଧିବିଚ୍ଛେଦ) :

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) कूजति
उत्तर :
ଭାବୁଛି

(ख) नूतनपत्रम्
उत्तर :
ନୂଆପତ୍ର

(ग) विपिने
उत्तर :
ବଣରେ

(घ) खादति
उत्तर :
ଖାଉଛି

(ङ) भल्लुक:
उत्तर :
ଭାଲୁ

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) सूर्ये उदिते का विहसति ?
(a) लता
(b) माला
(c) धरणी
(d) जननी
उत्तर :
(c) ଧରଣୀ

(ख) ढक्का कुत्र उच्चै: नदति ?
(a) मन्दिरे
(b) गृहे
(c) प्रान्तरे
(d) मार्गे
उत्तर :
(a) ମନ୍ଦିରେ

(ग) कः क्षिप्रं धावति ?
(a) पशुराज:
(b) घोटकराज:
(c) शशक:
(d) व्याघ्र:
उत्तर :
(b) ଘୋଟକରାଜଃ

(घ) व्याघ्र: कुत्र गर्जति ?
(a) गुहाया
(b) वने
(c) विपिने
(d) गृहे
उत्तर :
(c) ବିପିନେ

(ङ) सिंहः किं करोति ?
(a) चलति
(b) निद्राति
(c) पश्यति
(d) क्रोशति
उत्तर :
(d) କ୍ରୋଶତି

रक्ष रक्ष काननम्
(ରକ୍ଷ ରକ୍ଷ କାନନମ୍) ଅରଣ୍ୟ ରକ୍ଷା କର

रक्ष रक्ष काननम्
ରକ୍ଷ ରକ୍ଷ କାନନମ୍

वृक्षराशिशोभनम् ।
ବୃକ୍ଷରାଶିଶୋଭନମ୍ ।

काले वृष्टिकारकम्
କାଳେ ବୃଷ୍ଟିକାରକମ୍

शुद्धवायुदायकम् ।। १ ।।
ଶୁଦ୍ଧବାୟୁଦାୟକମ୍ || ୧ ||

रोगवारणोचिता
ରୋଗବାରଣୋଚିତା

मूलिका वने स्थिता ।
ମୂଳିକା ବନେ ସ୍ଥିତା ।

सम्पदां हि सम्पदं
ସମ୍ପଦା ହି ସମ୍ପଦଂ

काननं विचिन्तय ।। २ ।।
କାନନଂ ବିଚିନ୍ତୟ || ୨ ||

काननं हि जीवनं
କାନନଂ ହି ଜୀବନଂ

रक्ष रक्ष तद् धनम् ।
ରକ୍ଷ ରକ୍ଷ ତଦ୍ ଧନମ୍ ।

काननस्य नाशनं
କାନନସ୍ୟ ନାଶନଂ

स्वस्य विधिनाशनम् ।। ३ ।।
ସ୍ଵସ୍ୟ ବିଦ୍ଧିନାଶନମ୍ ।। ୩ ।।

काननस्य वर्धने
କାନନସ୍ଯ ବର୍ଧନେ

निरतः सत्यरक्षणे ।
ନିରତଃ ସତ୍ୟରକ୍ଷଣେ ।

त्वं भविष्यचिन्तने
ତଂ ଭବିଷ୍ୟଚିନ୍ତନେ

युक्तमानसो भव ।। ४ ।।
ଯୁକ୍ତମାନସୋ ଭବ ।। ୪ ।।

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) काननम्
उत्तर :
ବଣ

(ख) राशि：
उत्तर :
ସମଷ୍ଟି

(ग) भव
उत्तर :
ହୁଅ

(घ) रक्ष
उत्तर :
ରକ୍ଷାକର

(ङ) काले
उत्तर :
ଉପଯୁକ୍ତ ସମୟରେ

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) रक्ष रक्ष
(a) मातरम्
(b) भ्रातरम्
(c) काननम्
(d) मानवम्
उत्तर :
(c) କାନନମ୍

(ख) काले ……………. कारकम्।
(a) जल
(b) वृष्टि
(c) मेघ
(d) शीत
उत्तर :
(b) ବୃଷ୍ଟି

(ग) किंहि जीवनम् ?
(a) वृक्ष:
(b) वायु:
(c) यानं
(d) काननं
उत्तर :
(d) କାନନଂ

(घ) काननस्य नाशनं कस्य विधिनाशनम् ?
(a) स्वस्य
(b) तस्य
(c) यस्य
(d) मानवस्य
उत्तर :
(a) ସସ୍ୟ

(ङ) …………….. वर्धने निरतः सत्यरक्षणे।
(a) मृगस्य
(b) वृक्षस्य
(c) काननस्य
(d) जनस्य
उत्तर :
(c) କାନନସ୍ଯ

सर्वं नयामि विद्यालयम् 

पुत्री – अम्ब ! न यामि विद्यालयम् ।
ପୁତ୍ରୀ – ଅମ୍ବ ! ନ ଯାମି ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ।

अम्ब : न यामि विद्यालयम् ।
ଅମ୍ବ ! ନ ଯାମି ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ।

माता – किं प्रवृत्तं वद वत्से !
ମାତା – କିଂ ପ୍ରବୃତ୍ତ ବଦ ବତ୍ସ !

येनैवं त्वं नोत्सहसे ।
ଯେନୈବଂ ତଂ ନୋତ୍ସହସେ ।

पुत्री – चिनु-मिनु-पिनु-प्रमिला ।
ପୁତ୍ରୀ – ଚିନୁ-ମିନୁ-ପିନୁ-ପ୍ରମିଳା ।

सुरेश – गौरीश – गोपाल:
ସୁରେଶ-ଗୌରୀଶ-ଗୋପାନଃ

न केडपि मामभिभाषन्ते
ନ କେଽପି ମାମଭିଭାଷନ୍ତେ

न मया साकं मोदन्ते ।
ନ ମୟା ସାକଂ ମୋଦନ୍ତେ ।

जननी – अहो धृष्टता ईदृशी
ଜନନୀ – ଅହୋ ଧୃଷ୍ଟତା ଈଦୃଶୀ

बालानां किं भो : जल्पसि ?
ବାଳାନାଂ କିଂ ଭୋ ଜସି ?

अधुना यामि विद्यालयम्
ଅଧୁନା ଯାମି ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍

वदामि सर्वम् आचार्यम् ।।
ବଦାମି ସର୍ବମ୍ ଆଚାର୍ଯ୍ୟମ୍ ।।

पुत्री – न तथा करोतु मे जननि !
ପୁତ୍ରୀ – ନ ତଥା କରୋତୁ ମ ଜନନି

नितरां कुप्यन्ति मित्राणि ।
ନିତରାଂ କୁପ୍ୟନ୍ତ ମିତ୍ରାଣି ।

जननी – अधुना किं वा करवाणि ?
ଜନନୀ– ଅଧୁନା କିଂ ବା କରବାଣି ?

ददाति किं ते मधुराणि ?
ଦଦାତି କିଂ ତେ ମଧୁରାଣି ?

पुत्री – अहो चतुरा मे जननी
ପୁତ୍ରୀ – ଅହୋ ଚତୁରା ମ ଜନନୀ

इटिति मदाशयग्राहिणी
ଝଟିତି ମଦାଶୟଗ୍ରାହିଣୀ

प्रेषय सर्वाणि मधुराणि
ପ୍ରେଷୟ ସର୍ବାଣି ମଧୁରାଣି

तोषय मम मित्राणि ।
ତୋଷୟ ମମ ମିତ୍ରାଣି ।

अधुना गच्छामि विद्यालयम्
ଅଧୁନା ଗଚ୍ଛାମି ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍

देहि मधुरं सातिशयम्
ଦେହି ମଧୁରଂ ସାତିଶୟମ୍

अम्ब ! नयामि विद्यालयम्
ଅନ୍ତଃ ନୟାମି ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍

सर्वं नयामि विद्यालयम् ।।
ସର୍ବଂ ନୟାମି ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ।।

सन्धिविच्छद: (ସନ୍ଧିବିଚ୍ଛେଦଃ ) :

शब्दार्थ  (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) अम्ब
उत्तर : ହେ ମାଆ !

(ख) साकम्
उत्तर : ସାଙ୍ଗରେ

(ग) देहि
उत्तर : ଦିଅ

(घ) तथा
उत्तर : ସେପରି

(ङ) कुप्यन्ति
उत्तर : ରାଗିଛନ୍ତି

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) अम्ब ! न यामि विद्यालयम् इति का वदति ?
(a) पुत्री
(b) पुत्र:
(c) लता
(d) गीता
उत्तर :
(a) ପୁତ୍ରୀ

(ख) न मया सांकं …………..
(a) खेलन्ति
(b) वदन्ति
(c) मोदन्ते
(d) हसन्ति
उत्तर :
(c) ମୋଦନ୍ତେ

(ग) …………… यामि विद्यालयम्।
(a) अधुना
(b) तदा
(c) सर्वदा
(d) अद्य
उत्तर :
(a) ଅଧୁନା

(घ) अहो चतुरा मे……………
(a) मित्रम्
(b)आचार्य:
(c) पिता
(d) जननी
उत्तर :
(d) ଜନନୀ

(ङ) …………… मम मित्राणि।
(a) प्रेषय
(b) भक्षय
(c) तोषय
(d) मार्जय
उत्तर :
(c) ତୋଷୟ

उपदेशः (ଉପଦେଶଃ) ଉପଦେଶ

प्रत्युषकाले उच्तिष्ठतु
ପ୍ରତ୍ୟୁଷକାଳେ ଉତ୍ତିଷ୍ଠତୁ

स्वकीयं कर्म विदधातु
ସ୍ଵକୀୟଂ କର୍ମ ବିଦଧାତୁ

अल्पामाहारं स्वीकरोतु
ଅଳ୍ପାମାହାରଂ ସ୍ଵୀକରୋତୁ

गृहपठनम् आचरतु ।।
ଗୃହପଠନମ୍ ଆଚରତୁ ।

पौष्टिकं भोजनं खादतु
ପୌଷ୍ଟିକଂ ଭୋଜନଂ ଖାଦତୁ

विशुद्धं पानीयं पिबतु ।
ବିଶୁଦ୍ଧ ପାନୀ ପିବତୁ

हितोपदेशं पालयतु
ହିତୋପଦେଶଂ ପାଳୟତୁ

परोपकारं साधयतु ।।
ପରୋପକାରଂ ସାଧୟତୁ ।।

विद्यामन्दिरम् आगच्छतु
ବିଦ୍ୟାମନ୍ଦିରମ୍ ଆଗଚ୍ଛତୁ

तत्र नियमान् पालयतु ।
ତତ୍ର ନିୟମାନ୍ ପାଳଋତୁ ।

शृणोतु पठतु लिखतु
ଶୃଣୋତୁ ପଠତୁ ଲିଖନ୍ତୁ

क्रीडतु सत्यं कथयतु ।।
କ୍ରୀଡ଼ତୁ ସତ୍ୟ କଥୟତୁ ।।

आलस्यभावं वर्जयतु
ଆଳସ୍ୟଭାବଂ ବର୍ଜୟତୁ

मातापितरौ तोषयतु
ମାତାପିତରୌ ତୋଷୟତୁ

देशसेवकान् पूजयतु
ଦେଶସେବକାନ୍ ପୂଜୟତୁ

समाजे आदरमाप्नोतु ।।
ସମାଜେ ଆଦରମାପ୍ଳୁତୁ ।।

देशगौरवं बोधयतु
ଦେଶଗୌରବଂ ବୋଧୟତୁ

अनुजान् नित्यं मोदयतु
ଅନୁଜାନ୍ ନିତ୍ୟ ମୋଦୟତୁ

गुरुजनान् सम्मानयतु
ଗୁରୁଜନାନ୍ ସମ୍ମାନୟତୁ

विश्वबन्धुत्वं स्थापयतु ।।
ବିଶ୍ୱବନ୍ଧୁତ୍ୱ ସ୍ଥାପୟତୁ ।।

कठिनशब्दा: (କଠିନଶବ୍ଦା) :

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) पालयतु
उत्तर :
ପାଳନ କର

(ख) नियमान्
उत्तर :
ନିୟମଗୁଡ଼ିକୁ

(ग) बोधयतु
उत्तर :
ବୁଝାଅ

(घ) स्वकीयं
उत्तर :
ନିଜର

(ङ) कथयतु
उत्तर :
କୁହନ୍ତୁ

२. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।
(क) किंस्वीकरोतु ?
(a) धनं
(b)अल्पमाहारं
(c) जनं
(d) फलं
उत्तर :
(b) ଅଳ୍ପମାହାରଂ

(ख) समाजे किम् आप्नोतु ?
(a) आदरम्
(b) सम्मानम्
(c) विद्याम्
(d) धनम्
उत्तर :
(a) ଆଦରମ୍

(ग) तत्र कान् पालयतु ?
(a) सर्वान्
(b) जनान्
(c) नियमान्
(d) कर्माण्
उत्तर :
(c) ନିୟମାନ୍

(घ) किं बोधयतु ?
(a) मानं
(b) पाठं
(c) ज्ञानं
(d) देशगौरवं
उत्तर :
(d) ଦେଶଗୌରବଂ

(ङ) कौ तोषयतु ?
(a) मातपितरौ
(b) गुरुजनौ
(c) देवौ
(d) पितरौ
उत्तर :
(a) ମାତାପିତରେ

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 4 Deductive and Inductive Fallacies Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 4 Question Answer Deductive and Inductive Fallacies

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What is the fallacy of illicit major?
Answer:
(i) When the major term is distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the major premise that is calledthe fallacy of illicit major.

(ii) Example :
A = All men are biped
E = No cows are men
E = No cows are biped

Question 2.
What is called the fallacy of illicit minor?
Answer:
(i) When the minor term is distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the minor premise then that is called the fallacy of illicit minor.

(b) Example :
E = No students are hones.
A = All honest being are harmless
∴ E = No harmless being are students

Question 3.
Fallacy of two negative premises.
Answer:
(i) The general syllogistic rule number (5) says that from two negative premises no conclusion follows.
(ii) But if we draw any conclusion out of two negative premises then we commit the fallacy of two negative premises.

Question 4.
Fallacy of two particular premises.
Answer:
(i) When we draw the conclusion out of two particular premises then at that time we commit the fallacy of two particular premises.

(ii) Example;
I = Some M is P
I = Some S is m
I = Some S is P

Question 5.
Fallacy of ambiguous major:
Answer:
(i) When the major term is used more than one sense in an argument that is called the fallacy of ambiguous major.

(ii) Example :
All crickets are insects No players like insect.
No players like cricket.

Question 6.
Fallacy of ambiguous minor :
Answer:
When the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument that is called the fallacy of ambiguous minor.

Question 7.
Fallacy of amphiboly.
Answer:
(i) The fallacy of amphibody arises due to the wrong construction of a sentence.
(ii) He was given twice two and three rupees. It may mean that he was given either seven or ten rupees.

Question 8.
Fallacy of Division.
Answer:
(i) When we pass from the collective use of term to its distributive use, that is called the fallacy of division.

(ii) Example; the students of this college are intelligent Rani is a student of this college.
∴ Rani is intelligent

Question 9.
What is the fallacy of composition ?
Answer:
(i) This fallacy arises, when we pass from the distributive use to a collective use of a term in our argument.

(ii) Example; Nine and one are odd numbers Ten is nine and one
∴ Ten is an odd number

Question 10.
What is a called the fallacy of accent?
Answer:
(i) When the emphasis is given on a particular word in a sentence at that time we commit the fallacy of accent.
(ii) Example : Thou shalt not insult thy parents.

Question 11.
Fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc.
Answer:

1. “Post hoc ergo propter hoc” literally means after this, therefore due to this.
2. It arises when we take any and every antecedent to be the cause.
3. Example; A crow sits on the palm tree and a palm falls down, so it is said that crow is the cause of the falling of the palm.

Question 12.
Fallacy of neglecting the negative condition.
Answer:
(i) When we take only positive conditions to be the cause and neglect the negative conditions then we commit this fallacy.

(ii) Example; Intelligence does not lead to success, as a large number of intelligent students are unemployed.

Question 13.
Fallacy of mistaking the co-effects of a cause and effect.
Answer:
(i) Cause is the antecedent and effect is the consequent. But if we take one of the coeffects of a common cause as the cause of its effect, we commit this fallacy.

(ii) Examples: Day invariably preceded night, so day is the cause of night.

Question 14.
Fallacy of undue assumption.
Answer:
(i) When we unduly assume a premise at that time we commit the fallacy of undue assumption.
(ii) Example; The people of America are wealthy, because they are industrious.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
Fallacy of Equivocation:
Answer:
The fallacy of equivocation arises due to the use of ambiguous terms in an argument. A syllogism has three terms – the middle, the major and the minor. This fallacy arises if either the middle term or the major term or the minor term is used ambiguously or in more than one sense in the same argument.

Question 2.
Fallacy of Ambiguous middle:
Answer:
When the middle term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time the fallacy arises, Which is called the fallacy of Ambiguous middle.
Example: Light is pleasant
(Light = opposite of darkness) His injury is pleasant.

Question 3.
Ambiguous major:
Answer:
When the major term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time we commit the fallacy of ambiguous major.
Example: No courageous creatures fly.
(Fly = run away)
Eagle is a courageous creature.
∴ Eagle does not fly.
(fly = move through air with wings)

Question 4.
Ambiguous Minor :
Answer:
When the minor term is ambiguous, or when the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time the fallacy of Ambiguous minor arises.
Example :
No man in made of paper.
All pages are men.
∴ No pages are made of paper.

Here the minor term ‘pages’ is used in two different senses, in the minor premise ‘pages’ means boy servants’ and in the conclusion its means the leaf of a book.

Question 5.
Fallacy of composition:
Answer:
This fallacy arises when we pass from the distributive use to a collective use of a term. It means what is true of a member may not be true of a class.
Example:
Nine and one are odd numbers Ten is nine and ten.
∴ Ten is an odd numbers.

Question 6.
Fallacy of Division :
Answer:
When the we pass from the collective use of a term to its distributive us, we commit the fallacy of division. It means what is true of a class may not be true of its individual members.
Example :
The students of this college are intelligent. Mira is a student of this college. Mira is intelligent.

Question 7.
Fallacy of Accent :
Answer:
This fallacy arises que to the misplaced accent or emphasis on any expression in a sentence.
Example :
“Thou shaft not bear false witness against the neighbour”. One may be emphasis on against and interpret the sentence as meaning that if is of wrong to bear false witness in favour of a neighbour.

Question 8.
Fallacy of Accident :
Answer:
This fallacy arises due to the application of what is true under one circumstance in a case under different circumstances, so use commit this fallacy when we argue from a general rule to a special case.

Question 9.
Fallacy of Ambiboly or Amphibology.
Answer:
This is a kind of semilogical deductive fallacy, which arises due to the ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its wrong construction. Such a sentence is capable of being interpreted in at least different ways. He was given me twice two and three rupees.

Question 10.
Fallacy of figure of speech :
Answer:
This fallacy arises from the supposition that words similar in form are also similar in meaning.
Example:
Whatever people desire is desirable.
Happiness in desired by people.
∴ Happiness in desirable.
This fallacy is other wise called as the fallacy of paronymous term.

Question 11.
What is called False Analogy ?
Answer:
A false analogy in one where the points of similarity are less and unimportant, the points of difference are more and important, and the sphere of known points is narrow. Here the probability is of a very low degree.

Question 12.
Write the different classification of ignoratio elenchi.
Answer:
There are five different classifications of ignoratio ejenchi these are;

1. Argumentum ad hominem
2. Argumentum ad populum
3. Argumentum ad ignoratium
4. Argumentum ad vereeundium
5. Argumentum ad baculum

Question 13.
What is called the fallacy of Relevance?
Answer:
The fallacy of Relevance arises when one attempts to prove a conclusion by the premise that does not bear its truth to the conclusion. In this fallacy to tine exclusion. In this fallacy the premises are irrelevant to the conclusion.

Question 14.
What is the fallacy of Argumentum ad ignoratium?
Answer:
This is a fallaious ‘argument where we take the advantage of the opponent fails to disprove what we Rave said, we hold that our doctrine is correct. Here an attempt in made to silence an opponent by appealing to his ignorance and making him agree to what we say without convincing him.
Example : The existence of God is established as the opponent cannot disporve it.

Question 15.
State with example the fallacy of Argumentum ad hominem.
Answer:
When we direct our arguments to the opponent and not to the point at issue at that time we commit the fallacy of Argumentum ad hominem. For example; if some one asks us not to smoke be say that the speaker himself is a great smoker and he has no right to correct others.

Question 16.
State with example the fallacy of Argumentum ad baculum.
Answer:
When we cannot defeat the opponent by means of argument but put him the fallacy of argumentum ad baculum.
Example :
Whatever I say you admit that if is true and give me in working to the effect, otherwise I shall kill you by plunging this knife into your heart.

Question 17.
When we commit the fallacy of Argumentum ad verecundiam?
Answer:
When we take a statement to be proved or disproved by quoting the scriptures, or opinion of greatman or teacher without any reason then we commit the fallacy of argumentum ad vereeundium.
Example :
Non-violence in the best code of life because both lord Buddha ad Mahatma Gandhi have said so.

Question 18.
State with example the fallacy of Argumentum ad populaum.
Answer:
When an appeal to the passion and prejudice of the audience and not to their reason, we commit the fallacy of argumentum ad populaum.
Example:
You are a brahmin and so I am, therefore I have confident that you will realise my views to be correct.

Question 19.
Explain the fallacy of Non-Sequitur.
Answer:
Non-sequitur literally means it does not follow. If we inter the truth of the antecedent from the truth of the consequent or the falsity of the consequent from the falsity of the antecedent of a hypothetical proposition, we commit this fallacy.

Example :
It somebody is honest, he does not fear anybody.
He does not fear anybody.
∴ Therefore, he is honest.

Question 20.
Give with example the fallacy of Plaures interrogations.
Answer:
Plures interrogation literally means many questions. By this atleast two questions are combined and a plain answer – Yes or No is demanded.
Example:
Have you left thieving ? If you say ‘yes’ you were a their and if you say ‘No’ you are a their.

