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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 1 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Tuckman suggested that groups pass through the developmental sequences. These are:
(a) forming, storming
(b) norming, performing, and adjourning
(c) only (a)
(d) both (a) and (b)
Answer:
(d) both (a) and (b)

Question 2.
The excitement and apprehension state is called the _____ stage.
(a) storming stage
(b) norming stage
(c) forming state
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(c) forming state

Question 3.
The storming state is followed by another stage known as ______.
(a) norming
(b) storming
(c) forming
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) norming

Question 4.
Major types of groups are:
(a) primary/secondary groups
(b) formal and informal groups
(c) ingroup and outgroup
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 5.
The pre-existing formations whereas usually given to individuals that group called
(a) secondary
(b) primary
(c) only (a)
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) primary

Question 6.
Political party is an example of _____ group.
(a) secondary
(b) formal
(c) primary
(d) informal
Answer:
(a) secondary

Question 7.
Kalman distinguished three forms of social influence these are:
(a) compliance
(b) identification
(c) internalisation
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 8.
When Kolo observed that the technique line “minimal encourager” may not be used if the counselor had not listened attentively.
(a) 1997
(b) 1995
(c) 1996
(d) 1992
Answer:
(a) 1997

Question 9.
Four stages of the dynamic process:
(a) initial
(b) transition
(c) working
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 10.
In the year-1982 who observed that the skill of listening may surface as the only strategy needed in a helping relationship.
(a) Kolo
(b) Tuckman
(c) Okun
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(c) Okun

True/False Questions

Question 1.
Teams are special kinds of groups.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Groups not reduce insecurity.
Answer:
False

Question 3.
The excitement as well as apprehension. This state is called the forming state.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Intragroup conflict is called forming stage.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
The storming stage is followed by another stage known as norming.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Status not refers to the relative social position given to group members by other.
Answer:

Question 7.
Cohesiveness refers to togetherness.
Answer:
True

Question 8.
Secondary groups is individual joins by choice.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Tuckman distinguished the 3 forms of social influence.
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Compliance is also called external/plastic conformity.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Psychologists believe that whether people will cooperate will depend on the reward structure.
Answer:
True

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is a Group?
Answer:
The preceding introduction illustrates the importance of groups in our lives. One question that comes to mind is: “How are groups (e.g., your family, class, and the group with which you play different from other collections of people ?” For example, people who have assembled to watch a cricket match or your school function are at one place but are not interdependent on each other.

Question 2.
Define the characteristics of the group.
Answer:
A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group from the other and gives the group its unique identity. A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups function either working towards a given goal or away from certain threats facing the group.

Question 3.
What is Teams?
Answer:
Teams are special kinds of groups. Members of teams often have complementary skills and are committed to a common goal or purpose. Members are mutually accountable for their activities. In teams, there is a positive synergy attained through the coordinated efforts of the members

Question 4.
What is Proximity?
Answer:
Just think about your group of friends. Would you have been friends if you were not living in the same colony, going to the same School, or maybe playing in the same playground? Probably your answer would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions with the same set of individuals give us a chance to know them, and their interests and attitudes. Common interests, attitudes, and backgrounds are important determinants of your liking for your group members.

Question 5.
What is The Autokinetic Effect?
Answer:
Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a dark room and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials. After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members.

Question 6.
The deadline technique :
Answer:
In this technique, the last date is announced until which a particular product or ‘an offer will be available. The aim is to make people ‘hurry’ and make the purchase before they miss the rare opportunity. It is more likely that people will buy a product under this deadline condition than if there is no such deadline.

Question 7.
Developing Effective Relationships
Answer:
For most people who seek help from a counselor, effective or satisfying relationships are almost non-existent or infrequent. Since the change in behavior is often created and supported by a network of social support, it is essential for clients to start developing more positive relationships with other persons. The counseling relationship is the initial vehicle through which this begins. Like all of us, counselors to are not perfect, but they are trained in developing more healthy and helpful relationships than others.