Question 21.
State with example the fallacy of Falsity of premise.
Answer:
When we argue from a premise which is itself false.
Example :
He must be suffering from a disease, since he went to the hospital. Here, we have assumed a premise; All who go to the hospital must be suffering from some disease.

Question 22.
State the fallacy of “petitio principii”.
Answer:
Literally the fallacy of “Petitio Principii” means assuming the same point which we want to prove. Mill commits this fallacy when he tries to prove induction with the help of the law of uniformity of Nature and also proves the law of uniformity of nature by induction.
Example:
India cannot prefer one religion to another, because if is a secular country, Meera is a matriculate because all her classmates are matriculates.

Question 23.
State the fallacy of presumption.
Answer:
The fallacy of presumption is the error which arises due to some false assumptions and hence fail to establish the truth of their conclusions. Overlooking of facts is one of the fallacy of presumption.

Question 24.
State the fallacy of distortion of facts.
Answer:
The fallacies of presumption that are due to the distortion of facts of the following kinds.

1. False analogy
2. False cause
3. Slippery slope
4. Irrelevant thetis

Question 25.
What is the fallacy of Red Herring?
Answer:
This fallacy arises when one brings irrelevant ideas into discussion as if they can add to the discussion and help it is arriving at the required result. For example, by bringing various theological ideas into a scientific discussion, one commits this fallacy.

Question 26.
What the fallacy of Strawman?
Answer:
The fallacy of strawman arises when one attacks an argument by taking its weaker form and then shows where it fails, assuming that the original argument is also defeated in the process.
Example :
We respect our teachers since we are told to respect them in the similar may our teachers respect their teachers. This is a long drawn process.

Question 27.
What is the fallacy of Argumentum ad misericordiam?
Answer:
Argumentum ad misericordiam means the argument that appeals to pity and in this argument, altruism and merry of the audience are the special emotions that are appealed to for getting a certain conclusion of accepted.
Example:
Madhu did not murder his children, please do not say that he is guilty since he is suffering for being childless.

Question 28.
State with example the fallacy of “Post hoc propter hoc”
Answer:
Literally the fallacy of “Post hoc ergo propter hoc” means “after this, therefore, due to this”. It arises when we take any and every antecedent to be the cause and it is otherwise called as crow-palm argument.

Example : A newly married bride came to her husbands house and her mother-in-law died, if we say that arrival of new married bride in the cause of the death of mother-in-law then we commit this fallacy.

Question 29.
Explain the fallacy of mistaking one condition for the whole cause.
Answer:
We know that cause is the sum total of all conditions, positive and negative taken together. If we take only one condition as the cause neglecting the other conditions, we commit this fallacy. Example; Madhu failed in the examination because his father was seriously ill prior to the examination.

Question 30.
Explain the fallacy of neglecting the negative condition.
Answer:
This fallacy arises when we take only positive conditions to be the cause and neglect the negative conditions.
Example:
Intelligence does not lead to success as a large number of intelligent students are unemployed.

Question 31.
Explain the fallacy of mistaking the coeffects of a causes as cause and effect.
Answer:
Cause is the antecedent and effect is the consequent. If we take one of the co-effects of a common cause as the cause of its effect, we commit this fallacy.

Example:
Day invariable precedes night. So day is the cause of night. In facts, day and Night are the Co-effects of the movement of the earth around its axis facing the Sun.

Question 32.
State and explain the fallacy of mistaking a remote condition to be the cause.
Answer:
A cause is an immediate antecedent of the effect. A remote condition is not unconditions and cannot be the cause of the recent event.
For example:
A habitual drunkard who worked hard in his young time has ill health now. Therefore, the cause of his ill health is hard Labour.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
State and explain different kinds of semilogical fallacies with examples.
Answer:
Semilogical fallacies arise due to the ambiguity in the meaning and use of term and proposition. There are seven types of semiological fallacies. Such as
(1) Fallacy of equivocation : A term cannot be used in more than one sense in the argument. But if it is so used then it in called an ambiguous term. This fallacy is divided into three way.

(i) Ambigous major : When the major term is used more than one sense in the same argument then at that time we commit the fallacy of ambiguous major.
Example:
All idtional animal, are men (human being)
All women are rational animal.
∴ All women are men (male human being)

(ii) Ambiguous minor : When the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument the we commit the fallacy of ambiguous minor.
Example:
No man is made of paper.
All page are men (boy servant)
∴ No pages are made of Paper cleaves of the book

(iii) Ambiguous middle : When the middle term is used more than one sense in an argument then we commit the above fallacy.
Example:
Well is a source of water.
His progress is well.
∴ His progress is a source of water.

(2) Fallacy of Division : When we proceed from the collective use of the term to its distributive use that is called the falacy of division.
Example:
The M.L.A. As of Odisha have passed this bill.
My uncle is an M.L.A. of Odisha.
∴ My uncle is passed this bill.

(3) Fallacy of composition : When we proceed from the distributive use of the term to its collective use then we commit the above fallacy.
Example:
Two and three are two number. Five is two and three. Five is two number.

(4) Fallacy of figure of speech : Paronymous terms : Two words may be derived from the same root, but may have very different meaning. But if we suppose that words similar in form have also similar cleaning the at that time we commit the above fallacy.
Example :
The stick on broken.
∴ The stick is broken.

Hari writes.
∴ Hari is a writer.

(5) Fallacy of accident : What is true under one circumstance may not be true under different circumstance. We commit the fallacy. When what is true under a specified circumstance is taken to be true under different circumstance. Then fallacy assumes two forms.

(i) Direct fallacy of accident: This fallacy arises when we agree from a general rule to a special case.
Example:
Water is liquid.
Ice is water.
∴ Ice is liquid.

(ii) The converse fallacy of accident: This fallacy arises when we agree from a special case to a general rule.
Example:
To plunge a knife into a man’s body is punishable.
The Surgeon while operating Plunges a knife into a man’s body.
∴ The surgeon does a punishable offence.

(6) Fallacy of Accent: This kind of fallacy arises when an emphasis is given on a particular word in a sentence, the meaning of the sentence changes.
Example:
Do not bear false witness against your neighbour. If you give emphasis on the neghbour, the expression means that you can bear false witness against others.

(7) Fallacy of Amphiboloy or Amphibology : This fallacy arises because of wrong construction of sentences. Suppose a sentence is used is one sense. But if we take it in a different sense then we commit the fallacy of Amphiboly or Amphibology.
Example:
He has given me twice five & three.
It means either he has given met thirteen or sixteen.

Question 2.
State and explain different fallacies of Ignoratio elenchi.
Answer:
(i) Argumentumad populam : It consists in appealing to the sentiment of the people & persuading them to accept the view of the speaker rather then giving an argument in support of this view.
Example:
You are a brahmin & So lam. Therefore, I am confident that you will realise my views to be correct.

(ii) Argumentumad baculum : It consists in forcing the opponent to accept a view when the cannot to be defeated by argument. Obviously this is not argument at all.
Example:
Whatever I say you admit that it is true & give me in writing to that effect, otherwise I shall kill you by plunging this knife into your heart.

(iii) Argumentum ad ignoratiam : It consist taking advantage of the ignorance of the opponent & since he cannot be disprpve our view, we make him admit that.it is proved.
Example:
We tell so embody that in his previous life, he’was a tiger. If grateman or scriptures in support of one’s view & this to take that the view is logically correct.

(iv) Argumentumad verecundiam : When we take a statement to be proved or disproved by quoting the scriptures or opinion of greatman without any reason then we commit the fallacy of Argumentum ad verecundiam.
Example:
Non-violence is the best code of life because both Lord Buddha and Mahatma Gandhi have said so.

(v) Argumentum ad hominem: It consists in criticising the conduct of the opponent rather than his view & concluding that the view is wrong.
Example:
If some one asks us not to smoke, because it is injurious no health. We just smile & say that the speaker himself is a great smoker & he has no right to correct others.

Question 3.
Test the following arguments :
(a) (i) Day is the cause of Night.
(ii) Ram is the Son of Dasaratha
Laba is the son of Ram.
∴ Laba is the son of Dasaratha.

(b) Explain, the fallacy of “Post hoc ergo Propter hoc”.
Answer:
(a) (i) Day in the cause of Night: We have known that cause is the antecedent and effect is the consequent. But if we take one of the co-effects of a common cause as the cause of its effect, then we commit the fallacy of mistaking the co-effects of a cause as cause and effect. It is true that Day invariably precedes night. But we cannot say that day in the cause of night. Day and night are only the two effects of the movement of the earth around its axis facing the sun.

(ii) Ram is the son of Dasaratha :
∴ Laba is the son of Ram.
∴ Laba is the son of Dasaratha.

This argument in a syllogism. It has four terms such as, (1) Ram, (2) The Son of Dasaratha, (3) Laba, (4) The Son of Ram. But according to Rule, a syllogism must have three and only three terms. So the above syllogism violates this rule and commits. The fallacy of four terms.

(b) Post hoc ergo propter hoc : The literal meaning of “Post hoc ergo Propter hoc’ is after this, therefore, due to this”. We commit this fallacy when we take an irrelevant antecedent phenomenon of the effect to be its cause. But cause must be the invariable unconditional immediate antecedent of the effect. For example, while starting a work somebody sneezed and the work could not be completed. So sneezing is the cause of incompletion of the work.

Question 4.
Find out the fallacies and the method of the argument in the following.
(a) So many people eat bread and all are in good health. Therefore bread must be a
healthy food.
(b) Explain the fallacy Argumentum ad baculum.
Answer:
(a) So many people eat bread and all are in good health. Therefore bread must be a healthy good. This argument in a fallacious argument and it in coming under fallacy of Non-observation. In this argument the fallacy of Non-observation arises because here we have drawn the conclusion by observing some cases. Here we take some particular cases and arrive at a hasty generalisation. It may be true that many people eat bread and all are in good health. But that does not mean bread must be a healthy good. Here we neglect other foods for the good health. Thus fallacy arises in case of the method of Agreement.

(b) Argumentum ad baculum : It consists in forcing the opponent to accept a view when he cannot be defeated by argument. Obviously this is no argument at all.
Example:
Whatever I say you admit that it is true and give me in writing to that effect, otherwise I shall kill you by plunging this knife into your heart”. The Leader of the Terrorist movement introduced himself and pointing a pistol at the of head of the rich man asked, ‘Don’t you think our movement in justified ? The reply was ‘yes’. Then let’s have a donation of one lakh from you well justified cause.

Question 5.
Explain and illustrate the distinction between fallacies of composition and division.
Answer:
Fallacies of composition and division are two types of logical errors that arise from making unwarranted assumptions about the relationship between parts and wholes. Understanding these fallacies is crucial for critical thinking and sound reasoning. Let’s delve into the distinction between fallacies of composition and division, along with illustrations to clarify each concept.

Fallacy of Composition : The fallacy of composition occurs when someone erroneously assumes that what is true for the parts of a whole must also be true for the whole itself. In other words, it involves incorrectly generalizing from properties of individual elements to properties of the entire group or system.,

Illustration : Consider a sports stadium with thousands of spectators. Each individual spectator has an unobstructed view of the game. A person commits the fallacy of composition if they assume that, because each spectator has an unobstructed view, the entire stadium must have an unobstructed view. In reality, the whole (stadium) might have structural elements like pillars or barriers that obstruct the view for some spectators.

Explanation : The fallacy of composition arises when one mistakenly infers a property of the whole based on the properties of its parts without considering the interactions or relationships among those parts. It is essential to recognize that the properties of individual components may not scale up to the entire system.

Fallacy of Division : Conversely, the fallacy of division occurs when someone wrongly assumes that what is true for the whole must also be true for its individual parts. This fallacy involves incorrectly attributing characteristics of the whole to its constituent elements.

Illustration : Consider an affluent country with a high average income. Committing the fallacy of division would involve assuming that*every individual in that country must have a high income, in reality, there could be significant income disparities among the population.

Explanation : The fallacy .of division arises when one incorrectly infers a property of the parts based on the properties of the whole. It disregards the diversity or differences among individual elements within the larger system.

Distinction between Fallacies of Composition and Division :

1. Direction of Inference :
   • Composition : Involves inferring from the parts to the whole.
   • Division : Involves inferring from the whole to the parts.
2. Assumption about Attributes :
   • Composition : Assumes that characteristics of the parts apply to the whole.
   • Division : Assumes that characteristics of the whole apply to the parts.
3. Example Focus :
   • Composition: Focuses on situations where properties of individual elements are incorrectly extended to the entire group or system.
   • Division; Focuses on situations where properties of the entire group or system are incorrectly attributed to its individual elements.

Further Illustrations :

1. Fallacy of Composition : Suppose a person observes that each member of a winning sports team is skilled and concludes that the entire team must be the best. This overlooks the fact that individual skill does not guarantee collective success, and other factors like teamwork and strategy contribute to overall team performance.
2. Fallacy of Division : Consider a company that is highly profitable as a whole. Assuming that each employee in the company must be Highly paid would be committing the fallacy of division. In reality, individual salaries may vary based on roles and responsibilities.

Real-world Applications :

1. Economics :
   • Composition : Assuming that if individuals save more money, the entire economy will experience economic growth.
   • Division : Assuming that if a country has a strong economy, every individual in that country must be economically prosperous.
2. Statistics:
   • Composition : Believing that if each student in a class studies hard, the entire class will perform well in exams.
   • Division : Assuming that if the overall performance of a school is excellent, every teacher in that school must be exceptional.
3. Environmental Science:
   • Composition: Believing that if each person reduces their carbon footprint, the overall environmental impact will decrease.
   • Division : Assuming that if a country has a high carbon footprint, every citizen in that country must contribute significantly to environmental degradation.

Mitigation Strategies :

1. Critical Thinking : Encourage individuals to critically evaluate assumptions and not make unwarranted generalizations about parts and wholes.
2. Consider Context : Emphasize the importance of considering the context and specific relationships among elements when making inferences about the whole or its parts.
3. Avoid Oversimplification: Caution against oversimplifying complex systems and highlight the need to acknowledge the diversity and interactions within those systems.

In conclusion, fallacies of composition and division involve making erroneous assumptions about the relationships between parts and wholes. While the fallacy of composition incorrectly extends properties of individual elements to the entire system, the fallacy of division wrongly attributes characteristics of the whole to its constituent parts. Recognizing and avoiding these fallacies is essential for sound reasoning and critical thinking in various domains.

Question 6.
Explain the different forms of the fallacy of presumption.
Answer:
The fallacy of presumption refers to a category of logical errors where an argument relies on unwarranted or false assumptions. Presumptive fallacies occur when an argument includes an assumption that is not adequately supported or justified. These fallacies Can manifest in various forms, each with its own characteristics and pitfalls. Let’s explore some different forms c the fallacy of presumption:

1. Begging the Question (Petitio Principii) : This form of presumption occurs when an argument assumes the truth of what it is supposed to prove, essentially circular reasoning. The proposition being argued for is already embedded within the premises.
Example:
“The Bible is the infallible word of God because God says so in the Bible.” In this case, the conclusion (the Bible is the infallible word of God) is restated in the premise (God says so in the Bible).

2. Complex Question (Loaded Question) : This fallacy arises when a question is framed in a way that presupposes a particular answer. It often involves multiple claims or assumptions within a single question.
Example:
“Have you stopped cheating on exams ?” This question assumes that the person being asked has cheated on exams without providing any evidence or justification.

3. False Dichotomy (False Dilemma) : This form of presumption occurs when an argument presents only two options, implying that one must be true if the other is false, without considering alternative possibilities.
Example:
“Either you support this policy or you are against progress.”
This statement creates a false dichotomy by suggesting that there are only two options when, in reality, there could be a range of positions between support and opposition.

4. Suppressed Evidence (Omission) : This fallacy occurs when relevant information that might weaken an argument is omitted or not disclosed. The argument relies on a selective presentation of evidence, leading to a misleading conclusion.
Example:
“The new drug is 90% effective in treating the disease!” If information about potential side effects or the size of the study population is omitted, the overall effectiveness of the drug may be misrepresented.

5. Presumption of Guilt (Ad Hominem Circumstantial) : This fallacy involves attacking the circumstances or background of a person rather than addressing the argument itself. It presumes that a person’s circumstances automatically invalidate their argument.
Example:
“You can’t trust their economic policy recommendations because they are wealthy and out of touch with common people.”
This argument attacks the person’s wealth instead of addressing the economic policy recommendations directly.

6. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam) : This fallacy occurs when an argument assumes that a claim is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa. Lack of evidence is misconstrued as evidence of the claim’s truth or falsity.
Example:
“There is no evidence that aliens exist, so they must not exist.”
This argument erroneously assumes that the absence of evidence equates to evidence of non-existence.

7. Circular Cause and Consequence (Circulus in Demonstrando): This fallacy involves asserting a cause-and-effect relationship where the cause is also a consequence of the effect.
Example:
“He failed the exam because he didn’t study, and he didn’t study because he knew he would fail.” This argument creates a circular reasoning loop by attributing the failure to the lack of studying, which, in turn, is attributed to the expectation of failure.

8. Hasty Generalization : Hasty generalization occurs when a conclusion is drawn from insufficient or biased evidence. It involves making broad generalizations based on a small or unrepresentative sample.
Example:
“I met two people from that city, and they were both rude. Therefore, people from that city must be rude.” This argument presumes the general behavior of an entire group based on a limited and unrepresentative sample.

9. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause): This fallacy asserts that because one event precedes another, it must be the cause of the second event. It confuses correlation with causation.
Example:
“I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game. Therefore, my lucky socks are the reason we won.” This argument presumesthat the wearing of lucky socks caused the team’s victory based solely on the temporal sequence.

10. Composition and Division : These fallacies involve assuming that what is true for the parts is also true for the whole (composition) or vice versa (division).

Example (Composition): “Each individual player is skilled, so the entire team must be unbeatable.”
Example (Division) : “The team won the championship, so every player on the team must be exceptionally talented.”

In composition, characteristics of individual elements are incorrectly extended to the whole, while in division, characteristics of the whole are incorrectly attributed to the individual elements.

Mitigation Strategies :

1. Critical Thinking: Encourage individuals to critically assess assumptions, question premises, and avoid accepting claims without sufficient evidence.
2. Consider Alternative Possibilities : Remind people to consider a range of possibilities and avoid framing arguments in overly simplistic terms or dichotomies.
3. Examine Evidence : Emphasize the importance of examining evidence thoroughly, considering all relevant information, and being aware of selective or biased presentations of data.
4. Awareness of Fallacies: Educate individuals about common fallacies, including presumptive fallacies, to enhance their ability to recognize and avoid them.

Understanding the various forms of the fallacy of presumption is essential for cultivating effective reasoning skills and avoiding logical pitfalls in arguments. By recognizing these patterns of flawed reasoning, individuals can engage in more robust and informed discussions, fostering a culture of critical thinking and logical rigor.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
“All flying animals are birds. Bats are flying animals. Therefore bats are birds.” It is a fallacy of:
(i) Falasity of premise
(ii) Argumentum ad populam
(iii) Petito Principii
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Falasity of premise

Question 2.
The end of life is perfection. Death is the end of life. Therefore Death is the prefection of life. It is fallacy of:
(i) Fallacy of Ambiguous major
(ii) Fallacy of Ambiguous minor
(iii) Fallacy of Ambiguous middle.
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Fallacy of Ambiguous middle.

Question 3.
The university is a temple of learning and therefore politics has no place in it. It is a fallacy of: university is a temple of learning and therefore politics has no place in it. It is a fallacy of:
(i) Fallacy of undue Assumption
(ii) Fallacy of petitioprincipli
(iii) Fallacy of Bad Analogy
(iv) Fallacy of Falsity of premise
Answer:
(iii) Fallacy of Bad Analogy

Question 4.
Lying is wrong because it is vicious in the fallacy of:
(i) Petitioprincipli
(ii) Fallacy of Bad Analogy
(iii) Fallacy of Falsity of premise
(iv) Fallacy of post he ergo propter hoc.
Answer:
(i) Petitioprincipii

Question 5.
How many fallacies are there in mixed hypothetical syllogism?
(i) Two
(ii) Three
(iii) Four
(iv) Five
Answer:
(i) Two

Question 6.
Fallacy is a / an :
(i) Erroneous argument
(ii) Error of thought
(iii) Wrong assumption
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Erroneous argument

Question 7.
Fallacies are:
(i) Formal in nature
(ii) Informal in nature
(iii) Either formal or informal
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Either formal or informal

Question 8.
Which of the following does not commit the fallacy of immediate inference?
(i) Simple conversion of A – type of proposition
(ii) Conversion of O-type of proposition.
(iii) Conversion of I-type of proposition.
(iv) Contraposition of I-type of proposition.
Answer:
(iii) Conversion of I-type of proposition.

Question 9.
Which of the following is not a fallacy of inference by opposition?
(i) Fallacy of sub-alternation
(ii) Fallacy of super-alternation
(iii) Fallacy of contrary opposition
(iv) Fallacy of subcontrary opposition
Answer:
(ii) Fallacy of super-alternation

Question 10.
Which of the following is not an informal fallacy?
(i) Fallacy of Relevance
(ii) Fallacy of presumption
(iii) Fallacy of ambiguity
(iv) Fallacy of undistributed middle
Answer:
(iv) Fallacy of undistributed middle

Question 11.
Which of the following is not a fallacy ambiguity?
(i) Fallacy of Equivocation
(ii) Fallacy of accident
(iii) Fallacy of accent
(iv) Fallacy of Amphiboly
Answer:
(ii) Fallacy of accident

Question 12.
The use of a term in two different senses a syllogism commits the fallacy of:
(i) Equivocation
(ii) Composition
(iii) Figure of speech
(iv) Accent
Answer:
(i) Equivocation

Question 13.
The fallacies of presumption arise due to
(i) Overlooking of facts
(ii) Evasion of facts
(iii) Distortion of facts
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 14.
Which of the following is not a fallacy presumption that arises due to the overlooking of facts?
(i) Petitio principii
(ii) Fallacy of accident
(iii) Fallacy of converse accident
(iv) Fallacy of false dilemman
Answer:
(i) Petitio principii

Question 15.
The fallacy that arises when one attacks and argument by taking its weaker form is called,
(i) Fallacy of slippery slope
(ii) Fallacy of false dilemma.
(iii) Fallacy of red herring
(iv) Fallacy of strawman
Answer:
(iv) Fallacy of strawman

Question 16.
Which of the following is not an inferential inductive fallacy?
(i) Fallacy of causation
(ii) Fallacy of illicit generalisation
(iii) Fallacy of false analogy
(iv) Fallacy of Hypothesis
Answer:
(iv) Fallacy of Hypothesis

Question 17.
The various fallacies of causation are the forms of:
(i) Post hoc ergo propter hoc
(ii) Non causa procausa
(iii) Both of these
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Non causa pro causa

Question 18.
Extralogical fallacies are also called as :
(i) Semilogical fallacies
(ii) Non-logical fallacies
(iii) Formal fallacies
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Non-logical fallacies

Question 19.
Who among the following has put forth that the fallacy of petitio porincipii may occur in five different forms?
(i) J.S.Mill
(ii) Jevons
(iii) Aristotle
(iv) Carveth Read
Answer:
(iii) Aristotle

Question 20.
The fallacy that arises due to ambiguity in framing a sentence is known as;
(i) Fallacy of equivocation
(ii) Fallacy of Amphiboly
(iii) Fallacy of Accent
(iv) Fallacy of figure of speech
Answer:
(ii) Fallacy of Amphiboly

Question 21.
The fallacy that arises when an argument is made besides the point is
(i) Petitio prineipii
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi
(iii) Non-sequitur
(iv) Plures interrogationes
Answer:
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi

Question 22.
The fallacy that arises when one makes the use of force to prove his point right is :
(i) Argumentum ad hominem
(ii) Argumentum ad populum
(iii) Argumentum ad verecundiam
(iv) Argumentum ad baculum.
Answer:
(iv) Argumentum ad baculum.

Question 23.
The fallacy that arises on assuming the same preposition that needs to be proved is :
(i) Ignoratio elenchi
(ii) Petitioprincipii
(iii) Plures interrogations
(iv) Non-sequitur
Answer:
(ii) Petitio principii

Question 24.
The question ‘Did you leave stealing’ ? Commits the fallacy of:
(i) Ignoratio elenchi
(ii) Non-sequitor
(iii) Plures interrogations
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Plures interrogations

Question 25.
Explanations by superstitions, blind, beliefs, etc commit the fallacy of:
(i) Argumentum ad poopulum
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi
(iii) Non-causa procausa
(iv) Illicit generalisation
Answer:
(iii) Non-causa procausa

Question 26.
Which of the following is not an Entralogical fallacy?
(i) Fallacy of converse accident
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi
(iii) Fallacy of false analogy
(iv) Non-causa procausa.
Answer:
(iii) Fallacy of false analogy

Question 27.
“We must have descended from Adam and Eve because Bible say so “is a fallacy of what?
(i) Argumentum ad balulum
(ii) Argumentum ad hominem
(iii) Petifioprincipii
(iv) Argumentum ad verecundiam
Answer:
(iv) Argumentum ad verecundiam

Question 28.
Water is liquid.
Ice is Water
Ice is Liquid
This argument commits the fallacy of what?
(i) Accident
(ii) Accent
(iii) PetitioPrincipii
(iv) Amphiboly
Answer:
(i) Accident

Question 29.
When from a collective use of a term we proceed to its distributive use, it is called the fallacy of what?
(i) Composition
(ii) Division
(iii) Accent
(iv) Accident
Answer:
(ii) Division

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
When facts or particulars which ought to have been observed are neglected the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Non-observation

Question 2.
The term fallacy comes from the Latin word _____.
Answer:
Fallacia

Question 3.
Deductive fallacies are of two kinds such as _____ and _____.
Answer:
Non-inferential, inferential

Question 4.
Inferential fallacies are of two types such as _____ and _____.
Answer:
Fallacy of immediate, fallacy of mediate

Question 5.
_____ fallacies are the errors which arise because of the ambigiuty of language.
Answer:
Semilogical

Question 6.
Semilogical fallacies are mainly divided into _____ types.
Answer:
Six

Question 7.
The fallacy of _____ arises due to the use of equivocal terms in argument.
Answer:
Equivocation

Question 8.
When the major term is used more than one senses in an argument then at that time _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Ambiguous major

Question 9.
When the minor term is used more than one senses in an argument then the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Ambiguous minor

Question 10.
When the middle term is used more than one senses in an argument then the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
ambiguous middle

Question 11.
When we proceed from the distributive use of a term to its collective use at that time we commit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Composition

Question 12.
When we proceed from the collective use of a term to its distributive use at that time the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Division

Question 13.
The fallacy of _____ arises from the supposition that words similar in form are also similar in meaning.
Answer:
Figure of speech

Question 14.
The fallacy of _____ arises due to the ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its construction.
Answer:
Amphiboly or amphibology

Question 15.
_____ fallacy is the result of placing emphasis at a wrong word in a sentence.
Answer:
Accent

Question 16.
_____ fallacy arises due to the application of what is true under one circumstance in a case under different circumstances.
Answer:
Accident

Question 17.
When we argue from a general rule to a special rule then _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Accident

Question 18.
‘Post hoc ergo propter hoc’ is a fallacy of _____.
Answer:
Causation

Question 19.
Literally, post hoc ergo propter hoc means _____.
Answer:
After this, therefore due to this

Question 20.
When we take one condition whether positive or negative to be the whole cause then _____fallacy arises.
Answer:
Mistaking a condition to be the cause.

Question 21.
The fallacy of _____literally means taking something to be the cause which is not really the cause.
Answer:
None causa procausa

Question 22.
When we generalise wrongly then _____fallacy arises.
Answer:
Illicit generalisation

Question 23.
‘Petitio prinipii’ means _____.
Answer:
Assuming the very point proposed for debate at the outset.

Question 24.
When we argue from a premise which is itself false then the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Falsity of premise

Question 25.
When we unduly assume a premise we commit _____fallacy.
Answer:
Undue assumption

Question 26.
The fallacy of _____ literally means ‘ignoring the point in question’.
Answer:
Ignoratio elenhi

Question 27.
Fallacy of _____ ignoratio elenchi is of types.
Answer:
Five

Question 28.
When we direct our arguments to the opponent and not to the point at issue we ommit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum and hominem

Question 29.
When we appeal to the passion and prejudice of the audience and not to their reason the _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Argumentum ad populum

Question 30.
When we make our conclusion taking advantage of the ignorance of the people then we ommit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum ad ignoratiam

Question 31.
When an appeal in made to the sentiment of reverene or veneration for authority rather than to reason then we commit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Agrumentum ad verecudiam

Question 32.
When we prove our point to be right by fighting if out then we commit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum ad baculum

Question 33.
Non-sequitur literally means _____.
Answer:
It does not follow

Question 34.
_____ fallacy literally means many questions.
Answer:
Plures interrogationes

Question 35.
Have you left thieving? In the example of _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Plures interrogationes

Question 36.
“Niskam karma in the best action of life because Bhagabad Gita says so in the example of _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum ad verecundiam

Question 37.
An argument commits a _____ fallacy when its structure is not in accordance with the rules governing deductive logic.
Answer:
Formal

Question 38.
The fallacy of _____ occurs when the conclusion is drawn on the basis of superficial points of similarity between two things.
Answer:
False Analogy

Question 39.
The fallacy of _____ occurs when one attacks an argument by taking its weaker form.
Answer:
Strawman

Question 40.
The fallacy of Red Herring and the fallacy of strawman are the fallacies of _____.
Answer:
Irrelevant thesis

Question 41.
When a presumption arises due to the evasion of facts at that time _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Evasion of facts

Question 42.
_____ fallacy arises due to the application of double standards in the choice of words with an intension of evading certain tree facts.
Answer:
Special pleading

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Fallacies are formal.
Answer:
Fallacies are either formal or informal.

Question 2.
The fallacy of accent occurs when we assume that the words similar in form are similar in meaning.
Answer:
The fallacy of figure of speech occurs when we assume that the words similar inform are similar in meaning.

Question 3.
The fallacies of presumption are formal fallacies.
Answer:
The fallacies of presumption are informal fallacies.

Question 4.
The fallacies of relevance arise due to the ambiguous use of language.
Answer:
The fallacies of ambiguity arise due to the ambiguous use of language.

Question 5.
Fallacy of equivocation arises due to the use of different terms in argument.
Answer:
Fallacy of equivocation arises due to the use of equivocal terns in argument.

Question 6.
The fallacy of Division arises it use proceed from the distributive use of a term to its collective use.
Answer:
The fallacy of composition arises if we proceed from the distributive use of a term to its collective use.

Question 7.
The fallacy of Amphibology arises due to the misplaced accent or emphasis of any expression in a sentence.
Answer:
The fallacy of Amphibology arises due to the ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its construction.

Question 8.
The fallacy of Accident arises due to ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its construction.
Answer:
The fallacy of Accident arises due to application of what is true under circumstance in a case under different circumstances.

Question 9.
Fallacy of Non causa procausa literally means we generalise something wrongly.
Answer:
Fallacy of Non causa procausa literally means taking something to be the cause which is not really the cause.

Question 10.
The fallacy of illicit generalisation committed when we unduly assume premise.
Answer:
The fallacy of illicit generalisation committed when we generalise wrongly.

Question 11.
The fallacy of Petitio Principii means “Afte this therefore due to this”.
Answer:
The fallacy of Petitio Principii means what we are going to prove is already proved.

Question 12.
The fallacy of Ignoratio elenchi means we argue from a Premise which is itself false.
Answer:
The fallacy of Ignoratio elenchi means “Ignoring the point in question”.

Question 13.
The fallacy of plures interrogations means it does not follow.
Answer:
The fallacy of Interrogations literally means many questions.

Question 14.
The fallacy of “Post hoc ergo propter hoc” means what we are going to prove is already proved.
Answer:
The fallacy of “post hoc ergo propter hoc” means After this, therefore, due to this.

Question 15.
Plato has putforth the extra logical fallacies.
Answer:
Aristotle has putforth the extralogical fallacies.

Question 16.
The fallacy of strawman occurs when one brings irrelevant ideas into discussion.
Answer:
The fallacy of Red Herring occurs when one brings irrelevant ideas into discussion.

Question 17.
Non causa procausa is a fallacy of illicit generalisation.
Answer:
Non causa pro-causa in a fallacy of causation.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
From which word the ‘fallacy’ is derived.
Answer:
Fallacia

Question 2.
Which fallacy arises, when the antecedent part of the major premise is denied in the minor premise?
Answer:
Denying the antecedent

Question 3.
Which fallacy arises, when the consequence part of the major premise is affirmed in the minor premise?
Answer:
Affirming the consequent

Question 4.
Which fallacy arises due to wrong construction of sentence?
Answer:
Semilogical

Question 5.
How many types of semilogical fallacies are there?
Answer:
Seven

Question 6.
Which fallacy arises due to the use of ambiguous terms in an argument?
Answer:
Equivocation

Question 7.
Which fallacy arises, when the middle term is used more than one sense?
Answer:
Ambiguous Middle

Question 8.
Which fallacy arises, when the major, term is used more than one sense in an argument?
Answer:
Ambiguous Major

Question 9.
Which fallacy arises, when the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument?
Answer:
Ambiguous Minor

Question 10.
Which fallacy arises, when we use the words similar in form with similar in meaning?
Answer:
Figure of speech

Question 11.
Which fallacy arises due to the misinterpretation of a sentence?
Answer:
Amphiboly or Amphibology

Question 12.
What type of fallacy arises, if we pass from the collective use of a term to its distributive use?
Answer:
Division

Question 13.
What type of fallacy arises, when we pass from the distributive use to a collective use of a term?
Answer:
Composition

Question 14.
When the emphasis is given on a wrong word in a sentence then which fallacy arises?
Answer:
Accent

Question 15.
Which fallacy we commit, when the confusion arises between the general and the special use of a term?
Answer:
Accident

Question 16.
How many kinds of informal fallacies are there?
Answer:
Three

Question 17.
Who has put forth the extra logical fallacies?
Answer:
Aristotle

Question 18.
Which fallacy, formal informal, occurs due to the improper structure of argument?
Answer:
Formal

Question 19.
In how many kind did Aristotle putforth the fallacy of petitio principii?
Answer:
Five

Question 20.
How many answers are desired in plures interrogations?
Answer:
One

Question 21.
Whether Non-sequitur is the fallacy of affirming the antecendent or consequent?
Answer:
Consequent

Question 22.
Which fallacy means, “it does not follow”?
Answer:
Non-sequitor

Question 23.
When we direct our arguments to the opponent but not to the point at issue, at that time which fallacy arises?
Answer:
Argumentum ad hominem

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Economics Solutions Chapter 6 Cost and Revenue Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Economics Chapter 6 Question Answer Cost and Revenue

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What is the shape of Marginal cost curve ?
Answer:
Marginal cost first falls because of the increasing returns from the factors in which MP of the factor increases. Secondly, marginal cost increases because of the diminishing returns from the factors & hence marginal lost becomes U-shaped.

Question 2.
What is shape of Short-run average cost (SAC) curve ?
Answer:
On account of the emergence of stage of increasing & diminishing returns, the AP of the factor increases & diminishes. This has the impact on the short-run Average cost for which it first falls & then rises & becomes U-shaped.

Question 3.
What, is nature of Average fixed Cost (AFC) with the increase in the level of output ?
Answer:
The total fixed cost is fixed in the short-run irrespective of the level of output. So with the increase in the level of output, the fixed cost per unit of output (AFC) goes on decreasing.

Question 4.
What is the relationship between Marginal cost and Average cost ?
Answer:
As long as MC < AC, AC must be falling & when MC > AC, AC must be rising. So, MC=AC at the minimum point of AC.

Question 5.
What is the nature of Variable Cost ?
Answer:
In the Short-run total fixed cost remains fixed & only the variable cost changes with the change in the level of output. So variable cost is the prime cost.

Question 6.
What is the relationship between average revenue and marginal revenue in perfect Competition ?
Answer:
In perfect competition, the goods are hemogeneous & sold at a uniform price by the large number of buyers & sellers So additional revenue from the extra unit sold (MR) & revenue per unit of output (AR) becomes same.

Question 7.
What is the slope of average revenue curve in Monopoly ?
Answer:
Under monopoly, single seller sells the product having no close substitute & if he wants to sell more, it is to reduce the price & vice-versa. So AR curve slopes downward.

Question 8.
Which revenue reflects price of the goods ?
Answer:
Average Revenue (AR) is the total revenue perunit of output \(\left(\frac{\mathrm{TR}}{\mathrm{q}}\right)\). So it reflects price

Question 9.
Which cost is called alternative cost ?
Answer:
The opportunity cost of any goods is the best alternative goods that is sacrificed. So it is called alternative Cost.

Question 10.
Which cost is independent of level of output ?
Answer:
Fixed cost is incurred for the use of fixed factors which remain unchanged in the short- run irrespective of the level of output. So fixed cost is independent of level of output.

Question 11.
What is Total cost ?
Answer:
Both fixed factors & variable factors are employed in the production for which fixed costs as well as variable costs are incurred. So total fixed cost & the total variable cost mixed together indicates total cost.

Question 12.
What is the shape of AR curve in under perfect competition ?
Answer:
Under perfect competition, price of goods remains uniform. So AR curve as well as MR curve is equal & horizontal straight line.

Question 13.
What is slope of AR curve under monopoly ?
Answer:
Under monopoly, if sella- wants to sell more, it is to reduce the price & vice-versa. So the AR curve slopes downward from left to right.

II. Answer within Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
What is Total Revenue (TR) ?
Answer:
Total Revenue refers to the aggregate of income earned by the seller from the sale of his output. It is the sum of all sales, receipts or income of a price per unit multiplied quantity sold. Thus,
TR = P × Q Where P → Price per unit
Q → Output.

Question 2.
What do you mean by Average Revenue (AR) ?
Answer:
Average Revenue refers to the revenue received per unit. It is the per unit revenue received from the sale of one unit of a commodity. AR is calculated by dividing the Total Revenue by total output. Hence, symbolically,
AR = \(\frac{TR}{Q}\) Where Q – Output
AR is equal to price of the commodity.
AR = \(\frac{PQ}{Q}\) = P where P → Price.

Question 3.
Explain the concept Marginal Revenue (MR).
Answer:
Marginal Revenue refers to the net revenue obtained by selling an additional unit of the commodity. In other words, Marginal Revenue is the change in the total revenue which results from the sale of one more or one less unit of output. Thus, Marginal Revenue is the addition made to the total revenue by selling one more unit of the good.
MR = \(\frac{\Delta \mathrm{TR}}{\Delta \mathrm{Q}}\)
MR_n = TR_n – TR_n-1

Question 4.
Explain the relationship between TR, AR and MR.
Answer:
TR goes on rising as long as MR remains positive. TR becomes maximum when MR is zero. TR starts falling when MR becomes negative and when AR falls MR follows AR, but MR falls at a faster rate than AR. When the AR curve goes on falling the MR curve lies below the AR. When AR rises the MR lies above the AR. The position of the MR is determined by the slope of the AR. When the AR curve is convex to the origin the MR curve is farther from the AR curve. When the AR curve is concave the MR curve lies closer to the AR curve.

(A) WRITE SHORT NOTES ON :

Question 5.
Money Cost.
Answer:
Money cost refers to the monetary expenses incurred by the producer to produce a given quantity of a goods. In other words, the cost of production incurred & expressed in terms of money is called money cost. Money cost is otherwise known as “Nominal cost”. It is expressed as sum of payments made to different factors of production in terms of money. Money cost includes wages for labourers, payment for raw materials, interest, taxes etc.

Question 6.
Accounting Cost.
Answer:
Accounting cost refers to the cost which can be expressed & whose accounts can be maintaned by the accountant. Accounting costs are expressible & hence called explicit cost. These costs are actually paid by the producer for hiring different factors of production. These accounting costs are nothing but the cash payments made to different factor owners such as wage, rent, interest paid in the productive process.

Question 7.
Economic Cost.
Answer:
Economic cost is a broader concept which includes both explicit cost & implicit cost. It takes the direct cost incurred & paid in terms of money to different into account along with the cost arising from land Owned & used by the producer, entrepreneurs self invested capital, self managment etc. Economic cost includes the total cost which covers both the explicit & implicit cost. The net profit is calculated by deducting this economic cost from the total revenue.

Question 8.
Real Cost.
Answer:
Real cost refers to all those efforts, sacrifices, troubles, toils undergone by the factors owners or the members of the society to produce a goods. It is a subjective concept. It also denotes the exertion of all different kinds of labour that are directly or indirectly involved in the production of goods. It is also called social costs’. It can not be meausred quantitatively & hence no monetary reward is paid.

Question 9.
Opportunity Cost.
Answer:
The opportunity cost of anything is the next best alternative that could be produced instead by the same factors or by an equivalent group of factors costing the same amount of money. In other words, the opportunity cost of any good is the next best alternative good that is foregone. For example, a farmer producing wheat in his land can not produce sugar cane simultaneously. So the production of sugar cane is sacrificed. The opportunity cost of producing wheat is the value of sugarcane sacrificed. This opportunity cost is otherwise called transfer cost or alternative cost.

Question 10.
Fixed Cost
Answer:
Fixed costs denote those costs which are incurred for the fixed factors employed in the productive process. Fixed costs remain unchanged irrespective of the level of output. Even at zero level of output, fixed cost is to be borne. The costs incurred towards land or building, plants & machiney insurance charges etc. are included in the category of fixed cost. Fixed costs are otherwise called “Supplementary cost” or indirect cost. It is also called “ overhead cost”.

Question 11.
Variable Cost.
Answer:
Variable costs are those costs which change with the change in the level of output. It increases with the increase in the level of output & decreases with the decrease in the level of output. Variables costs are called “direct cost” & also treated as “prime cost” during the short-run. The wages, the payment for raw materials are the examples of variable costs.

(B) DISTINGUISH BETWEEN

Question 12.
Explicit cost & Implicit Cost.
Answer:

• Explict cost is that cost which is expressible in any form, but implicit cost is inexpressible.
• Explicit cost is actually paid by the producer to hire different factors of production whereas implicit cost includes entrepreneurs self owned & self employed resources for which no payment is actually made.
• Explicit cost can be properly maintained by an accountant but the accounts of implicit cost can not be maintained.
• Gross profit is calculated by deducting only explicit cost from total revenue but net profit is calculated by deducting both implicit & explicit cost.

Question 13.
Money Cost & Real Cost.
Answer:

• Money cost refers to the cost which is paid in terms of money whereas real cost refers to efforts & sacrifices undergone by the factor owners or the members of the society for producing a commodity.
• Money cost is directly borne by the producer but real cost is the “spill over cost” borne by the society as a whole.
• Money cost is incurred through cash payment to factor owners but no real payment is made in respect of real cost.
• Money cost is a quantitative or objective concept but real cost is qualitative or subjective concept.

Question 14.
Fixed cost & Variable Cost.
Answer:

• Fixed costs are those costs incurred for hiring fixed factors like land & building, plant & machinery whereas variable costs are those costs incurred for hiring variable factors like labour, raw materials, fuel etc.
• Fixed costs remain unchanged irrespective of the level of output. It is indepedent of level of output. Variable costs change with the change in the level of output. It depends on the level of output.
• Fixed costs are the supplementaiy or overhead costs that happen only in the short-run but variable costs are the prime cost which happen both in the short-run & in the long-run.
• Fixed cost exist even at zero level of output but variable cost does not appear at zero level of out-put.

Question 15.
Average Cost & Marginal Cost
Answer:

• Average cost is the total cost per unit of output. But marginal cost is the addition made to the total cost for producing one extra unit of good.
• Both average cost & marginal cost are calculated from total cost.
• When average cost is falling, MC < AC
• When average cost is rising, MC > AC
• Marginal cost becomes equal to average cost when average cost is minimum.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the components of total cost ? How can total cost be derived in the short-run ?
Answer:
Cost of production refers to the total expenditure incurred for producing a given level of output. It is incurred for hiring different factors of production to be employed in the productive process. The concept of cost can be classified on the basis of the time period i.e. short-run & long- run. In traditional theory of cost, cost can be distinguished as short-run costs & long-run costs.