Question 8.
Authenticity:
Answer:
Your image or perception of yourself makes up your “I”. The self-perceived “I” is revealed through ideas, words, actions, clothing, and lifestyle. All of these communicate your “I” to others. Those who come into close contact with you also build their own image of you for themselves.

Question 9.
Paraphrasing:
Answer:
This skill has already been discussed in the section on communication earlier. You will recall that this involves the ability of a counselor to reflect on what the client says and feels using different words.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Working Stage/Phase:
Answer:
This is the second stage/phase of the counseling process. As the title suggests, it is the stage where the counselor fully engages the client in a discussion about what to do and how it will be done concerning the problem of the client. If the client has not disclosed his/her mission in the first stage, the counselor now asks the client. He uses questioning techniques to make the client open up.

Questions such as; Are you okay? Can I help you? What is the matter? What has brought you to my office? The client now responds. The counselor having listened to the client will suggest different techniques depending on the nature of the problem presented on how the problem can be handled. The counselor uses techniques such as responding, exploring, restatement, interpretation, confrontation, unconditional positive regard, empathy, silence, and catharsis to diagnose the problem.

Also, it is during this stage that the goals for counseling are set by the client and counselor. The counselor here tells the client that counseling aids such as cassettes, radio, video, and tape recorders may be used and the purpose for using them will be explained to the client.

Question 2.
What is The Autokinetic Effect?
Answer:
Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a dark room and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number .of trials.

After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members. It was observed that in subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all.

The light was only seen as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’). Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the distance the light moved but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants were not given any information regarding the nature of change, if any, in their judgments over trials.

Question 3.
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Answer:
The person begins by making a small request that the other person is not likely to refuse. Once the other person carries out the request, a bigger request is made. Simply because the other person has already complied with the smaller request, he or she may feel uncomfortable refusing the second request. For example, someone may come to us on behalf of a group and give us a gift (something free), saying that it is for promotion. Soon afterward, another member of the same group may come to us again, and ask us to buy a product made by the group.

Question 4.
Ethics of Counselling.
Answer:
In recent years, counselors have taken important steps to develop their professional identity. A critical criterion for any professional group is the development and implementation of appropriate ethical standards. Social workers, marriage counselors, family therapists, and psychologists — all have their ethical codes. Awareness of ethical standards and codes is extremely important because counseling is a part of the service sector.

Not following ethical standards may have legal implications. While learning about the competencies of a counselor, it is important for you to relationship is built on ethical practice. The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed a code of ethical conduct for behavior and decision-making in actual clinical settings. The practical knowledge of these ethical domains can guide the practice of counseling in achieving its desired purpose.

Some of the APA practice guidelines are:
Knowledge of ethical/professional codes, standards, and guidelines, and knowledge of statutes, rules, regulations, and case law relevant to the practice of psychology. Recognize and analyze ethical and legal issues across the range of professional activities in the clinical setting. Recognize and understand the ethical dimensions/features of her/his own attitudes and practice in the clinical setting.

Question 5.
Group Dynamic Process.
Answer:
This process starts with giving the members certain rules that will guide their participation in the group. It could be verbal or written. Each member has to be committed to this guide as it serves as the guiding rule.

• Members are to avoid any drugs during or before the meeting.
• Members are expected to be punctual and regular to meetings.
• Members should not engage in any illicit sexual relationship with the opposite sex in the group.
• Members must avoid smoking during sessions.
• Confidentiality must be maintained by all members.
• Physical violence must be guided and verbally abusive language should be avoided.
• Members are given a list of their rights and responsibilities and what is expected of them before they join the group.
• Children and adolescents must produce written consent from their parents and guardians.
• Before anyone drops out of the group, he should notify the leader and discuss in the group before leaving.
  The next step in group process dynamics is the stages involved in the process. Four stages are identified here.

Question 6.
What is Authenticity?
Answer:
Your image or perception of yourself makes up your “I”. The self-perceived “I” is revealed through ideas, words, actions, clothing, and lifestyle. All of these communicate your “I” to others. Those who come into close contact with you also build their own image of you for themselves and they also sometimes communicate this image to you.