Total cost refers to the aggregate of expenditure incurred towards the various factors of production to produce a given quantity of output. It is the function of output to be produced. It increases or decreases with the increase or decrease in the level of output. In short-run, there are two components of total cost i.e. total fixed cost-(TFC) & total variable cost (TVC). The sum of total fixed cost & total variable cost gives rise to the total cost during short-period. (Mathematically, stated, TG=TFC +TVC.) For the derivation of total cost, these two components must be looked into.

Total Fixed Cost (TFC)
Total fixed cost is the cost incurred for employing fixed factors which are observed to be constant during short-run. Hence, total fixed costs denote to those costs which remain unchanged or constant in the productive process irrespective of the level of output. Thus, total fixed cost is quite independent of level of output. Any change in the level of output does not have any impact on this total fixed cost. Even at zero level of output, total fixed cost is to be borne. These cost are otherwise called overhead or supplementary cost. The cost of building, machinery, land, salaries of the executives etc. are the examples of fixed costs. The total fixed cost curve is a horizontal straight line.

In the figure units of outputs are measured on OX-axis & cost on the OY-axis. TFC is the total fixed cost which is constant (OM) irrespective of the level cost output.
Total Variable Cost-(TVC)
Tota variable costs are those cost which go on changing with the change in the level of output. Any increase in or decrease in level of output causes an increase or decrease in the total variable cost. It is otherwise called prime cost as it is a vital cost concept in the short-run. Expenses towards raw materials, labour power, fuel etc. are the examples of toal variable cost.

In the above figurem units of outputs are measured on OX-axis & cost on OY-axis. For producing OQ amount of output, the variable cost amounts to QR & for higher level of output (OS), it increases to ST. Thus, it is obvious that total variable cost increases with the increase in the level of output & decreases with the decrease in the level of output.

Derivation of TC.
As known total cost is the sum of total fixed cost & total variable cost. This total cost can be numerically derived by summing both these two costs & graphically total cost can be derived through vertical summation of total fixed cost curve & total variable cost curve.

Units of Output	Total Fixed Cost (Rs.)	Total Variable Cost (in Rs.)	Total Cost (in Rs.)
0	10	0	10
1	10	8	18
2	10	13	23
3	10	16	26
4	10	20	30
5	10	26	36
6	10	35	45
7	10	45	55

The numercial analysis as above presents a break-up of total cost (TC) into total fixed cost (TFC) and total variable cost (TVC). It reveals that TFC remains unchanged (Rs. 10) irrespective of the level of output. But TVC increases with the increase in the level of output. Accordingly total cost being the sum of TFC & TVC increases with the increase-in the level of output. The same notion can be explained with the help of graphical analysis.

The above diagram measures units of output on OX- axis & cost on OY-axis The diagram describes that total fixed cost (TFC) remains constant & hence TFC curve is a horizontal straight line indicating OC amount of total fixed cost. But the total variable cost (TVC) increases with the increase in the level of output & thus TVC curve is inverse – S- shaped. As such TC being the vertical summation of TFC & TVC is represented through TC curve.

The figure also exposes that at OQ₁ level of output, the TFC is OC & TVC is Q₁V₁ At this level, TC is found to be Q₁T₁, which is obtained by adding TVC (Q₁V₁) & TFC (OC).

∴ Total cost (TC) at OQ₁ level of output = O₁V₁ + Q₁C = Q₁T₁ Similarly, at higher level of output OQ₂, the TFC remains unchanged at OC level as before & TVC increases to Q₂V₂. AT this level, TC is the sum of TFC (OC) & TVC (O₂V₂) i.e Q₂T₂.
∴ TC at OQ₂ level of output = Q₂V₂ + Q₂C = Q₂T₂
In this manner TC is derived in the short-run TC is found to be the aggregate of TFC & TVC.

Question 2.
Explain Average Cost in the Short-run. How can it be derived ?
Answer:
Average cost is the total cost incurred per unit of output. In the short-run, the analysis of average cost can be made by the way of its compnents exist in the short-run. Short-run is a period during which there are two types of costs like Total fixed cost (TFC) & Total variable cost (TVC). So in order to analyse the short-run average cost, there is need of analysing Average fixed cost (AFC) & Average variable cost (AVC).

Average fixed cost (AFC) :
As one of the components of C in the Short-run, Average fixed cost (AFC) can be defined as fixed cost per unit of output (Q). It can be calculated by dividing units output produced (Q) with the i.e. AFC = \(\frac{TFC}{Q}\)

Nature : As total fixed cost is a constant entity in the short-run cost structure, the AFC continuously falls with the increase in the level of output. Thus AFC gradually declines with the increase in the level of output. Hence, AFC curve slopes downward from left to right & takes the shape of rectangular hyperbola. This curve approachs both the axes but does never touch any axis.

In the figure, it is revealed that when the level of output (measure on OX-axis) increases, the cost (measured on OY-axis) falls. At OQ level of output, AFC is found to QA& when output level increases to OR & OS, the A’FC falls to RB & SC respectively. Thus AFC curve approaches both the axes but does not touch any axis.

Average Variable Cost.
Total variable cost incurred per unit of output is called average vriable cost. It can be calculated by dividing quantity of output (Q) produced with the total variable cost (TVC). Symbolically expressed.
AVC = \(\frac{TVC}{Q}\)
Nature :Average variable cost (AVC) at the intial stage diminishes with the increase in the level of output. After a point AVC increases with the increase in the level of output AVC curve takes the shape of‘U’. The nature & shape of AVC is due to the operation of “Law ofVariable Proportions”.

The figure describes that when the output (measured on OX-axis) increases, the average variable cost (AVQ declines. When output level increases from OAto OB, it falls fromAK to BM. At OB level of output, the AVC is minimum at OC level of output, the AVC is found to CL.
Here, output level OA BM < CL

Derivation of AC
Theoretically, short run AC can be derived from the TC which is composed of TFC & TVC TC = TFC + TVC
⇒ \(\frac{TC}{Q}\) = \(\frac{TFC}{Q}\) + \(\frac{TVC}{Q}\)
⇒ AC = AFC + AVC
The derivation of short-run average cost can be numerically & graphically represented.

Unit of output	TFC (in Rs.)	TVC (in Rs.)	TC (in Rs.)	AFC (in Rs.)	AVC (in Rs)	AC (in Rs.)
1	10	8	18	10	8	18
2	10	13	23	5	6.5	11.5
3	10	16	26	3.3	5.3	8.6
4	10	20	30	2.5	5	7.5
5	10	26	36	2	5.2	7.2
6	10	35	45	1.66	5.83	7.49
7	10	45	55	1.42	6.42	7.84
8	10	60	70	1.25	7.5	8.75

The above analysis indicates that AC is the sum of AFC & AVC. Secondly, it shows that the AFC goes on falling with the increase in the level of output. Thridly. the AVC is found to be falling upto the production of 5th unit of output & afterwards it goes on increasing with the increase in the level of output. On this basis, AC also falls upto the production of 5th unit then increases with the level of output.

GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
The same principle can be reflected with the help the graph.

The figure reflects the shapes of AFC, AVC & AC curves. Primarily, the AFC curve gradually diminishes with the increase in the level of output. AFC curve takes the shape of a rectangular hyperbola. The AVC curve is U-shaped. At first, it goes on diminishing upto a point & then increases. The minimum point of AVC curve is shown as point ‘G’ in the figure. The AVC curve is thus U- shaped. It goes on diminishing upto the production on the level of output & the increases with the increases in the level of output.

As the AC is the sum of AFC & AVC the graphical structure of the AC curve can be shown through the vertical addition of AFC curve & AVC curve.
At OM level of output, AFC = MA; AVC = MB
Hence AC at OM level = MA + MB = MC
Thus, point C on AC curve is derived.
At OV level of output, AFC = VH; AVC = VG
Hence AC at OV level = VH + VG =-VK
Thus, point K on AC curve is derived.
At ON level of output, AFC = NQ; AVC = NR
Hence AC at ON level = NQ + NR = NT
Thus, point on AC curve is derived. .
At OS level of output, AFC = SD; AVC = SE
Hence AC at OS level = SD + SE = SF
Thus, point F on AC curve is derived.
At length, by joining C, K, T, & F points, the shape of SAC curve can be derived & this shape is just like‘U’.

Question 3.
Discuss the relationship between Marginal cost & Average cost.
Answer:
In the short-run, the cost is classified into fixed cost & variable cost. As such, the total cost incurred for producing a given level of output is assessed as the combination of these total fixed cost & total variable cost. Considering the nature of total fixed cost (TFC), it is observed that there is no change in the TFC irrespective of the level of output & hence stands as a constant entity in the productive process during short-run. Regarding total variable cost (TVC), this cost changes with the change in the level of output & hence treated as “Prime cost” in the cost-structure during short- run.

Marginal Cost & its Nature.
Marginal cost which is enunciated by Austrian school of Economics refers to rate of change of total cost by producing one additional unit of output. The total cost, being the sum of TFC & TVC it increase with the increases in the level of output. Hence Marginal Cost (MC) is defined as an addition made to the total cost coused by an increase in one extra unit produced. Mathematically stated.
MCn = TCn – TCn-1
or, MC = \(\frac{\Delta \mathrm{TC}}{\Delta \mathrm{C}}\)
Where, n → no of units produced
Q → output
Marginal cost is viewed as an extra cost for producing one extra unit more or less. As during short-run, total fixed cost does not change under any circumstances, marginal cost being expressed as change in total cost is no way related to this total fixed cost. It is only associated with Total Variable Cost (TVC) which changes with the change in the level of output. Marginal cost at first stage decreases with the increase in the level of output & afterwards increases. So marginal cost curve is U-shaped.

Average Cost & its Nature :
In the short-run, Average Cost (AC) is also composed of AFC & AVC. It is the cost incurred per unit of output produced. Hence AC = \(\frac{TC}{Q}\)

Average cost breaks into AFC & AVC. AFC regularly decreases with increase in the level of output & AVC, at first stage decreases with the increase in the level of output & then increases with the increases in the level output. Like MC curve, AC curve is also U-shaped.
The nature & behaviour of the AC & MC can be explained with numerical example & graphical illustrations.

Numerical Analysis

Units of Output (units)	Total Cost (in Rs.)	Average Cost (in Rs.)	Marginal Cost (in Rs.)
1	40	40	–
2	60	30	20
3	70	23.3	10
4	76	19	6
5	84	16.8	8
6	96	16	12
7	112	16	16
8	136	17	24
9	162	18	26

The above numercial analysis indicates that the AC & MC both decreases with the increase in the level of output at the first phase of production But MC attains its minimum point much earlier than the AC (producing 4th unit). AC attains its minimum point while 7th unit is produced. At this level, MC = AC. Above this point MC < AC but afterwards AC < MC

The inference drawn with this analysis can also be explained with the help of graphical analysis. In the figure, OX-axis measures output & OY-axis measures cost. SAC & SMC represent short-run Average Cost & short-run Marginal Cost respectively. From the figure, it is obvious that upto the point E, AC > MC & AC is falling. At point E, (minimum point of AC curve) both AC & MC are equal after the point E, MC>AC & AC is increasing.

General Conslusion.
(a) Both Average cost & marginal cost can be calculated from Total cost i.e.
AC = \(\frac{TC}{Q}\) &MC = \(\frac{\Delta \mathrm{TC}}{\Delta \mathrm{Q}}\)
(b) When Average cost is falling, MC < AC (c) At the minimum point of AC, MC = AC (d) When AC is rising MC > AC
The above analysis has discussed the general inter-relationship between AC & MC.

Question 4.
Discuss the relationship among the Total Revenue, Average Revenue & Marginal Revenue.
Answer:
Revenue refers to the money income received from the sale of the product. It is the money receipts earned by the producer by selling its product in the market. Revenue can be expressed in three forms like Total Revenue, Average Revenue & Marginal Revenue.
(a) Total Revenue (TR) : Total Revenue refers to the sum total of income earned the sale of output. It is the total money receipts earned by the producer from the sale of its product. In other words, it is the sum of all sale, receipts or income of a firm.
Total Revenue can be calculated by multiplying price with the quantity sold.
TR = P × Q
P → Unit price
Q → Quantity sold

(b) Average Revenue (AR) : Average Revenue refers to the revenue earned per unit of output. It is the revenue earned by the seller/producer/firm by selling the per unit product. Average Revenue can be obtained by dividing the total revenue with number of units (Q) sold.
Thus, Average Revenue = AR = \(\frac{TR}{Q}\)

(c) Marginal Revenue (MR) : Marginal Revenue is the additional revenue earned from the sale of one extra unit of a good. In other words, it is the addition made to the TR by selling one extra unit of good. Thus, MR is the net revenue obtained from the sale of one additional unit. It is the change in the TR resulting from the sale of one more unit of good. Marginal Revenue can be obtained in the following way.
MRn = TR_n – TR_n-1
n → number of units sold
or, MR = \(\frac{\Delta \mathrm{TR}}{\Delta \mathrm{Q}}\)

Relationship among TR, AR & MR : There exists certain basic relationship among TR, AR & MR. This relationship can be explained under two heads which are classified into perfect competitive market & imperfect market.

(a) Relationship under Perfect competition.
Perfect competition is said to exist when all the goods are homogenous & sold at a uniform price. The relation among there TR, AR & MR can be explained with the following numerical & graphical analysis.
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Units of Output	AR (in Rs.)	TR (in Rs.)	MR (in Rs.)
1	10	10	10
2	10	20	10
3	10	30	10
4	10	40	10
5	10	50	10

The above analysis reveals that under perfect competition AR or Price is uniform & hence MR becomes equal to AR. Total Revenue increases at a constant rate with the increase in the units of the product sold.

Graphical Analysis:

In the figure (a), it is observed that TR curve slopes upwards which established TR increase when more & more output are sold. The fig (b) indicates a horizontal straight line because of equality between AR & MR. AR curve coincides with MR due to this relationship.

(b) Relationship among TR, AR & MC under Imperfect Competition :
Under imperfect competition, AR gradually diminishes with the increase in the sale of output. It implies that if the sella” wants to sell more he is to reduce the price & vice – versa. Unlike the perfect competition price is not uniform. The relationship among TR, AR and MR is explained with the following example.

Numerical Analysis

Units (in Rs.)	AR (in Rs.)	TR (in Rs.)	MR
1	10	10	1o
2	9	18	8
3	8	24	6
4	7	28	4
5	6	30	2

The analysis shows that AR gradually decreases with the increase in the sale of output, l R increases at a diminishing rate & MR gradually diminishes.

Graphical Analysis

The figure (a) indicates that TR increase at an increasing rate upto point & then increase at a diminishing rate. It implies that at the stage of diminishing returns TR increases at a diminishing rate & by selling OQ unit of output, it becomes maximum.
The figure (b) indicates that both AR & MR are falling with the increase in the number of units sold & AR is always greater than MR.
Thus, the relationship among TR & MR is found to be in different forms under different market structure.

Question 5.
Describe the nature of various revenue concepts under perfect competition & imperfect competition.
Answer:
Average Revenue (AR) refers to the revenue earned per unit of output. On the other hand marginal revenue refers to the addition made to the total revenue due to the additional sale of one unit, the nature of these differs from each other under different market conditions. In general, there exists certain relationship between these two concepts. But this relationship differs from market to market which is illustrates as follows :
(i) Perfect competition: Under perfect competition, individual firms are price-takers. They bring numerous exercise, no control and influence over the price. The price is determined by the industry as a whole which consists of a number of firms producing identical products. The price is determined by the interaction of market demand and supply for us. When all units of a product are sold at one price, the price equals to the average revenue and the average revenue equals to the marginal revenue. Therefore, under perfect competition the AR, MR and price become equal as shown in the following table.

Price in Rs.	Quantity sold	TR in Rs.	AR in Rs.	MR
5/-	5	25	5	–
5/-	6	30	5	5
5/-	7	35	5	5
5/-	8	40	5	5
5/-	9	45	5	5

The table makes evident that when price is Rs.5/ per unit the total revenue is obtained by multiplying the price with the quantity sold. As more and more quantity is sold the total revenue increases but the AR and MR remain unchanged. The price paid by the consumer is the revenue of the seller. Since price equals to AR and MR the demand curve, AR curve and MR curve coincide as shown in the following diagram.

(ii) Monopoly : A pure monopoly market presents a situation which is exactly opposite of pure competition. A monopolist being the only one seller in respect of a particular commodity controls the supply of the product. There is no substitute to the monopolist’s product. He is the price-maker of his product as he has no rival. Therefore, by restricting his output he can change any price so as to take away the entire consumers expenditure on the commodity. He may boost up his sales by lowering the price of his product or he may raise the price by restricting the supply. Therefore, the average revenue slopes downwards from left to right. But his total revenue remains unchanged and the marginal revenue is zero. The marginal revenue coincides with the ‘X’ axis as shown in the following table and diagram.

Price in Rs.	Unity sold in Rs.	TR in Rs.	AR in Rs.	MR in Rs.
5	8	40	5	0
4	10	40	4	0
2	20	40	2	0
1	40	40	1	0

From the table it may be seen that the monopolist sells more units of his product by lowering the price but his total revenue remains unaffected. Hence, the marginal revenue curve coincides with OX axis as shown in the diagram:

In the diagram the AR curve represents unitary elasticity of demand suggesting that the total revenue of the firm is constant at OP and OP₁ price, though sale increases from OQ to OQ₁ as a result of fall in price from OP to OP₁.

(iii) Imperfect competition: Under imperfect competition market consists of many categories ranging from two sellers to a large number of buyers and selling. In these markets the AR curve is less than perfectly elastic. The elasticity differs from market to market. The demand curve or AR curve has a downward slope. The downward slope of the AR curve indicates that the seller can sell more and more by lowering the price level and vice versa. The corresponding marginal revenue will be less than the falling average revenue. The MR curve will, therefore, lie below the AR curve as shown in the following table and diagram.

Price	Quantity sold	TR	AR	MR
Rs. 5/-	1	5	5	5
Rs. 4/-	2	8	4	3
Rs. 3/-	3	9	3	1
Rs. 2/-	4	8	2	-1
Rs. 1/-	5	5	1	-3

The table shows that as more and more quantity is sold at lower and lower prices the total revenue increases at a diminishing rate. The average revenue also goes on falling but the MR falls at a greater rate than the fall of AR.

The diagram shows that the AR curve falls as more quantity is sold at lower prices and MR curve lies below the AR curve as the former falls at a greater rate than the latter. In this connection it may be noted that when the seller restricts the supply to sell at higher prices the AR curve takes a positive slope which is represented by a rising AR curve. When the AR curve slopes upwards, as shown in the diagram, the MR curve also slopes upwards and lies above the AR.

In a market characterised as monopolistic competition there are many small sellers and buyers. The products are differentiated, although not exact substitutes. A seller under this market structure faces competition from rival sellers. He is a monopolist in the sense that some buyers have preference for his product. Taking advantage of this a seller can charge a little more than his rivals
and sellers or charge a little less and sell more. The AR curve facing a firm in this situation is quite elastic though not perfectly elastic as in pure competition. The AR, therefore, has a gentle slope. The MR curve which slopes downwards lies close to the AR an shown in the diagram:

The diagram shows that the AR curve under the.monopolistic competition being more than unitary elastic the MR curve lies to the right of the mid-point of the perpendicular drawn from the price axis to the AR curve

(iv) Oligopoly : In oligopoly market there is a small number of sellers. The price changed by one invites retaliation from others and the latter may not react to the change in price. If a seller rises the price and other do not follow then the former will face a fall in demand for his product and suffer loss. In such a case the AR curve appears less elastic in some portion and more elastic in another portion. The corresponding MR curve becomes discontinuous as shown in the diagram:

To sum up the AR under perfect competition takes horizontal shape and the MR curve coincides withAR curve. In pure monopoly the AR curve sloped down wards with unitary elasticity throughout its length and the MR curve coincides with the OX horizontal axis.
The AR curve under imperfect competition has a negative slope and the MR curve lies below the AR curve.
Under monopolistic competition AR slopes downwards with more than unitary elasticity and the MR slopes downwards and lies close to the AR.
Under oligopoly the AR curve is indeterminate. It usually takes kinked shape and the MR, which lies below AR becomes discontinuous and slopes downwards at the point of kink.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
The price paid for the use of factor input is called
(i) factor price
(ii) value of factor
(iii) cost of production
(iv) price of input
Answer:
(iii) cost of production

Question 2.
The functional relationship between cost of production & output is called
(i) production function
(ii) consumption function
(iii) cost function
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) cost function

Question 3.
Cost is always expressed for a
(i) particular price of a factor
(ii) particular time period
(iii) particular quantity of a factor
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) particular time period

Question 4.
Change in cost of production occurs due to
(i) change in the level of output
(ii) Change in factor proportion
(iii) change in factory size
(iv)
Answer:
(i) change in the level of output

Question 5.
Cost in economics indicates
(i) only money case
(ii) only real cost
(iii) only economic cost
(iv) only real cost
Answer:
(iii) only economic cost

Question 6.
Money cost is otherwise known as
(i) normal cast
(ii) Prime cost
(iii) overhead cost
(iv) Supplementary cost
Answer:
(i) normal cast

Question 7.
Efforts, pain, sacrifices, troubles etc undertaken by the society due to production is termed as
(i) supplementary cost
(ii) opportunity cost
(iii) real cost
(iv) prime cost
Answer:
(iii) real cost

Question 8.
Producers do not generally bear
(i) Real cost
(ii) supplementary cost
(iii) Alternative cost
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(i) Real cost

Question 9.
Economic cost comprises of both
(i) Money cost & Real cost
(ii) Explict cost & implicit cost
(iii) Prime cost & overhead cost
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(ii) Explict cost & implicit cost

Question 10.
Money cost is basically
(i) Accounting cost
(ii) Explicit cost
(iii) implicit cost
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)

Question 11.
Real cost is generally borne by the
(i) Enterprereurs
(ii) workers
(iii) Members of the society
(iv) Government
Answer:
(iii) Members of the society

Question 12.
Rent for the self owned building for business is covered under
(i) money cost
(ii) real cost
(iii) opportunity cost
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)

Question 13.
The amount from the next best alternative use of a factor which is foregone is called
(i) alternative cost
(ii) supplementary cost
(iii) opportunity cost
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(i) alternative cost

Question 14.
Suppose a piece of land be best be used for cultivating rice, potato, wheat & sugarcane. Frame rice, it earns 10,000, from potato it earns 15,000 from wheat it earns 9,000. & from sugar cane it earn, 12,000. If it is now used for producing potato, what will be its opportunity cost ?
(i) 15,000
(ii) 10,000
(iii) 12,000
(iv) 9,000
Answer:
(iii) 12,000

Question 15.
Salary of the manager is
(i) variable cost
(ii) fixed cost
(iii) real cost
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) fixed cost

Question 16.
If the level of output of a factory becomes zero its fixed cost becomes
(i) zero
(ii) decreases
(iii) increases
(iv) remains unaffected
Answer:
(iv) remains unaffected

Question 17.
If the level of output of a unit continuously goes on diminishing, its fixed cost shall
(i) diminish
(ii) remain unchanged
(iii) first diminish & then increase
(iv) become zero
Answer:
(ii) remain unchanged

Question 18.
Which cost remains unaffected irrespective of the level of output
(i) Supplementary cost
(ii) fixed cost
(iii) variable cost
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(i) Supplementary cost

Question 19.
If the level of output of a factory goes on increasing, the fixed cost curve of it will
(i) slope upward from left toright
(ii) slope downward from left to right
(iii) become a vertical straight line
(iv) become a horizontal straight line
Answer:
(iv) become a horizontal straight line

Question 20.
The elasticity of the fixed cost curve is
(i) perfectly elastic
(ii) perfectly inelastic
(iii) unitary elastic
(iv) relatively more inelastic
Answer:
(i) perfectly elastic

Question 21.
Fixed cost is otherwise known as
(i) prime cost
(ii) supplementary cost
(iii) alternative cost
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(iii) alternative cost

Question 22.
The emergence of fixed cost & variable cost occurs during
(i) long period
(ii) short-period
(iii) market period
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(ii) short-period

Question 23.
Variable cost its otherwise known as
(i) prime cost
(ii) alternative cost
(iii) supplementary cost
(iv) overhead cost
Answer:
(i) prime cost

Question 24.
At the initial stage of production if the level of production increases, the average variable cost
(i) increases
(ii) decreases
(iii) remains unaffected
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(ii) decreases

Question 25.
The shape of the average variable cost is generally
(i) ‘L’ shaped
(ii) ‘V’ shaped
(iii) ‘U’ shaped
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(iii) ‘U’ shaped

Question 26.
If the level of output increases, the average fixed cost
(i) remains fixed
(ii) decreases
(iii) increases
(iv) both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(iii) increases

Question 27.
AFC curve takes the shape of a
(i) ‘U’
(ii) L
(iii) Rectangular hyperbola
(iv) Straight line
Answer:
(iii) Rectangular hyperbola

Question 28.
At different levels of output, the total fixed cost
(i) remains constant
(ii) goes on increasing
(iii) goes on diminishing
(iv) first increases & then decreases
Answer:
(i) remains constant

Question 29.
When AC is falling marginal coat curve remains
(i) above the AC curve
(ii) below the AC curve
(iii) constant
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(ii) below the AC curve

Question 30.
Firm has to bear the loss of
(i) variable cost
(ii) fixed cost
(iii) real cost
(iv) money cost
Answer:
(i) variable cost

Question 31.
Interest on capital borrowed is an example of
(i) alternative cost
(ii) fixed cost
(iii) real cost
(iv) variable cost
Answer:
(ii) fixed cost

Question 32.
Payment forth raw material is an example of
(i) fixed cost
(ii) variable coal
(iii) alternative cost
(iv) real cost
Answer:
(ii) variable cost

Question 33.
Insurance premium of a company is an example of
(j) fixed cost
(ii) variable cost
(iii) real cost
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(i) fixed cost

Question 34.
Cost per unit of output is called
(i) total cost
(ii) average cost
(iii) marginal coat
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(ii) average coat

Question 35.
Addition made to the total cost is called
(i) average cost
(ii) supplementary cost
(iii) marginal cost
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) marginal cost

Question 36.
AC becomes equal to MC when
(i) AC curve cuts MC from below
(ii) AC curve cuts MC at its minimum point.
(w) MC curve cuts AC at its minimum point
(iv) AC curve cuts MC curve from above
Answer:
(iii) MC curve cuts AC at its minimum point

Question 37.
Under perfect competition. AR becomes
(i) greater than MR
(ii) leas than AR
(iii) equal toAR
(iv) can not say
Answer:
(iii) equal to AR

Question 38.
Under pefect competition AR curve takes the shape of a
(i) rectanugal hyperbola
(ii) horizontal straight line
(iii) vertical straight line
(iv) U – shaped
Answer:
(ii) horizontal straight line

Question 39.
Under monopoly, AR curve lies
(i) above the MR curve
(ii) below the MR curve
(iii) equal to MR curve
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(i) above the MR curve

Question 40.
MC is not related with
(i) fixed cost
(ii) variable cost
(iii) alternative cost
(iv) real cost
Answer:
(ii) variable cost

Question 41.
If AR = MR, AR curve and MR curve become :
(i) Parallel to OY axis
(ii) Parallel to OX axis
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Parallel to OX axis

Question 42.
Under perfect competition AR is :
(i) AR = MR
(ii) AR is less than MR
(iii) AR is greater than MR
(iv)
Answer:
(i) AR = MR

Question 43.
Average revenue generally indicates :
(i) MR
(ii) TR
(iii) Price
(iv) Both(i) and (ii)
Answer:
(iii) Price

Question 44.
Average Revenue is equal to :
(i) TR-Te
(ii) TR_n – TR_n-1
(iii) TR/Q
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) TR/Q

Question 45.
TR is maximum when :
(i) MR is maximum
(ii) MR is zero
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) MR is zero

Question 46.
Total Revenue at any output is equal to :
(i) Cost per unit multiplied by quantity sold.
(ii) Price per unit multiplied by quantity sold.
(iii) Both (i) and (ii)
(iv) None of the above.
Answer:
(ii) Price per unit multiplied by quantity sold.

Question 47.
If MR is negative, TR remains :
(i) Constant
(ii) Rises
(iii) Falls
(iv) None of the above.
Answer:
(iii) Falls

Question 48.
MRn is :
(i) MRn – TR_n – TR_n-1
(ii) MRn = TR_n-1 – TR_n
(iii) MRn – AR_n – AR_n-1
(iv) None of the above.
Answer:
(i) MRn – TR_n – TR_n-1

Question 49.
Under Monopoly, MR is always.
(i) Greater than AR
(ii) Less than AR
(iii) Both (i) and (ii)
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Less than AR

Question 50.
The incremental cost is associated with
(i) total cost
(ii) average cost
(iii) marginal cost
(iv) all of the above
Answer:
(iii) marginal cost

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
____ function describes the functional relationship between output and cost.
Answer:
Cost

Question 2.
____ costs are nominal costs.
Answer:
Money

Question 3.
Insurance charges are the example of ____ costs.
Answer:
money

Question 4.
Advertising Cost is the example of ____ cost.
Answer:
explicit

Question 5.
Payments for raw materials are ____ costs.
Answer:
explicit

Question 6.
____ Cost includes only explicit cost.
Answer:
Accounting

Question 7.
____ Cost is deducted from total revenue to calculate Gross Profit.
Answer:
Accounting

Question 8.
Net Profit is the difference between total revenue and ____ costs.
Answer:
Economic

Question 9.
Real cost is ____ cost.
Answer:
implicit

Question 10.
Total Variable Cost is ____ when the output is zero.
Answer:
zero

Question 11.
The wage paid to security personnel is ____ cost.
Answer:
Fixed Cost.

Question 12.
Total Variable Cost is inverted ____
Answer:
‘S’ shaped.

Question 13.
____ are‘Overhead Costs’.
Answer:
Fixed Costs

Question 14.
____ cost is prime cost.
Answer:
Variable

Question 15.
Fixed Costs are realised during ____ period
Answer:
Short

Question 16.
AFC ____ throughout with the increase in output.
Answer:
falls

Question 17.
AVC first ____ and then rises.
Answer:
diminishes

Question 18.
AC is ____ shape.
Answer:
U-shaped

Question 19.
Rate of change of Variable Cost for producing one more unit of output is called ____
Answer:
MC

Question 20.
MC cuts AC curve at its ____ point.
Answer:
minimum

Question 21.
____ Revenue at any point is equal to price per unit multiplied by quantity sold.
Answer:
Total

Question 22.
____ Revenue is the revenue per unit of output.
Answer:
Average

Question 23.
Marginal Revenue is the change in ____ Revenue resulting from the sale of one more unit of output.
Answer:
Total

Question 24.
If MR is negative, TR ____
Answer:
falls.

Question 25.
TR is maximum when MR is ____
Answer:
zero.

Question 26.
Under Imperfect Competition, TR ____ at an diminishing rate.
Answer:
increases

Question 27.
Under Perfect Compeition AR = ____
Answer:
MR.

Question 28.
Under monopoly, AR is always ____ than MR.
Answer:
greater

Question 29.
____ revenue generally indicates price.
Answer:
Average

Question 30.
____ = \(\frac{TR}{Q}\)
Answer:
AR

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
The quantity of output produced increases with the increase in cost of production.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Cost of production increases with the increase in quantity of output produced

Question 2.
Cost of production relates to demand for goods.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Cost of production relates to supply of goods.

Question 3.
Real cost is known as nominal cost.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: Money cost is known as nominal cost.

Question 4.
Accounting costs include both explicit & implicit cost.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Accounting costs include only explicit cost.

Question 5.
Transportation cost is a money cost.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 6.
Economic cost covers only explicit cost.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Economic cost covers both explicit & implicit cost.

Question 7.
Accounting cost is a broad concept but economic cost is a narrow concept.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Economic cost is a broad concept but accounting cost is a narrow concent.

Question 8.
Money cost is a subjective concept.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Real cost is a subjective concept.

Question 9.
Money cost is same as real cost.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Money cost is different from Real cost.

Question 10.
Money cost is a qualitative concept whereas real cost is a quantitative concept.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Real cost is a qualitative concept whereas money cost is a quantitative concept.

Question 11.
Money cost is otherwise called social cost.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Real cost is otherwise called social cost.

Question 12.
Real cost is not borne by the producer.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 13.
Money cost is expressed in terms of efforts & sacrifices.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Real cost is expressed in terms of efforts & sacrifices.

Question 14.
Opportunity cost is transfer cost.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 15.
Real cost is explicit cost.
Answer:
Incorrect :
Correct: Real cost is implicit cost.

Question 16.
Gross profit is calculated by deducting accounting cost from Total Revenue.
Answer:
Correct

Question 17.
Net Profit is calculated by deducting explicit cost from total revenue.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Net Profit is calculated by deducting economic cost from total revenue.

Question 18.
Fixed cost increases with the increase in the level of output.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Variable cost increases (or fixed cost remains samel with the increase in the level of output.

Question 19.
Fixed cost is independent of level of output.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 20.
Variable costs are supplementary cost.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Fixed cost are supplementary cost.

Question 21.
Fixed costs are direct costs.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Variable costs are direct costs.

Question 22.
Fixed costs are otherwise known as overhead costs.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 23.
Fixed costs become zero when the level of output is zero.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Fixed cost is positive when the level of output is zero.

Question 24.
Fixed costs are prime costs.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Variable costs are prime costs.

Question 25.
Insurance charges are real costs.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Insurance charges are money costs.

Question 26.
Salary of executives is a variable cost.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Salary of excutives is a fixed cost.

Question 27.
The shape of AC curve is U-shaped.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 28.
Average cost is equal to marginal cost at the maximum point of average cost.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Average cost is equal to marginal cost at the minimum point of average cost.

Question 29.
Average cost first increases & then decreases with the increase in the level of output.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Average cost first decreases & the increases with the increase in the level of output.

Question 30.
Marginal cost is associated with fixed cost in the short-run
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Marginal cost is associated with variable cost in the short-run.

Question 31.
Average cost cuts marginal cost curve at its minimum point.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Marginal cost cuts average cost at its minimum point.

Question 32.
When AC is equal to MC, AC is minimum
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: When AC is equal to MC, AC is maximum.

Question 33.
When AC is less than MC, the AC must be falling.
Answer:
Correct

Question 34.
When AC is more than MC. AC must be falling.
Answer:
Correct

Question 35.
Average fixed cost is independent of level of output.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Total fixed cost is independent of level of output.

Question 36.
AFC is fixed with the increase in level of output.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: AFC decreases with the increase in the level of output.

Question 37.
Average cost changes faster than marginal cost.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: Marginal cost changes faster than average cost.

Question 38.
Fixed cost arises only in the long-run.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: Fixed cost arises only in the short-run.

Question 39.
All the costs are variable in the long run
Answer:
Correct

Question 40.
Total revenue represents price of the goods.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: Average revenue represents price of goods.

Question 41.
Average revenue curve is the demand curve.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 42.
In perfect competition, AR>MR.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: In perfect competition AR = MR.

Question 43.
AR increases with the increase in the units of output sold in a perfectly competitive market.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: AR regains same with the increase in the units of output sold in a perefectly competitive market.

Question 44.
Under monopoly, AR < MR.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Under monopoly, AR > MR

Question 45.
In imperfect market AR increases with the increase in the sale of output.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: In Imperfect market AR decreases with the increase in the sale of output.

Question 46.
Total Revenue at any output is equal to cost per unit multiplied by quantity sold.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Total Revenue at any point is equal to price per unit multiplied by quantity sold.

Question 47.
Average Revenue is the revenue per unit of output.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 48.
Marginal Revenue is the change in average revenue resulting from the sale of one more unit of output.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct : Marginal Revenue is the change in Total Revenue resulting from the sale of one more unit of output.

Question 49.
If MR is negative, TR remains constant.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: If MR is negative, TR falls.

Question 50.
TR is maximum when MR is maximum.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: TR is maximum when MR is zero.

Question 51.
Under Imperfect Competition, TR increases at an increasing rate.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under Imperfect Competition, TR increases at an diminishing rate.

Question 52.
If AR = MR, AR curve and MR curve become parallel to OX-axis.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 53.
Under Perfect Competition, AR is greater than MR.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under Perfect CompeitionAR = MR.

Question 54.
Under Monopoly, MR is always greater than AR.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under monopoly, AR is always greater than MR.

Question 55.
Marginal Revenue generally indicates price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Average revenue generally indicates price.

Question 56.
AR = TR-TC
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: AR = \(\frac{TR}{Q}\)

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
What does cost function show ?
Answer:
Cost function shows the functional relationship between cost of production & quantity of output produced.

Question 2.
What is cost of production ?
Answer:
Cost of production refers to the expenses incurred for producing a given level of output.

Question 3.
Which cost is called “Nominal Cost” ?
Answer:
Money cost is called “Nominal cost”.

Question 4.
What is money cost ?
Answer:
The cost of production expressessed in terms of money is called money cost.

Question 5.
What do you mean by accounting cost ?
Answer:
Accounting cost is explicit cost whose accounts can be maintained.

Question 6.
What is a difference between explicit cost & implicit cost ?
Answer:
Explicit cost can be expressed in any form but implicit cost is a hidden cost not expressible.

Question 7.
What is economic cost ?
Answer:
Economic cost is the sum of explicit cost & implicit cost.

Question 8.
Give an example of implicit cost.
Answer:
Payment for entrepreneur’s self invested capital.

Question 9.
How is the net profit calculated ?
Answer:
Net profit is calculated by deducting economic cost from total revenue.

Question 10.
What is real cost ?
Answer:
Real costs are the efforts & sacrifices, troubles, pain etc. undergone for producing a commodity.

Question 11.
Which cost is called social cost ?
Answer:
Real cost is called social cost.

Question 12.
For which cost no real payment is made ?
Answer:
For real cost no real payment is made.

Question 13.
Which cost is direct cost ?
Answer:
Money cost is direct cost.

Question 14.
What is opportunity cost ?
Answer:
Opportunity cost is the cost for the next best alternative good which is foregone.

Question 15.
Which cost is called transfer cost ?
Answer:
Opportunity cost is called transfer cost.

Question 16.
What is fixed cost ?
Answer:
Fixed cost is that cost incurred for hiring fixed factors.

Question 17.
What happens to fixed cost when the level of output increases ?
Answer:
Fixed cost remains unchanged when the level of output increases.

Question 18.
What happens to fixed cost if the level of output is zero ?
Answer:
Fixed cost remains unchanged even at zero level of output.

Question 19.
What is variable cost ?
Answer:
Variable cost refers to that cost incurred for hiring variable factor.

Question 20.
Which cost is called supplementary cost ?
Answer:
Fixed cost is called supplementary cost.

Question 21.
Which cost is called overhead cost ?
Answer:
Fixed cost is called overhead cost.

Question 22.
What is other name of variable cost ?
Answer:
Prime cost is the other name of variable cost.

Question 23.
What happens to variable cost at zero level of output ?
Answer:
Variable cost becomes zero at zero level of output.

Question 24.
What is marginal cost ?
Answer:
Marginal cost is the additional cost incurred for producing one extra unit of good.

Question 25.
What happens to marginal cost if average cost is falling ?
Answer:
Marginal cost is less than average cost if average cost is falling.

Question 26.
What happens to average cost if MC > AC ?
Answer:
Average cost must be rising if MC > AC.

Question 27.
At what point of AC curve, MC curve intersects ?
Answer:
MC curve cuts at the minimum point of the AC curve.

Question 28.
What is revenue ?
Answer:
Revenue refers to the income earned by the producer from the sale of output.

Question 29.
Which concept of revenue represents price ?
Answer:
Average revenue represents price.

Question 30.
Which revenue curve is treated as demand curve ?
Answer:
AR curve is treated as demand curve.

Question 31.
What is the nature of AR under perfect competition ?
Answer:
AR remains same under perfect competition.

Question 32.
What is the reltion between AR & MR under perfect competition ?
Answer:
AR = MR under perfect competition.

Question 33.
What is shape of AR curve under perfect competition ?
Answer:
AR curve is a horizontal straight line under perfect competition.

Question 34.
What is the shape of AR curve in imperfect market ?
Answer:
In imperfect market, AR curve slopes downward from left to right.

Question 35.
What is the relation between AR & MR under imperfect competition ?
Answer:
Under imperfect competition, AR > MR.

Question 36.
What do you mean by ‘revenue’ ?
Answer:
Revenue refers to the income earned by the firm from the sale of its output.

Question 37.
What is TR?
Answer:
TR referse to sum of all types of income earned by the firm from the sale of output.

Question 38.
What is Marginal Revenue (MR) ?
Answer:
Marginal Revenue is the change in total revenue resulting from the sale of one more unit of output.

Question 39.
Under what circumstances AR curve and MR curve become a horizontal straight line and coincide with each other ?
Answer:
AR and MR curves coincide with each other and become a horizontal straight line under perfect competition.

Question 40.
What is the relationship between AR and MR under imperfect competition (monopoly) ?
Answer:
Under imperfect competition (monopoly) AR is greater than MR.

Question 41.
What is the significance of the revenue curves ?
Answer:
The significance of the revenue curve is observed in case of estimation of profits and losses, equilibrium of firm and price-changes.

Question 42.
Which concept of revenue is called Price ?
Answer:
Average Revenue is the same thing as price.

Question 43.
When AR is constant, what is the state of MR ?
Answer:
When AR is constant, MR is also constant and equal to AR.

Question 44.
What is the shape of MR and AR curve under Perfect Competition ?
Answer:
Under Perfect Competition both MR and AR curves are represented by one curve which is parallel to OX-axis.

Question 45.
How are the MR and AR curves under monopoly ?
Answer:
Under monopoly, MR and AR curves are separate from each other and both are downward sloping.

Odisha State Board BSE Odisha 7th Class Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 4 ‘ଇ’ କାରାନ୍ତନପୁଂସକଲିଙ୍ଗଃ Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

BSE Odisha Class 7 Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 4 ‘ଇ’ କାରାନ୍ତନପୁଂସକଲିଙ୍ଗଃ

१. योजयतु
(ଯୋଜୟତୁ) ଯୋଗ କରନ୍ତୁ :

उत्तर :

२. परिचयं ददातु
(ପରିଚୟଂ ଦଦାତୁ) ପରିଚୟ ଦିଅନ୍ତୁ:

उत्तर :
(क) दधि
(କ) ଦଧ୍

(ख) अश्रु
(ଖ) ଅଶ୍ରୁ

(ग) दारु
(ଗ) ଦାରୁ

(घ) अस्थि
(ଘ) ଅସ୍ଥି

३. शून्यस्थानं पूरयतु
(ଶୂନ୍ୟସ୍ଥାନଂ ପୂରୟତୁ) ଶୂନ୍ୟସ୍ଥାନ ପୂରଣ କର :

(क) ______ धि ।
(କ) ______ ଧୂ।
उत्तर :
(କ) ଦଧଃ ।

(ख) ______ रि ।
(ଖ) ______ ରି ।
उत्तर :
(ଖ) ବାରି ।

(ग) स ______ ।
(ଗ) ସ ______ ।
उत्तर :
(ଗ) ସନ୍ଧି ।

(घ) ______ रु ।
(ଘ) ରୁ _________ ।
उत्तर :
(ଘ) ଦାରୁ ।

(ङ) अ ______ ।
(ଙ) ଅ ________ ।
उत्तर :
(ଙ) ଅଶ୍ରୁ ।

(च) श्म ______ ।
(ଚ) ଶ୍ମ ________ ।
उत्तर :
(ଚ) ଶୁଶ୍ରୁ ।

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातूभाषया अनुवादं कुरुत।

(क) दधि
उत्तर :
ଦହି

(ख) अश्रु
उत्तर :
ଲୋତକ

(ग) दारू
उत्तर :
କାଠ

(घ) अस्थि
उत्तर :
ହାଡ଼

(ङ) श्मश्रु
उत्तर :
ଦାଢ଼ି

(च) वारि
उत्तर :
ପାଣି

२. स्तम्भमेलनं कुरूत।

उत्तर :

३. संसोधन कुरुत।

(क) दधि:
उत्तर :
ଦଧୂ

(ख) अश्रु
उत्तर :
ଅଶୁ

(ग) दारू
उत्तर :
ଦାରୁ

(घ) अस्थी
उत्तर :
ଅସ୍ଥି

(ङ) वारी
उत्तर :
ବାରି

‘इ’ कारान्त-नपुंसकलिङ्गः
‘ଇ’ କାରାନ୍ତ-ନପୁଂସକଲିଙ୍ଗ (‘ଇ’କାରାନ୍ତ ନପୁଂସକପୁଲିଙ୍ଗ)

वारि
(ବାରି) ପାଣି

अस्थि
(ଅସ୍ଥି) ହାଡ଼

दधि
(ଦଧୂ) ଦହି

सक्शि
(ସକ୍ତି) ଜଙ୍ଘ

‘उ’ कारान्ती-नपुंसकलिङ्गः
‘ଉ’ କାରାନ୍ତ-ନପୁଂସକଲିଙ୍ଗ(‘ଉ’କାରାନ୍ତ ନପୁଂସକପୁଲିଙ୍ଗ)

मघु
(ମଧୁ) ମହୁ

श्मश्रु
(ଶ୍ମଶ୍ରୂ) ଦାଢ଼ି

दारु
(ଦାରୁ) କାଠଗଡ଼

अश्रु
(ଅଶ୍ରୁ) ଲୋତକ

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Economics Solutions Chapter 5 Production Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Economics Chapter 5 Question Answer Production

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What is Production ?
Answer:
Production refer to the creation of new goods having value-in-exchange. Hence it creates utility.