For example, friends tell you what they like and dislike about you. Your teachers and parents praise and/ or criticize you. You are also evaluated by persons you respect. These collective judgments by people you respect, also called significant others’, develop into a ‘me’. This other perceived ‘me’ is the person that others perceive you to be.

This perception may be the same as or different from your own self-perception of T. The degree to which you are aware of these perceptions of others as well as of your own perception of yourself indicates that you are self-aware. Authenticity means that your behavioral expressions are consistent with what you value and the way you feel and relate to your inner self-image.

Question 7.
What is Compliance?
Answer:
It was stated earlier that compliance refers simply to behave in response to a request from another person or group even in the absence of a norm. A good example of compliance is the kind of behavior shown when a salesperson comes to our door. Very often, this person comes with some goods that we really do not wish to buy.

Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we find that the salesperson has spoken to us for a few minutes and the conversation has ended with a purchase of what he or she wished to sell. So why do people comply? In many situations, this happens because it is an easy way out of the situation. It is more polite and the other party is pleased. In other situations, there could be other factors at work. The following techniques have been found to work when someone wants another person to comply.

Question 8.
Define Ingroup and Outgroup.
Answer:
Just as individuals compare themselves with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have and what others have, individuals also compare ‘ the group they belong to with groups of which they are not a member. The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own group and ‘outgroup’ refers to another group.

For ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used. By using the words they had, one is categorizing people as similar or different. It has been found that persons in the ingroup are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favorably, and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the ingroup members.

Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our social lives. These differences can be easily understood by studying Taj fee’s experiments given in Box 7.2. Although it is common to make these categorizations, it should be appreciated that these categories are not real and are created by us. In some cultures, plurality is celebrated as has been the case in India. We have a unique composite culture that is reflected not only in the lives we live but also in our art, architecture, and music.

Question 9.
What is Social Loafing?
Answer:
Social facilitation research suggests that the presence of others leads to arousal and can motivate individuals to enhance their performance if they are already good at solving something. This enhancement occurs when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated. What would happen if the efforts of an individual in a group are pooled so that you look at the performance of the group as a whole? Do you know what often happens?

It has been found that individuals work less hard in a group than they do when performing alone. This points to a phenomenon referred to as ‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. An example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for you to identify how much force each member of the team has been exerting.

Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free riders. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by Latane and his associates who asked a group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in knowing how much noise people make in social settings.

Question 10.
Group Polarisation
Answer:
We all know that important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals Kelman distinguished three forms of social influence, viz. compliance, identification, and internalization. In compliance, there are external conditions that force the individual to accept the influence of the significant other. Compliance also refers to behaving in a particular way in response to a request made by someone.

Thus, in the example described above, you may sign the letter with the thought that you were accepting the request, not because you agree with other students, but because you have been requested to do so by a significant member. This would be a case of compliance also called ‘external/public conformity ’. Compliance could take place even without a norm. For example, a member of a community group for a ‘clean environment’ requests you to put a sticker on your bike that reads, ‘ Say No to Plastic Bags’.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Political Science Solutions Unit 2 Basic Concept Long Answer Questions Part 2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Political Science Unit 2 Basic Concept Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Give a detail discussion of the various political rights guaranteed to individuals.
Answer:
Political right is one of the important rights of citizen without which human beings cannot manage to lead a civil life. Political rights are essential for the management of government. Various political rights of the citizens are discussed below.

Right to vote:
In a democratic government, normally free option is provided to share in the selection of the political party in whose hand the power of administration would be vested. It implies that every adult citizen should be provided the right of casting vote at the time of election which is restricted for aliens or the culprits. In modem days, democracy, right to vote is the only important way for the working of democracy. The right to vote of citizens provides the means and ways to be an active participant of the citizens.