Question 2.
What are the stages of Law of variable propertions ?
Answer:
Law of variable proportions operates when some factors are fixed (indivisible) & some factors are variable. In the production process, there observed three stages like stage of increasing returns, stage of diminishing returns & stage of negative returns.

Question 3.
Which is the suitable stage of production ?
AnsWER:
In stage of diminishing returns (second stage) the total product becomes maximum & marginal product of the factor is zero. So it is considered as suitable stage of production.

Question 4.
What happens to the factors in the Long-run ?
Answer:
There are somefactors like building, machineries etc which are indivisible & lumpy in size & hence there supply can not be changed in short-period. As long-run is a pretty long-time, all these factors can be varied & so all the factors are said to be variable in the long-run.

Question 5.
Why does the Law of variable proportions operate ?
Answer:
Because of indivisibility of fixed factors, the return from these factors increases at an increasing rate then diminishing rate with the increase in the quantum of variable factors. It happens due to the gradual effective utilisatiion of these fixed factors & hence law of variable proportions operates with three distinct stages.

Question 6.
Which is the prime factor in the short run ?
Answer:
In short-run, the fixed factor remains unchanged & any change in level of output happens due to change in variable factor. So the variable factors are prime factors in the short run.

Question 7.
Which factor remains unchanged in the short-run ?
Answer:
Fixed factor like building, machinery etc. are indivisible & lumpy. So in the short-run, fixed factors remain unchanged.

Question 8.
In which stage the Production is carried on ?
Answer:
During the stage of diminishing returns, the total product becomes maximum. So it is rational to carry on production during this stage.

Question 9.
Why is the Law of Diminishing Returns more applicable to agriculture ?
Answer:
The law is applicable to agriculture because of ineffective supervision, natural influences, no division of labour, limited land, fall in the fertility of land etc.

Question 10.
Why is the Law of Increasing Returns called law of Decreasing Cost ?
Answer:
It is because as more and more doses of labour and capital are employed initially, the average cost falls as the total product increases at an increasing rate.

Question 11.
What is Average Product (AP)
Answer:
Average product is calculated by dividing the total product by the units of variable factors of production. This is also called per unit production cost of a factor.

Question 12.
What is Marginal Product (MP)
Answer:
The rate at which the total product increases is called marginal product. Marginal product is the addition made to the total product by an increase in one more unit of variable factor of production.

Question 13.
What is total product ?
Answer:
Total product refers to the total amount of goods and services produced with the help of factors of production in a given period. Total product increases at different rates if more and more factors are employed. At the outset, it is more likely to increase at an increasing rate and then it increases at a diminishing rate. At the worst case, it may fall.

Question 14.
Define ‘Law of Variable Proportions’.
Answer:
According to G J. Stigler, “As equal increments of one input are added, the inputs of other productive services being held constant, beyond a certain point, the resulting increments of product will decrease, i.e. marginal product will diminish.”

Question 15.
What do you mean by fixed factors ?
Answer:
Fixed factors are those factors which remain unchanged during the short-run irrespective of the level of output. In other words, fixed factors in the short run undergo no change in order to change the volume of output. It is almost fixed during short-run.

Question 16.
What do you mean by Variable factors ?
Answer:
Variable factors are those factors which undergo a change with the change in the level of output. This is called variable factors in the sense that these factors are to be changed in order to change the level of output during short-run.

II. Answer within Five/Six sentence :

(A) WRITE SHORT NOTES ON :

Question 1.
Production Function:
Answer:
Production function refers to the technological relationship between physical inputs & physical output. It tells a functional relationship between the in puts & output. Thus, it is the relationship between the two variables i.e. inputs & output. It shows that the quantity of output produced depends on the quantity of inputs. Mathmatically stated.
Q = f (a, b, c, d) where Q refers to the output & a, b, c, d are the inputs. T stands for the functional relationship that exists between the two. Simply speaking, the production function describes maximum quantity of output that can be produced with given inputs.

Question 2.
Fixed Factor:
Answer:
During the short-run, the factors of production can be classified into fixed factor & variable factor. Fixed factors are those factor which remain fixed in the short-run. The quantum of these factors remain constant irrespective of the level of output. The example of fixed factors is building, machinary, land etc. which can not be changed in the short-run. Thus, the production in the short-run is carried on with fixed quantity of such factors & variable factor.

Question 3.
Variable Factor:
Answer:
Variable factors are those factors which change with the change in the level of output in the short-run. In the short-run, any increase or decrease in the level of output happens due to the change in variable factors alone. Raw materials, labour etc. are the examples of variable factor. In short-run production function, there observed direct relationship between these variable factors & the level of output.

Question 4.
Relationship between Average Product & marginal product.
Answer:
Average product refers to the output produced per unit of variable product. It can be assessed by dividing amount of variable factor with the total product. On the other hand, marginal product is the addition made to the total product due to the increase in one additional unit of factor. At the intial stage both the marginal & average product increase with the increase amount of variable factor but the change in marginal product is more quicker than the change in average product. As long as marginal product exceeds average product, the average product continues to rise. When marginal product falls short of the average product the average product starts falling. Marginal product becomes equal to average product at the maximum point of the average product.

Question 5.
Marginal Product’:
Answer:
Marginal product is the addition made to the total product caused by an increase in one additional unit of a factor employed. It is the rate of change of total product per unit change in factor. Marginal product at the initial stage of production continues to rise & after a point it starts declining. Marginal product may be positive, zero or negative. In the stage of increasing returns, it becomes positive, in the stage of diminishing return, it is zero & in the stage of negative return it becomes negative.

Question 6.
Why is the law of diminishing returns called the law of increasing costs ?
Answer:
The law of diminishing returns operates when the total output increases less than proportionately as more and more of variable factors are combined with fixed factors. In other words after the optimum level of production the marginal returns go on falling progressively. The average cost of production, therefore, increases when output does not increase in equal proportion to increase in inputs. Hence, the law of diminishing returns amounts to increasing cost and the law is otherwise known as the law of increasing costs.

Question 7.
Describe the concepts of total product, marginal product & average product.
Answer:
Total production refers to the total amount of goods and services produced with the help of factors of production during a given time period. Marginal production refers to change in total production as a result of the employment of one more unit of variable factors. It can be calculated as MP_n = TP_n – TP_n-1, where n refers to the unit. Lastly average production indicates the total production per unit of the variable factor and it is calculated as AP = TP/q where units of variable factor.

Question 8.
Why does the law of variable proportions operate ?
Answer:
This law operates with several assumptions like homogeneous factors, constant technology, variability of factor proportion and short – run time period. This law operates on account of two reasons as Joan Robinson suggests. Firstly, there is a limit to the extent to which one factor can be substituted for other and secondly, two factors are not perfect substitutes.

(B) DISTINGUISH BETWEEN

Question 9.
Short period & Long period.
Answer:
Short period refers to a situation where the time involved is nor too short as in market period nor too long as. in long period. During short period supply cannot fully adjust to change in demand, because the fixed factors like plant and machinery cannot be changed at short notice. Hence, plant size remains unaltered. Production can be increased or decreased to some extent by changing the variable factors only. Demand forces play an important role in determining price in the short period. Firms may reap supernormal profits in the short period.

During long period, supply can fully adjust to demand conditions as all factors are variable during this period. Sufficient time is available to change the plant size by changing the factor inputs. New firms may enter the industry or old firms may quit depending upon the demand conditions. Thus, adjustment between supply and demand becomes possible. Firms earn only normal profits in the long period.

Question 10.
Average product & marginal product.
Answer:
Average product refers to the output produced per unit of variable product. It can be assessed by dividing amount of variable factor with the total product. On the other hand, marginal product is the addition made to the total product due to the increase in one additional unit of factor. At the initial stage both the marginal & average product increase with the increase amount of variable factor but the change in marginal product is more quicker than the change in average product. As long as marginal product exceeds average product, the average product continues to rise. When Marginal Product falls short of the average product the average product starts falling. Marginal product becomes equal to average product at the maximum point of the average product.

Question 11.
Distinguish between TP and MP.
Anwser:

• Total Product is the total amount of output produced during a given time period whereas marginal product (MP) refers to the addition made to the TP caused by an increase in one more unit of variable factor.
• When MP increases, TP increases at an increasing rate.
• When MP diminishes, TP increases at a diminishing rate.
• When MP is zero, TP becomes maximum.
• When MP is -negative, TP starts falling.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is production function ? Make a brief analysis of it.
Answer:
Production is an economic activity that creates new goods having exchange – value. Thus, it is the creation of utility. Production takes place with the combination of four factors of production, ie., land, labour, capital & organisation which can be broadly classified into fixed factor & variable factors. The combination of these factor produces output. In production, there occurs physical transformation of inputs into output. Hence, there exists a relationship between physical inputs & output which is called “ Production function”.

The production function refers to the technological relationship between physical inputs & physical output. It expresses the functional relationship between the two. The relationship between those inputs & outputs is presented in mathematical form which is the production function.” Symbolically .
Q = f (a, b, c, d)
Where Q → quantity of output
a, b, c, d → various inputs
f → function of
The above noted mathematical expression tells about production function. The word function refers to the relationship that exists between one dependent variable (output) & many independent variables (inputs). The production function shows the relationship between the maximum quantity of output produced in the productive process & the quantites of inputs used in that process.

Oh the physical aspects of production inside a firm & state of technology or method of organisation, the production function is quite external to economies. There may be many process of production & for each.of them there is a relationship between various combinations of inputs & the output. So a particular process is adopted & accepted which is well-suited to the enterpreneur. The combination perferred is determined on the basis of market prices of inputs used.

Production function bears an important implication. It expresses the relationship between quantity of output & the requirements & inputs for production. In otherwords, production function relates the various quantities of inputs with the maximum possible output which can be obtained out of the inputs, even the producer is interested in minimising the output from a given combination of inputs. Hence, the production function is considered to be a statement of technical facts which the producer uses to obtairie the least-cost combination of inputs required to produce a given quantity of output.

The form of production function can be determined by the state of technology. It represents the technical choice operate to each producer within a given span of time. A short-period production function differs from long period production function. When technical progRESS takes place, new production function comes into existence.

Production function for all firms may not be uniform. It differs from firm to firm & industry ‘ to industry. There are two types of inputs output relations in production function. First, the relations where quantities of some inputs are fixed while quantities of other inputs vary, secondly, where all the inputs are variable. The first type of production function is termed as short-run production function which is subject to “Law of Variable Proportion” & second one is subject to “Law of Returns to scale” which happens a long-run.
Production function is an essential device in the theory of production, technique of production & objectives & intention of the producer.

Question 2.
Explain the law of variable proportions.
Answer:
Production refers to the creation of goods & services having value in exchange. It takes place with the help of four factors of production like land, labour, capital & organisation which are broadly classified into two types of factors like fixed factor and variable factor. These factors are otherwise known as inputs. Thus, production is viewed as physical transformation of physical inputs into output. The quantum of output depends on the quantity of inputs used. So there observed certain relation between these inputs & output. The technological relationship between physical inputs & output is termed as production function. It expresses the functional relationship between these inputs & output.

This production function describes the maximum quantity of output that can be produced with given inputs. This production function may be short-run production function & long-jun production function. In the short-run, there are some factors kept fixed & at least one factor variable. But in the long run all the factors are variable & output can be increased by changing all the factors. The short-run production function explains that production process in which at least one factor should be variabale & other factors should be fixed. So when one variable factor is added or changed to combine with fixed factor, there occured a change in factor proportions. As the output is increased by changing the factor proportions, the law is so named as “Law of Variable Proportions.” This short-run production function is’ subject to the law of variable proportions.

Law of variable proportions occupies an important place in economics beacuse of its universal implications. This law is also known as “Law of Proportionality”. According to this law, if at least one factor in the combination of factors is varied, keeping other factors constant, beyond a certain point, the marginal product emerging out of this will diminish. This law has’ been variously difined by different economists.

According to GJ. Stigler, “As an equal increments of one input are added, the inputs of other productive services being held constant, beyond a certain point, the resulting increments of the product will diminish i.e. marginal product will diminish.” According to Prof. Benham, “As the proportion of the factor in a combination of factors is increased after a point, first the marginal & then the average product of that factor will diminish.”

From these definitions, it is clear that the increase in variable factor in the combinatin of factors leads to increase in output in different phases. It reveals that the marginal product as well as average product at the initial stage of production starts increasing & after a while both diminish. This law passes through three distinct phases.

Assumptions :,The law of variable proportion is based on following assumptions.

1. (1) State of technology should memain unchanged. It means there should not be any change in technique of production.
2. There should be two types of factors like fixed factors & variable factors in the shout-run.
3. There should be the possibility of change in factor proportions. It means the factors can be combined in varied proportions.
4. The factors employed in the productive process assumed to be homogeneous.

Explanation : The law of variable proportions possessed three distinct stages in which different
nature and behaviour of total product, average product & marginal product is observed. Total product is the aggregate of output produced at a given level of employment of variable factor. Average product denotes the output produced perunit of variable factor. Marginal product is the addition made to the total product caused by an employment of one additional unit of factor. All these products are studied in three stages of law of variable proportions.

Numerical Analysis:

The numerical example illustrates that the marginal product (MP) increases upto the employment of four units of variable factor. The average product also increases till this point. Total product at this point.increases at an increasing rate upto 3rd unit of variable factor & then increases at a diminishing rate. This is the first stage. From the employment of 5th unit of variable factor, the marginal product diminishes & it continues till 8th unit of variable factor. Total product at this stage increases at a diminishing rate. Average product also diminishes. After 8th unit of variable factor employed, marginal product becomes negative. Total product diminishes & average product also diminish. This is the third stage.
Graphical illustration : This notion can also be graphically illustrated as follows.

In the above figure, OX-axis measures quantity, of Variable factor & OY-axis measures the total product, (TP), marginal product (MP) & average product (AP). The figure shows three distinct stages.

Stage -1 : At the initial stage of production when the quantity of variable factor is gradually increased by keeping fixed factors constant, the TP increases at an increasing rate upto the point F, the point of inflexion & then increase at a diminishing rate up to point R. In this stage ON amount of variable factors are employed. Besides, marginal product first increases & then diminishes. The average product increases through out the stage. This first stage is commonly known as “stage of increasing returns which ends when marginal product cuts average product curve at its maximum point or when average product is maximum.

Stage – II: Stage II starts after the point of intersections of marginal product curve with average product curve. In this stage, total product increases at a diminishing rate and attains its maximum points. Mariginal product diminishes & becomes zero at point M . Average product also diminishes. In figure, with the employment of OM units of variable factor, total product becomes maximum & marginal product becomes zero. This stage is known as stage of diminishing returns & it comes to an end when total product is maximum or marginal product is zero.

Stage – III: After marginal product is being zero, further employment of variable factor leads to the emergence of third stage. In this stage, total product starts declining & Marginal product becomes negative. Hence, the variable factors becomes abundant in relation to fixed factor resulting negative marginal product of the variable factor.

Stage of Operation : Now, it is to adjudge which stage is suitable to carry on production. It is quite obvious that both the first & third stage are symmetrical. In the first stage, fixed factor is abundant in relation to variable factor for which fixed factors are not fully utilised. So the total product falls shoft of its maximum point. On the contrary in the third stage total product diminishes & marginal product is negative. So it is quite natural & irrational to opt for producing output in these two stages. As such, second stage i.e. stage of diminishing returns is the suitable stage for production. In this stage, both the factors are properly & effectively utilised & total product becomes maximum. So the rational producer prefers to produce in this stage.

Law of variable proportions gains wide appreciation because of its tremendous implications in the theory of production.

Question 3.
Illustrate the Law of Diminishing Returns. Is this law applicable to only agriculture ?
Answer:
Law of diminishing Returns is a unique law in the theory of production which has wide range of implications & applications. This law is prominently pronounced in the law of variable of proportions which is the generalised version of it. Though, this law becomes a part of the law of the variable proportions, yet it is admittedly conceived as the crucial part of it as it is the a suitable stage of production. Alfred Marshall, the chief architect of this law considers three law of returns corresponding to input-output relationship & thus concludes that diminishing returns quite visible in and applicable to agriculture.

According to Marshall, “An increase in the capital & labour applied in the cultivation of land causes in general a less than proportionate increase in the amount of product raised unless it happens to coincide with an improvement in the art of the agriculture.” In other words, it is observed that in the cultivation of land, if the quantity of land is fixed & the quantity of variable factors like labour & capital is gradually increased, the total production changes less than proportionately. In other way, it can also be read that if the quantity of variable factor is increased & combined with the fixed factor after a point, the resulting total product will diminish.

Assumptions : The law of diminishing returns operates on the basis of following assumptions.

• The art of agriculture should remain unchanged. In generalised form, T is presented “Lai the technique of production should remain constant.
• The variable factor must be homogenous.
• There should be the possibility of change in factor proportions.

Explanation : This law can be explained by the way of numerical & graphical analysis. Marshall presumed land as a fixed factor which is combined with labour & capital, the variable factors. If the number of doses of labour & capital is increased & combined with fixed factor, land the marginal products go on diminishing i.e. total product increases at a diminishing rate.
Numerical Analysis

Unit of land (Fixed Factor)	Units of labour & Capital (variable Factor)	Total Product (TP)	Average Product (MP)	Marginal Product (AP)
1 acre	1	10	10	10
1 acre	2	18	8	9
1 acre	3	24	6	8
1 acre	4	28	4	7
1 acre	5	30	2	6

In the above analysis, it is revealed that with the gradual increase in the doses of labours & capital (1 unit to 5th unit) which is combined with fixed quantity of fixed factor, land (one acre), the marginal product diminishes & total product increases at a diminishing rate. Though this phenomenon does not happen immediately i.e. at the initial phase of production, yet it is the ultimate stage of operation in the productive process. In the analysis, the doses of labour & capital are increased from 1 to 5 units which results a decline in the marginal product from 10 units to 2 units. Total product increases from 10 units to 30 units.

Graphical Analysis : The same explanation can be graphically presented which is as follows :

In the above figure, doses of labours capital (in units) measured on OX-axis & marginal product on OY-axis. It is seen that with the increase in the doses of labour & capital, the marginal products of these factors goes on declinirig. Thus, the same conclusion as in numerical analysis is drawn in this graphical analysis.

Limitations : This law suffers from, certain limitations which are described below.

• The law will not operate if the technique or art of production changes.
• If the cultivation is undertaken for the first time, there may be increasing returns
• The law is not applicable if the factors are perfectly divisible.
• The law will not apply, if the labour & capital are inadequate.

Application of law : Primarily it is believed that the law is applicable to agriculture alone. Trough it is true that the application of this law is more prominently applied to agriculture, yet this law has wide application. This law is universally applied to agriculture, mining, fisheries, manufacturing industries, building etc.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
Production refers to
(i) creation of material wealth
(ii) creation of utility
(iii) creation of value
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(ii) creation of utility

Question 2.
Goods which are used in productive process are termed as
(i) inputs
(ii) output
(iii) raw material
(iv) product
Answer:
(i) inputs

Question 3.
The input-out relationship shown in a functional manner is called
(i) input function
(ii) cost function
(iii) production function
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) production function

Question 4.
The factors which remain unchanged with the change in the level of output are called
(i) variable factors
(ii) fixed factors
(iii) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) fixed factors

Question 5.
Law of variable proportions operates during
(i) short-period
(ii) long period
(iii) market period
(iv) secular period
Answer:
(i) short-period

Question 6.
In law of variable proportions, the first stage is called
(i) stage of diminishing cost
(ii) stage of dminishing returns
(iii) stage in increasing cost
(iv) stage of negative returns
Answer:
(i) stage of diminishing cost

Question 7.
In which stage of law of variable proportions, the fixed factors are found to be abundant in relation to variable factors
(i) stage of increasing returns
(ii) stage of diminishing returns
(iii) stage of negative returns
(iv) all of the above
Answer:
(i) stage of increasing returns

Question 8.
The law of variable proportions is so named because
(i) Fixed factors changes in varied proportions
(ii) The ratio of fixed factor to variable factors change
(iii) The proportion of variable factors change
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(ii) The ratio of fixed factor to variable factors change

Question 9.
In stage of increasing returns
(i) AP increases through out the stage.
(ii) TP increases at an increasing rate throughout the stage
(iii) MP increases through out the stage
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(i) AP increases through out the stage.

Question 10.
The stage of increasing returns comes to an end
(i) when TP becomes maximum
(ii) when MP becomes maximum
(iii) when AP becomes maximum
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(i) when TP becomes maximum

Question 11.
In stage of increasing returns
(i) MP curve cuts AP curve from below
(ii) AP curve cuts MP curve from above
(iii) MP curve cuts AP curve from above
(iv) MP curve cuts AP curve at its minimum point
Answer:
(iii) MP curve cuts AP curve from above

Question 12.
In the stage of increasing returns, the TP increases
(i) at an increasing rate
(ii) at a diminishing rate
(iii) at a cOnstant rate
(iv) initially at increasing rate & then at a diminishing rate
Answer:
(iv) initially at increasing rate & then at a diminishing rate

Question 13.
When MP goes on increasing
(i) TP increases at a diminishing raie
(ii) IP increases al an increasing rate.
(iii) TP increases at a constant rate
(iv) TP remains constant
Answer:
(ii) TP increases at an increasing raie.

Question 14.
As long as MP > AP, AP is
(i) increasing
(ii) diminishing
(iii) constant
(iv) Both increasing & diminishing
Answer:
(i) increasing

Question 15.
As long as MP > AP, AP is
(i) increasing
(ii) diminishing
(iii) Both increasing & diminishing
(iv) constant
Answer:
(ii) diminishing

Question 16.
TP becomes maximum during the stage of
(i) increasing returns
(ii) stage of diminishing returns
(iii) stage of negative return
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) stage of diminishing returns

Question 17.
When TP is maximum marginal product (MP) is
(i) positive
(ii) zero
(iii) negative
(iv) cannot say
Answer:
(ii) tCtO

Question 18.
TP starts falling when
(i) MP is -ve
(ii) AP is -ve
(iii) Mp is zero
(iv) APiszcro
Answer:
(i) MP is -ve

Question 19.
Which stage is the rational stage for production?
(i) stage of increasing returns
(ii) stage of diminishing returns
(iii) stage of negative returns
(iv) Both stage of increasing & diminishing returns
Answer:
(ii) stage of diminishing returns

Question 20.
Rate of change of total product is called
(i) Average product
(ii) marginal product
(iii) Both marginal & average product
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) marginal product

Question 21.
Which is the assumption for the law of variable proportions?
(i) All the factors arc homogeneous
(ii) There must be fixed & variable factors
(iii) Fixed factors should be perfectly divisible
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iv) All of the above

Question 22.
For which reason, the law of variable proportions operate ?
(i) indivisibility of fixed factor
(ii). indivisibility of variable factor
(iii) factors are perfect substitute for each other
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(i) indivisibility of fixed factor

Question 23.
Law of variable proportions does not occur if
(i) factors are perfect divisible
(ii) factors are imperfect substitute
(iii) factors are homogeneous
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(i) factors are perfect divisible

Question 24.
Which is the factor of production?
(i) Land
(ii) Labour
(iii) Capital
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iv) All of the above

Question 25.
A black market is not a producer because
(i) it does not earn income
(ii) it is an unethical practice
(iii) money is not involved
(iv) it does not create any value
Answer:
(iv) it does not create any value

Question 26.
Mines & fisheries are subject to the law of
(i) diminishing retursn
(ii) increasing returns
(iii) negative returns
(iv) constant returns
Answer:
(i) diminishing retursn

Question 27.
If on a piece of land, more & more labour & capital is employed after certain point, the output increases
(i) more than proportionately
(ii) less than proportionately
(iii) at constant rate
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) less than proportionately

Question 28.
If MP decreases & total product increases in this situation shows the stage of
(i) increasing returns
(ii) diminishing returns
(iii) negative returns
(iv) constant returns
Answer:
(ii) diminishing returns

Question 29.
In law of diminishing returns, returns to a variable factor
(i) increases
(ii) diminishes
(iii) remains constant
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) diminishes

Question 30.
If an acre of land is cultivated more intensively, the output
(i) increases more that proportionately
(ii) increases less than proportionately
(iii) decreases less than proportionately
(iv) increases proportionately.
Answer:
(ii) increases less than proportionately

Question 31.
The rate at which the total product changes is called
(i) average product
(ii) marginal product
(iii) Both (i) and (ii)
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) marginal product

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
_____ is the creation of utility.
Answer:
Production

Question 2.
_____ can be resumed with land, labour, capital and organisation.
Answer:
Production

Question 3.
Law of variable proportion is a law for _____
Answer:
short-run production.

Question 4.
According to Law of Variable Proportion, all the factors are _____
Answer:
Variable

Question 5.
Fixed factors, in the _____, remain unchanged/fixed irrespective of the level of output.
Answer:
short-run

Question 6.
Total product _____ at a diminishing rate in the stage of diminishing returns.
Answer:
increases

Question 7.
Stage of _____ is the suitable stage of production.
Answer:
diminishing returns

Question 8.
The marginal product becomes _____ in the second stage.
Answer:
zero

Question 9.
Total Product is maximum when Marginal Product is _____
Answer:
zero

Question 10.
Total Product _____ during the stage of negative returns.
Answer:
falls

Question 11.
_____ product can be zero or negative but not average product.
Answer:
Marginal

Question 12.
The law of _____ returns is more applicable to agriculture.
Answer:
diminishing

Question 13.
The law of variable proportion is a _____ period phenomenon.
Answer:
short-run

Question 14.
The law of diminishing returns is otherwise known as law of _____ cost.
Answer:
increasing

Question 15.
Mines and fisheries are subject to the law of _____ returns.
Answer:
diminishing

Question 16.
The stage of increasing returns operate due to the _____ of factors.
Answer:
indivisibility

Question 17.
Rate of change of total product is called _____
Answer:
Marginal Product

Question 18.
Total product becomes maximum in the stage of _____
Answer:
Diminishing return

Question 19.
The electricity is a _____ factor.
Answer:
variable

Question 20.
The manager employed in an enterprise is a _____ factor.
Answer:
Fixed

III. Correct the Sentences:

Question 1.
Production is the destruction of utility.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct – Production is the creation of utility.

Question 2.
All the factors are variable in the short-run.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: All the factors are variable in the long-run.

Question 3.
Production function is the technical relationship between inputs & output.
Answer:
Correct

Question 4.
Law of variable proportions is applicable in long-run.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct – Law of variable proportions is applicable in short-run.

Question 5.
Long-run production function is subject to law of variable proportions.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – Short-run production function is subject to law of variable proportions.

Question 6.
In the long-run all the factors are variable.
Answer:
Correct

Question 7.
Machines are the examples of variable factor.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct – Machines are the examples of fixed factor.

Question 8.
In the short-run, level of output can be increased due to change in fixed factor.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – In the short-run, level of output can be increase due to change in variable factor

Question 9.
Total product becomes maximum in the stage of increasing returns.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – Total product becomes maximum in the stage of diminishing returns.

Question 10.
In the second stage of law of variable proportions, the marginal product is zero.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 11.
In the first stage, the quantity of fixed factors is abundant in relation to variable factor.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 12.
Manager is a variable factor.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – Manager is a fixed factor.

Question 13.
In the short-run, all the inputs can be varied.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – In the long-run, all the inputs can be varied.

Question 14.
Stage of increasing returns & stage of diminishing returns are symmetrical.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – Stage of increasing returns & stage of – ve retuns are symmetrical.

Question 15.
Producers produce in the stage of increasing returns.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – Producer produce in the stage of diminishing returns.

Question 16.
When marginal product is zero, total product is maximum.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: When marginal product is zero, total product is maximum.

Question 17.
Marginal Product is maximum in the second stage of law of variable proportions.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: Marginal product is maximum in the first stage of law of variable proportions.

Question 18.
When marginal product is – ve. total product is negative.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: When marginal product is – ve. total product declines.

Question 19.
Marginal product is the sum of total product.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: Total product is the sum of marginal products

Question 20.
Law of diminishing returns is applied to agriculture alone.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct: Law of diminishing returns is applied to all fields.

Question 21.
Marginal product can never be negative.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct – Total product can never be negative.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

A. ANSWER IN ONE SENTENCE

Question 1.
What is Production ?
Answer:
Production is the creation of goods & services having exchange value, or, Production is the creation of utility.

Question 2.
What do you mean by inputs ?
Answer:
Inputs are those goods & services which are used for further poroduction.

Question 3.
What is fixed factor ?
Answer:
Fixed factor is that factor which remains unchanged irrespective of the level of output.

Question 4.
What is variable factor ?
Answer:
Variable factor is that factor which changes with the change in the level of output.

Question 5.
Give an example of variable factor.
Answer:
Raw material.

Question 6.
What is production function ?
Answer:
Production function refers to the technological relationship between physical inputs & output.

Question 7.
What is short-run ?
Answer:
Short-run or short-period is a short – span of time during which there observed some fixed factor & some variable factors.

Question 8.
What is short-run production function ?
Answer:
Short-run production function is that type of production function in which output is produced with the combination of fixed factors & variable factors.

Question 9.
What is total product ?
Answer:
Total product is aggregate of output produced with a given quantity of inputs.

Question 10.
What is average product ?
Answer:
Average product is the output produced per unit of variable factor.

Question 11.
What is marginal product ?
Answer:
Marginal product refers to the addition made to the total product caused by an increase in one additional unit of factor employed.

Question 12.
How is total product derived from marginal product ?
Answer:
Total product is sum of marginal products.

Question 13.
What happens to total product if marginal product falls ?
Answer:
Total product increases at a diminishing rate when marginal product falls.

Question 14.
What will be the total product if marginal product becomes zero ?
Answer:
Total product is maximum when marginal product is zero.

Question 15.
What happens to total product if marginal product is negative ?
Answer:
Total product diminishes when marginal product is negative.

Question 16.
What is shape of marginal product curve ?
Answer:
Marginal product curve is inverse U- shaped.

Question 17.
During which stage, total product becomes maximum.
Answer:
During the stage of diminishing returns, total product becomes maximum.

Question 18.
At which stage, the producer produces goods ?
Answer:
In the stage of diminishing returns (stage II) the producer produces goods.

Question 19.
What happens to marginal product in the stage of negative returns ?
Answer:
Marginal product becomes negative in the stage of negative returns.

Question 20.
At what point marginal product is to equal average product ?
Answer:
Marginal product is equal to average product at the maximum point of average product curve.

Question 21.
In which stage, total product declines ?
Answer:
In the stage of negative returns, the total product declines.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 3 Mixed Syllogism Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 3 Question Answer Mixed Syllogism

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What is pure syllogism?
Answer:
(i) Pure syllogism is that syllogism where all the constituent propositions are of same type :

(ii) Example:
All men are mortal
Ram is a man.
∴ Ram is mortal.

Question 2.
What is called pure categorical syllogism?
Answer:
(i) If both the premises and the conclusion are categorical, the syllogism is called pure categorical.

(ii) Example:
All men are mortal
All students are men
∴ All students are mortal.

Question 3.
What is called pure hypothetical syllogism?
Answer:
(i) If both the premises and the conclusion are hypothetical, the syllogism is called pure hypothetical.

(ii) Example; If there is light, things are visible
If there is sun, there is light
If there is sun, things are visible.

Question 4.
Pure alternative syllogism.
Answer:
(i) If both the premises and the conclusion are alternative, the syllogism is called pure alternative.

(ii) Example : Madhu is either honest or intelligent
Madhu is either not-honest or industrious.
∴ Madhu is either intelligent or industrious.

Question 5.
Pure disjunctive syllogism.
Answer:
(i) If both the premises and the conclusion are disjunctive, the syllogism is called pure disjunctive.

(ii) Example; All Ministers are not both Muslims and Hindus
∴ All ministers are not both not-Muslims and atheists.

Question 6.
What is mixed syllogism?
Answer:
(i) Mixed syllogism is that syllogism where all the constituent propositions are different types.
(ii) Example; If there is sun then there is light.
There is sun .
∴ There is light.

Question 7.
What is called hypothetical – categorical syllogism?
Answer:
(i) Hypothetical – categorical syllogism is that syllogism where the major premise is hypothetical, minor premise is categorical and the conclusion is categorical.

(ii) Example; If it rains he will not come It rains
∴ He will not come.

Question 8.
What is called disjunctive – categorical syllogism?
Answer:
(i) Disjunctive – categorical syllogism is that syllogism where the major premise is disjuctive, the minor premise is categorical, and the conclusion is categorical.

(ii) Example : Ramesh cannot be bom in both January and June Ramesh bom in January Ramesh is not bom in June.

Question 9.
Alternative – categorical syllogism.
Answer:
(i) Where the major premise alternative, the minor premise is categorical and the conclusion is categorical that is called alternative – categorical syllogism.

(ii) Krishna is either a teacher or a politician Krishna is not a teacher.
∴ Krishna is a politician.

Question 10.
Give an example of simple constructive dilemma.
Answer:
If A is B, C is D and If E is F, C is D
Either A is B or E is F
∴ C is D

Question 11.
State the rules of hypothetical – categorical syllogism.
Answer:
(i) There are two rules in case of hypothetical categorical syllogism.

(ii) These are affirming the antecedent and denying the consequent.

Question 12.
What is called affirming the antecedent rule?
Answer:
Affirming the antecedent rule states that when we affirm the antecedent part of the major premise into the minor premise then in this respect we should affirm the consequent part of the major premise in the conclusion.

Question 13.
Fallacy of denying the antecedent.
Answer:
(i) When we deny the antecedent part of the major premise into the minor premise and consequent part of the major premise in the conclusion then we commit the fallacy of denying the antecedent.

(ii) Example, If there is sun then there is light.
There is no sun
∴ There is no light.

Question 14.
What is called simple constructive dilemma?
Answer:
(i) Simple constructive, dilemma is that dilemma where the conclusion is categorical and affirming the antecedent rule is applied.

(ii) If P then q and if r then q
Either p or r
∴ q

Question 15.
What is called complex destructive dilemma?
Answer:
(i) In a dilemma, if the conclusion is an alternative proposition and denying the consequent rule is applied that is called complex destructive dilemma.

(ii) If p then q and if r then s.
Neither q nor s
Neither p nor r.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
What is dilemma ?
Answer:
Dilemma is a mixed syllogism in which one premise is compound hypothetical the other premise is alternative and the conclusion is either categorical or alternative. As Dilemma is a combination of two hypothetical categorical syllogism, so the rules of this syllogism are observed dilemma. Example :
If A is B, then C is D and if E is f then G is H.
Either A is B or E is f
Either C is D or G is H.

Question 2.
Explain rebuttal of Dilemma.
Answer:
Rebuttal of Dilemma is done by giving a counter dilemma and showing that the opposite conclusion is also possible under the same circumstance.

Dilemma : If you are kind to your wife, your mother is displeased and if you are cruel to your wife, your mother-in-law is displeased.
Either your mother or your mother in-law is displeased.

Counter dilemma: If T and kind to my wife, my mother-in-law is pleased and if I am cruel to my wife, my mother is pleased.
Either I am kind to my wife or I am cruel to my wife.
∴ Either my mother or mother-in-law pleased.

Question 3.
What is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent?
Answer:
When we affirm the consequent part of the major premise in the minor and the antecedent part of the major premise in the conclusion, then the fallacy arises, which is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent.

Example :
If somebody wins a lottery prize he is
happy These school children are happy.
∴ They have own lottery prizes.

Question 4.
Explain the fallacy of Denying the antecedent
Answer:
When we deny the antecedent part of the major premise in the minor and consequent part of the major premise in the conclusion then we commit a fallacy. Which is called the fallacy of denying the antecedent.

Example :
If there is war, the prices are high.
There is no war
∴ The prices are not high.

Question 5.
Give a symbolic example of constructive form of hypothetical categorical syllogism.
Answer:
It A is B then C is D
A is B
∴ C is D

Question 6.
Give a concrete example of simple constructive dilemma.
Answer:
If you are destined to pass, the reading is unnecessary and if you are destined to fail then reading is unnecessary. Either you are destined to pass or you are destined to fail… Reading is unnecessary.

Question 7.
What is alternative categorical syllogism.
Answer:
Alternative categorical syllogism is a kind of mixed syllogism in which the major premise is an alternative proposition, where as the minor premise and the conclusion are categorical propositions.
For example:
Either P or q
∴ \(\frac{\text { Not } P}{q}\)

Question 8.
Name the fallacy in the following argument. If there is rain, the ground is wet
∴ There is no rain
The ground is not wet
Answer:
The above argument is called the fallacy of denying the antecedent.

Question 9.
State the rules of hypothetical categorical syllogism.
Answer:
There are two rules in hypothetical categorical syllogism.
(i) By affirming the antecedent, we affirm the consequent but not conversely.
(ii) By denying the consequent, we deny the antecedent but not conversely.

Question 10.
Write the different forms of dilemma.
Answer:
There are four types of Dilemma such as :
(a) Simple constructive
(b) Simple destructive
(c) Complex constructive
(d) Complex destructive

Question 11.
Give a symbolic example of complex destructive dilemma.
Answer:
It A is B, C is D and if E is F, G is H.
Either C is not D or G is not H
∴ Either C is not B or E is not F,

Question 12.
Briefly explain the fallacy of Dilemma.
Answer:
The format fallacies of dilemma are affirming the consequents or Denying the antecedents in the minor premise. Further they may be rebutted by taking the horns or escaping between the horns or by the process of rebutal Most dilemmas are formally valid but mate rally false and their falsity may be exposed by one or the other of the above methods of rebutation.

Question 13.
What is Modus pones?
Answer:
There are two kinds of Hypothetical categorical syllogism; such as constructive and Destructive. The constructive form of this kind of Syllogism is technically known as modus ponens. In this form of argument we firm the antecedent of the major premise in the minor premise to affirm the consequent in the conclusion.

Question 14.
What is Modus Tolens?
Answer:
The destructive form of Hypothetical categorical syllogism is known as moduls tollens. In this form of argument we deny the consequent of the major premise in the minor premise to deny the antecedent in the conclusion.
For example:
If there is sun then there is light and there is no light therefore, there is no sun.

Question 15.
Which rule governs Alternative categorical Syllogism?
Answer:
The alternative proposition aims at affirming one alternate by denying the denying the other. So the rule of Alternative categorical syllogism is to deny one alternate in the minor premise and to affirm the other alternate in the conclusion.

Question 16.
Write the different forms of Dilemma.
Answer:
There are four types of Dilemma such as :

1. Simple constructive
2. Simple destructive
3. Complex constructive
4. Complex destructive.

Question 17.
Give concrete example of simple constructive dilemma.
Answer:
If you are destined to pass, the reading unnecessary and if you are destined to fail then reading is unnecessary. Either you are destined to pass or fail. Reading is unnecessary.

Question 18.
Give the concrete example of simple destructive dilemma.
Answer:
If you read Bhagabad Gita, you should obey norms and if you read Bhagabad Gita, you should practise its ethos.
Either you do not obey its norms or you do practise its ethos.
∴ You do not read Bhagabad Gita.

Question 19.
Give the concrete example of complex destructive dilemma.
Answer:
If students are obedient, they must love their teachers and if the students are sincere, they must labour hard.
Either the students do riot love their teachers of the students do not labour hard.
∴ Either the students are not obedient or the students are not sincere.

Question 20.
Define Dilemma.
Answer:
Dilemma is a mixed syllogism, in which the major premise in a compound hypothetical proposition and the minor premise is Alternative and the conclusion is either categorical or Alternative propositions.
Example :
If A is B, C is D and if E is F.
C is D
Either A is B or E is F
C is D

Question 21.
State the ways of refutation of Dilemma.
Answer:
A Dilemma may be refuted in the following three ways.
(a) Taking by One horn
(b) Taking by Two horns
(c) Escaping between the horns.

Question 22.
Write a concrete example of Rebuttal Dilemma.
Answer:
If you speak the truth, people will hate you and if you tell a lie, God will hate you. Either you speak the truth or tell lies.
∴ Either people will hate you or God will hate you.

Rebuttal: If I speak the truth, God will not hate me and of I tell lies, people will not hate. Either I speak the truth or tell lies.
∴ Either God will not hate me or people will not hate

Question 23.
Name the special syllogistic rules of Figure one.
Answer:
There are two special syllogistic rules in the figure one these are,
(1) Major premise must be universal
(2) Minor premise must be affirmative.

Question 24.
What is Reduction?
Answer:
Reduction is the process of proving the validity of the moods of the imperfect figures with the help of the moods of the perfect first figure. Direct reduction is the process of directly transforming a mood of inperfect figure to a mood of perfect figure. Indirect reduction is the process of showing that some moods of 2nd, 3rd and 4th figures are such that the conclusion cannot be false if the premises are true.

Question 25.
What in the direct Reduction of ‘DIMARIS’.
Answer:
DIMARIS – DARII

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is Dilemma ? What are its different form?
Answer:
Dilemma is kind of mixed syllogism in which the major premise is a compound hypothetical proposition, the minor premise is alternative and the conclusion is either categorical or alternative.

There are different kinds of dilemma. Based on the nature of the minor premise, dilemma can be either constructive or destructive. If the minor premise affirms the antecedents of the major premise in the minor premise, the dilemma is called constructive. If the minor premise denies the consequents of the major premise, the dilemma is called destructive.

Again, a dilemma can be simple or complex, depending on the nature of the conclusion. If the conclusion of the dilemma is a categorical proposition, it is called simple dilemma. But if the conclusion is an alternative proposition, the dilemma is complex. So, by combining the above, we get four of dilemma. They are-
(a) Simple constructive
(b) Complex constructive
(c) Simple Destructive and
(d) Complex Destructive
Now, let us discuss the above different kind dilemma in details,

(a) Simple constructive Dilemma :
It is a kind of mixed syllogism in which the major premise is a compound-hypothetical proposition, (i.e. a conjunction of two hypothetical propositions), and the minor premise is a disjunctive proposition in which the antecedents of the major premise are affirmed disjunctively, and the conclusion is a categorical proposition. Symbolically it is of the following form:

The above one is the symbolic example complex constructive Dilemma. The dilemma is complex because its conclusion because the antecedents of major premise are affirmed in the minor premise.

(b) Complex constructive Dilemma :
Complex constructive dilemma is an argument, where the major premise is a compound hypothetical, in the minor premise the antecedents of the major premise are disjunctively affirmed and the conclusion is a disjunctive proposition. It is of the following form :

Concrete example :
If Rakesh is in Cuttack, he is in Odisha and if he is in Kolkata, then he is in Bengal
Rakesh is either in Cuttack or in Kolkata
Therefore, he is either in Odisha or in Bengal.

(c) Simple Destructive Dilemma :
In a simple destructive dilemmatic argument the consequents of the compound hypothetical major are alternatively denied in the minor premise and the conclusion is a categorical proposition. In other words, it is a kind of mixed syllogism in which the major premise is a compound hypothetical proposition and the minor premise is a disjunctive proposition in which the consequents of the major premise are alternatively denied. Finally, the conclusion is a denial of a categorical proposition. Symbolically it is of following form:

The above argument is a symbolic example simple Destructive Dilemma. Here the consequence the major premise are denined in the minor premise is destructive. Again, it is simple because the conclusion is categorical proposition.

(d) Complex Destructive Dilemma :
In this kind of dilemma, the major premise is a compound-hypothetical proposition, the minor premise and the conclusion are disjunctive propositions. Moreover, in the minor premise, the con-sequents of the major premise are disjunctively denied.

This is a symbolic form of complex Destructive Dilemma. The Dilemma is complex because conclusion is an alternative proposition. It is destructive because the consequents of the major premise*denied in the minor premise.

These are the four forms of dilemma. We see that looking at how the minor premise is constructive we can know whether the dilemma is constructive destructive. Again, looking at the conclusion, we know whether the dilemma is simple or complex.

Question 2.
How dilemma is refuted? Discuss.
Answer:
A dilemma is either formally valid materially true again a dilemma may be formally involved and materially false. A dilemma may be refuted both formally war or materially way. It is formally refuted when it violates the rules of dilemma and it is materially refuted when it is shown that the premises are materially false. However dilemma may be refuted in the following three ways such as,
(1) Taking by one horn.
(2) Taking by two horn.
(3) Escaping between the horn.

(1) Taking by one horn : Taking by one horn means when one consequent part of the major premise seems to be week. It means when one consequent part does not follow from its one antecedent part, at that time a dilemma is refuted which is called taking by one horn.

Example: If he is intelligent, then he can understand everything else and if he is honest, then he can admit his faults. Either he is intelligent or he is honest
∴ Either he can understand everything else or we can admit his fault.

(2) Taking by two horns : Taking by two horns means when both the consequent parts of the major premise seen to be weak. It means if both consequent part does not follow from its antecedent part does not follow from its antecedent parts then the dilemma is refuted which is called taking by two horns.

Example: If you are fated to be cure then consulting the physician is unnecessary and is you are not fated to be cured then consulting the physician is necessary.
Either you are fated to be cured.
or you are not fated to be cured.
∴ Consulting the physician is necessary.

(3) Escaping between the horns : Escaping between the horns means two puzzlement situation arise then at that time you should help another argument in under to escape from the situation.

Example:
If the day is hot, then you can if go out and if the day is cold then you can not go out.
Either the day is hot or the day is cold .’. You can’t go out.

Question 3.
What is hypothetical – categorical syllogism? Discuss its forms and fallacies.
Answer:
Hypothetical – categorical syllogism is a valid of mixed syllogism in which the major premise is a categorical proposition and the conclusion is a categorical proposition. There are certain rules to be followed for a valid Hypothetical – categorical syllogism which are discussed below.

Rules of Reasoning :
1. By affirming the antecedent of the major premise in the minor premise, we affirm the consequent in the conclusion. Violating this if we affirm the consequent of the major premise in the minor premise, the argument becomes fallacious. It is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent.

When the antecedent is affirmed in the minor premise, so that the consequent is affirmed in the conclusion, it is the constructive form of the argument. It is also called modus ponens.

2. By denying the consequent of the major premise in the minor premise, we deny the antecedent in the conclusion. If we violate this rule and deny the antecedent in the minor premise, the argument becomes fallacious. The fallacy is called the fallacy of denying the antecedent. When the consequent is denied in the minor premise to deny the antecedent in the conclusion, it is the destructive form of the argument or modus Tollens.

Constructive form or modus ponens : For the elaboration of the constructive form of Hypothetical – categorical syllogism let us take the help of examples.

Symbolic example :
Let P and Q stand for any two propositions.
If P then Q
∴ Q

Concrete example :
If there is sun, then there is light.
There is sun
∴ There is light.

The argument given above is a valid form of modus ponens or constructive form of Hypothetical – categorical syllogism. Here the antecedent ‘P’ or There is sun’ is affirmed in the minor premise. In the conclusion the consequent ‘Q’ or ‘There is light’ is affirmed. If we violate this rule and affirm the consequent in the minor premise, we commit the fallacy of affirming the consequent.

Symbolic example of the fallacy :
If P the Q
Not P
∴ Not Q

Concrete example of the fallacy :
If there is sun, there is light.
There is sun.
∴ There is light

The argument is obviously fallacious because presence of light does not necessary imply the presence of sun. There are other sources of light too. The argument is fallacious. The absence of the sun does not mean there will certainly the absence of light. These are the different forms and fallacies of Hypothetical – categorical syllogism.

Question 4.
Explain the disjunctive – categorical syllogism.
Answer:
Disjunctive categorical syllogism is a kind of mixed syllogism in which the major premise is disjunctive, the minor premise is categorical and the conclusion is categorical. It is otherwise called as mixed disjunctive syllogism.

For example; Raja cannot stay both in Odisha and Bihar state at the sometime.
Raja stays in Odisha.
∴ Raja does not stay in the Bihar.

Rule : If we affirm one of the disjuncts in the minor we may deny the other in the conclusion, but not conversely.

Symbolic example :
A cannot both B and C
A is B.
∴ A is rot C.

Concrete example :
A cannot be both honest and cruel.
Joseph is honesty.
∴ Joseph is not cruel.

This form in accordance with the rule. So it is a valid form argument and it is called modus Ponendo Tollens. Let’s take an example in regard to the converse of the rule.

Symbolic example :
A cannot be both B and C
A is not B
∴ A is C

Concrete example :
Suprava cannot be both student of I.A. class and B.A. class.
She is not a student of I. A. class.
She is a student of B.A. class.

In this case we violate the rule and deny one of the disjuncts in the minor premise whereas affirm the other in the conclusion. This is called modus Tollendo Ponens. So this is an invalid form of argument.

Question 5.
State and explain the rules and fallacies of Alternative categoric*! syllogism.
Answer:
Alternative categorical syllogism is a kind of mixed syllogism is a kind of mixed syllogism in which the major premise is an alternative proposition, the minor premise is a categorical proposition and the conclusion is either categorical proposition or alternative proposition.

Rule :
By denying one or more alternants of an alternative proposition, we can affirm the remaining alternants.

(1) Symbolic example
Either A is B or C is D.
A is not B
∴ C is D

Concrete example :
Either the sun is shining or it is raining.
The sun is not shining.
∴ It is raining.

(2) Symbolic example :
A is B or C or D
A is not B
∴ A is either C or D.

Concrete example :
Hari is intelligent or clever or foolish.
Hari is not intelligent
∴ Hari is either clever or foolish.

(3) Symbolic example.
A is B or C or D
A is neither B nor C
∴ A is D.

Concrete example :
Mira is intelligent or clever or foolish.
Mira is neither intelligent nor clever.
∴ Mira is foolish.

Violation of the rule : The rule governing mixed alternative syllogism is violated if by affirming one or more alternants, we deny the remaining alternants.
Symbolic Example;
Either A is B or C.
A is B
∴ A is not C

Concrete example;
Either Elina is clever or foolish Elina is clever.
∴ Elina is not foolish.
This is against the rule governing mixed alternative sylogism. Hence, the argument is invalid.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
In a simple dilemma, the conclusion is :
(i) Categorical
(ii) Alternative
(iii) Hypothetical
(iv) Either alternative
Answer:
(i) Categorical

Question 2.
The conclusion of a mixed syllogism is always :
(i) Hypothetical
(ii) Disjunctive
(iii) Alternative
(iv) Categorical
Answer:
(iv) Categorical

Question 3.
“When men are pure, Laws are useless. When men are corrupt, Laws are broken. Therefore laws are unnecessary”. This argument in :
(i) Materially true
(ii) Materially false
(iii) Formally true & materially false.
(iv) Formally invalid and materially false.
Answer:
(iii) Formally true & materially false.

Question 4.
Pure syllogism in mainly divided into :
(i) Two types
(ii) Three types
(iii) Four types
(iv) Five types
Answer:
(iii) Four types

Question 5.
Where all the constituent propositions are of categorical that is called what?
(i) Pure categorical syllogism
(ii) Pure hypothetical syllogism
(iii) Pure disjunctive syllogism
(iv) Dilemma
Answer:
(i) Pure categorical syllogism

Question 6.
Where all the constituent propositions are of disjunctive in character that is called which syllogism?
(i) Pure categorical
(ii) Pure hypothetical
(iii) Pure alternative
(iv) Pure disjunctive
Answer:
(iv) Pure disjunctive

Question 7.
If A is B then C is D.
If E is F then A is B.
∴ If E is F then C is D
This is a symbolic example of:

(i) Pure categorical syllogism
(ii) Pure hypothetical syllogism
(iii) Pure alternative syllogism
(iv) Pure disjunctive syllogism
Answer:
(ii) Pure hypothetical syllogism

Question 8.
How many kinds of mixed syllogism are there ?
(i) Two
(ii) Three
(iii) Four
(iv) Five
Answer:
(iii) Four

Question 9.
What is the major premise of mixed hypothetical syllogism?
(i) Hypothetical
(ii) Categorical
(iii) Alternative
(iv) Disjunctive
Answer:
(i) Hypothetical

Question 10.
What is the major premise of mixed alternative syllogism ?
(i) Hypothetical
(ii) Categorical
(iii) Alternative
(iv) Disjunctive
Answer:
(iii) Alternative

Question 11.
What is the major premise of mixed disjunctive syllogism ?
(i) Hypothetical
(ii) Categorical
(iii) Alternative
(iv) Disjunctive
Answer:
(iv) Disjunctive

Question 12.
How many kinds of dilemma are there ?
(i) Two
(ii) Three
(iii) Four
(iv) Five
Answer:
(iii) Four

Question 13.
How many rules are observed in hypothetical categorical syllogism?
(i) Two
(ii) Three
(iii) Four
(iv) Five
Answer:
(i) Two

Question 14.
When we affirm the consequent part of the major premise in the minor premise then we commit which fallacy?
(i) Denying the antecedent
(ii) Affirming the consequent
(iii) Fallacy accent
(iv) Fallacy of accident
Answer:
(ii) Affirming the consequent

Question 15.
When the antecedent of the major premise is denied in the minor, then which fallacy arises?
(i) Denying the antecedent
(ii) Denying consequent
(iii) Affirming the antecedent
(iv) Affirming the consequent
Answer:
(i) Denying the antecedent

Question 16.
In a mixed syllogism, one of the premises is necessarily;
(i) Categorical
(ii) Alternative
(iii) Hypothetical
(iv) Disjunctive
Answer:
(i) Categorical

Question 17.
If there is smoke, then there is fire,
There is fire.
∴ There is smoke.
The fallacy committed here is:
(i) Fallacy of affirming the consequent.
(ii) Fallacy of affirming the antecedent.
(iii) Both of these.
(iv) None of these.
Answer:
(i) Fallacy of affiring the consequent.

Question 18.
Which of the following is are true of a Dilemma?
(i) One of the premises is a compound hypothetical proposition
(ii) The second premise is an alternative proposition.
(iii) The cpnclusibn is either alternative to categorical
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 19.
The consequents of the hypothetics propositions in the compound hypothetics proposition are same in:
(i) Simple constructive dilemma.
(ii) Simple destructive dilemma,
(iii) Complex constructive dilemma.
(iv) Complex destructive dilemma.
Answer:
(i) Simple constructive dilemma.

Question 20.
A dilemmawhpse conclusion is alternative must be a ;
(i) Simple dilemma
(ii) Complied dilemma
(iii) Constructive dilemma
(iv) Destructive dilemma
Answer:
(ii) Complied dilemma

Question 21.
A dilemma is refuted by:
(i) Showing that if violates a rule.
(ii) Showing that a premise or both of its premises are materially false.
(iii) Rebuttal
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iv) All of the above

Question 22.
Which of the following kinds of Dilemma can only be rebutted?
(i) Simple constructive dilemma
(ii) Simple destructive dilemma
(iii) Complex constructive dilemma
(iv) Complex destructive dileittma
Answer:
(iii) Complex constructive dilemma

Question 23.
Which of the following proposition is the conclusion of simple constructive dilemma?
(i) Categorical
(ii) Alternative
(iii) Hypothetical
(iv) Disjunctive
Answer:
(i) Categorical

Question 24.
Which of the following proposition is the conclusion of complex constructive dilemma?
(i) Categorical
(ii) Alternative
(iii) Hypothetical
(iv) Disjunctive
Answer:
(ii) Alternative

Question 25.
Which of the following proposition is the conclusion of complex destructive dilemma?
(i) Categorical
(ii) Alternative
(iii) Hypothetical
(iv) Disjunctive
Answer:
(ii) Alternative

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
In a hypothetical categorical syllogism the major premise is ______ proposition.
Answer:
Hypothetical proposition

Question 2.
In an alternative categorical syllogism the major premise in ______ proposition.
Answer:
Alternative proposition

Question 3.
In a Disjunctive categorical syllogism to affirm the one is to ______.
Answer:
Deny the other

Question 4.
In a dilemma if both the alternatives are not exhaustive if is called ______.
Answer:
Escaping between the horns.

Question 5.
In the dilemma the conclusion in ______.
Answer:
Either categorical or Alternative.

Question 6.
Traditionally, syllogisms are divided into ______ types.
Answer:
two

Question 7.
Syllogism is mainly classified into ______ and ______.
Answer:
pure, mixed

Question 8.
In a pure syllogism the constituent propositions are of ______.
Answer:
same type

Question 9.
In a mixed syllogism the constituent propositions are of ______.
Answer:
Different types

Question 10.
Pure syllogism is divided into three type; such as ______ and ______.
Answer:
pure categorical, pure alternative and pure disjunctive.

Question 11.
In a syllogism if all the constituents propositions are categorical that is ______ syllogism.
Answer:
pure categorical

Question 12.
In a syllogism if all the propositions are disjunctive that is called ______ syllogiosm.
Answer:
pure disjunctive

Question 13.
In a syllogism if all the propositions are of alternative that is called ______.
Answer:
pure alternative

Question 14.
There are ______ kinds of mixed syllogism.
Answer:
four

Question 15.
In a mixed hypotheical syllogism the major premise is ______.
Answer:
hypothetical proposition

Question 16.
In a mixed disjunctive syllogism the major premise is ______.
Answer:
disjunctive proposition

Question 17.
In a mixed alternative syllogism the minor premise is ______ .
Answer:
categorical proposition

Question 18.
In a mixed hypothetical syllogism the minor premise is ______.
Answer:
categorical proposition

Question 19.
In a dilemma the major premise is ______.
Answer:
a compound hypothetical proposition

Question 20.
In a dilemma the minor premise is ______.
Answer:
Alternative

Question 21.
In a dilemma the conclusion is ______.
Answer:
Higher alternative or categorical

Question 22.
In a mixed hypothetical syllogism to affirm the antecedent is to ______.
Answer:
affirm the consequent

Question 23.
In a mixed hypothetical syllogism to deny the consequent is to ______.
Answer:
Deny the antecedent

Question 24.
In a mixed alternative syllogism to deny any one is to ______.
Answer:
affirm the other

Question 25.
In a mixed disjunctive syllogism to affirm the one is to ______.
Answer:
deny the other

Question 26.
There are ______ forms of dilemma.
Answer:
four

Question 27.
The dilemma is constructive if ______.
Answer:
The antecedants are affirmed in the minor premise.

Question 28.
The dilemma is destructive if ______.
Answer:
The consequents are denied in the minor premise.

Question 29.
The dilemma is simple if ______.
Answer:
The conclusion is and alternative proposition

Question 30.
The dilemma is complex if ______.
Answer:
The conclusion is an alternative proposition.

Question 31.
A hypothetical syllogism is constructive of ______.
Answer:
The antecedent k difirmed in the minor premise.

Question 32.
A hypothetical syllogism is destructive if ______.
Answer:
The antecedent is affirmed in the’minor premise.

Question 33.
The dilemma is formally valid if ______.
Answer:
The rules are correctly observed.

Question 34.
In a dilemma if one consequent does not follow from the antecedent it is called ______.
Answer:
Taking by one horn

Question 35.
In a dilemma if both the consequents do not follow from the antecedent it is called ______.
Answer:
taking by both the honors

Question 36.
In a dilemma if both the alternatives are not exhaustive it is called ______.
Answer:
Escaping between the horns

Question 37.
There are two rules in mixed hypothetical syllogism, such as ______ and ______.
Answer:
Affirming the antecedent, Denying the consequent.

Question 38.
In a dilemma, if the antecedents are affirmed in the premise, it is called from ______.
Answer:
Constructive

Question 39.
In a dilemma, if the consequents are affirmed then ______ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Aflfirmin the consequent

Question 40.
In a dilemma, if the consequents are denied in the premise, it is called ______.
Answer:
Destructive

Question 41.
In a dilemma, if the antecedents are denied in the premise then ______ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Denying the antecedent

Question 42.
If the conclusion of a dilemma is categorical proposition that is called ______ dilemma.
Answer:
Simple

Question 43.
If the conclusion of a dilemma is alternative proposition that is called ______ dilemma.
Answer:
Complex

Question 44.
A dilemma is said to be ______ when is incorrectness is exposed.
Answer:
Rebutted

Question 45.
According to logicians, only ______ form of dilemma can be rebutted.
Answer:
Complex constructive

Question 46.
A dilemma is materially refuted if it is shown that a premise or both the premise are ______.
Answer:
Materially false

Question 47.
The ______ of a dilemma are like the two homess of a dangerous animal.
Answer:
Alternants

III. Correct the Sentences:

Question 1.
In pure syllogism all the constituent propositions are of different types.
Answer:
In mixed syllogism all the constituent propositions are of different types.

Question 2.
In mixed syllogism all the constituent propositions are of same types.
Answer:
In Pure Syllogism all the constituent propositions are of same types.

Question 3.
Mixed Syllogisms are of three types.
Answer:
Mixed syllogisms are of four types.

Question 4.
In a hypothetic 1.1 categorical syl logism, the maj or premise a alternative and the minor premise is categorical.
Answer:
In a hypothetical categorical syllogism, the major premise is hypothetical and the minor premise is categorical proposition.

Question 5.
In a mixed disjunctive syllogism, the major premise is alternative and the minor premise is compound proposition.
Answer:
In a mixed disjunctive syllogism, the major premise is disjunctive proposition and the minor premise is categorical proposition.

Question 6.
The constructive form of the mixed hypothetical syllogism is also called Modus tollens.
Answer:
The constructive form of the mixed hypothetical syllogism is also called Modus Ponens.

Question 7.
The Destructive form of the mixed hypothetical syllogism is also called Pollendo Tollens.
Answer:
The Destructive form of the Mixed hypothetical syllogism is also called Modus Tollens.

Question 8.
There are two forms of dilemma.
Answer:
There are four forms of dilemma.

Question 9.
In case of simple dilemma the conclusion is an alternative proposition.
Answer:
In case of simple dilemma the conclusion is categorical proposition.

Question 10.
In case of complex dilemma the conclusion is categorical proposition.
Answer:
In case of complex dilemma the conclusion is an alternative proposition.

Question 11.
In hypothetical categorical syllogism Ponendo Ponens become valid.
Answer:
In hypothetical categorical syllogism Ponendo Ponens becomes invalid.

Question 12.
In disjunctive – categorical syllogism Tollendo Ponens is valid.
Answer:
In disjunctive – categorical syllogism, Tollendo Ponens is invalid.

Question 13.
In alternative – categorical syllogism, Ponendo Tollens is valid.
Answer:
In alternative categorical syllogism, Ponendo Tollens is invalid.

Question 14.
Simple constructive dilemma can only be refuted.
Answer:
Complex constructive dilemma can only be refuted.

Question 15.
In a mixed disjunctive syllogism, one disjunct is denied to deny the other.
Answer:
In a mixed disjunctive syllogism, one disjunct is affirmed to deny the other.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word:

Question 1.
Syllogisms are mainly classified into how many types?
Answer:
Two

Question 2.
Where all the propositions are of same type that is called what syllogism?
Answer:
Pure

Question 3.
Where all the propositions are of different types that is called what syllogism?
Answer:
Mixed

Question 4.
Mixed syllogism is divided into how many types?
Answer:
Four

Question 5.
How many kinds of dilemma do use have?
Answer:
Four

Question 6.
How many hypothetical propositions are there in the compound hypothetical proposition of a dilemma?
Answer:
Two

Question 7.
What in the method of refutation of a dilemma by constructing its counter dilemma called?
Answer:
Rebuttal

Question 8.
Whether the conclusion of a complex dilemma is alternative or categorical?
Answer:
Alternative

Question 9.
Whether the consequents of the hypothetical propositions in a simple constructive dilemma are same or different?
Answer:
Same

Question 10.
How many alternative propositions are there in a simple dilemma?
Answer:
One

Question 11.
How many alternative propositions are there in a complex dilemma?
Answer:
Two

Question 12.
How many types of rules are there in Hypothtical categorical syllogism?
Answer:
Two

Question 13.
If in a syllogism, one premise is hypothetical and other premise is categorical, what is the name of this mixed syllogism?
Answer:
Hypothetical Categorical

Question 14.
If in a syllogism one premise is disjunctive and other premise is categorical, What is the name of this mixed syllogism.
Answer:
Mixed-Disjunctive

Question 15.
In a mixed hypothetical syllogism, the conclusion is what type of proposition.
Answer:
Categorical

Question 16.
Modus ponens form of mixed hypothetical syllogism is also called what?
Answer:
Constructive

Question 17.
Modus Tollens form of the mixed Hypothetical syllogism is also called what?
Answer:
Destructive

Question 18.
In’ mixed Disjunctive syllogism, the conclusion is what type of proposition.
Answer:
Categorical

Question 19.
If the antecedent part is affirmed, it is called what?
Answer:
Affirming the antecedent

Question 20.
If the consequent part is denied, it is called what?
Answer:
Denying the consequent

Question 21.
If the conclusion of dilemma is categorical, it is called what?
Answer:
Simple

Question 22.
If the conclusion of dilemma is alternative, it is called what?
Answer:
Complex

Question 23.
Which form of dilemma is only rebutted?
Answer:
Complex constructive

Question 24.
How many ways are there by which, a dilemma is refuted?
Answer:
Three