Right to be Elected:
Right to be elected is the next important stage of popular participation in politics. The right to be elected refers that the law should not forbid any citizen from holding any public office, of course, there might be some sort of legal provisions for holding such public office on the basis of popular election. .

Right to Criticise the Government :
The dialogue was the basis of the ancient democracy existing in Greek city-states Accordingly, the present nation says that every policy and formulation of government should be subject to public scrutiny and criticism. Without right of criticizing the government, there must be an authoritarian trend in politics.

Right to Public Officers :
No citizen should be prohibited from holding public offices on the ground of religion, caste or color. Democracy believes that every human should be provided equal opportunities, None should be neglected on the discriminatory ground which would destroy the very principles of humanity and moral order.

Right to Petition :
Democratic legislature constituted on the basis of popular will is the best illustration of the forum for the ventilation of public grievances. So in a democracy, it has been provided constitutionally that every individual has free option to send a petition individually or collectively to the competent authority.

Right to Residence :
The Individual also enjoys the political right or the right to a residence which in other words would be termed as a permanent member of the state. This permanent membership or residence of an individual is exclusively reserved for citizens and is restricted for aliens who do not enjoy any political rights.

Right to Protection while Staying Abroad:
A citizen can seek the protection of his own life from the home state while staying abroad. Here the case of the repatriation of Indians. The Gulf countries during the tenure of V.P. Singh is a glaring example of the political staying abroad.

Right to Public Meeting:
Every citizen also possesses the right to public meetings and to form associations. A citizen should have a free option to express his opinion freely either may be through public meetings or by forming an association. Normally, the above-mentioned political rights are used to the best possible extent in a democratic setup of government. But in authoritarian states, those political rights are being misused and confused with duties and the collective interest of the society.

Question 2.
Define Human Rights and discuss the various kinds of human rights.
Answer:
Human rights are today considered to be a symbol of a civilized community. These are natural rights, inherent in every individual. These rights are essential for human welfare and prosperity. These rights help man to meet his basic needs of life and to lead a dignified life. They enhance the status of individuals in society and provide him with safeguards that are necessary for the protection of individuals against the arbitrary authority of state.
Every individual, irrespective of social discrimination, enjoys this right. It is a moral right that belongs to individuals, not to any country. Therefore, after the establishment of the UN, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted and it requested all the nations to secure the guarantee of these rights.
Characteristics :

• These rights are universal in character and valuable for all nations, communities and cultural groups.
• The individual is the centre of human rights.
• Human rights are safer in a democracy
• These are related to development and welfare.

Kinds of Human Rights :
The human rights mentioned in the Universal Declaration can be classified into, civil political, economic and cultural human rights.

Civil Human Rights: Civil human rights include

• the rights to life, liberty and personal security.
• the rights to freedom from slavery and servitude.
• the right to freedom from torture and cruel; inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
• the right to equality before law.
• the rights to an effective judicial remedy.
• the right to a fair trial and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal.
• the rights to be treated as innocent until proven guilty.
• the right to freedom from arbitrary interference with one’s privacy, family, home 6r correspondence.
• the rights to free movement, and
• the right to property and family etc.

Political Human Rights: These political rights are available only in a democracy. These rights are

• the right to asylum and nationality.
• the right to freedom of speech and expression
• the right to form associations and peaceful assembly
• the right to take part in Govt, and
• the rights to vote and equal access to public service etc.

Economic Hump Rights: Economic human rights include

• the rights to work and reasonable payment.
• the right to rest and leisure,
• the right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being and
• the right to social security etc.

Cultural Human Rights: Cultural human rights help an individual to preserve and conserve his culture amidst cultural diversities. These rights include.

• the rights to education and cultural protection,
• the rights to participate in the cultural life of the community.
• the right to enjoy the arts and share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
• the right to protection of moral and material interests resulting from scientific literacy or artistic production and
• the right to a social and inter-nation order in which these freedoms can be enjoyed. All these rights are to be enjoyed in conformity with the principles and purposes of the United Nations.

Question 3.
Describe the modes of violation and redressal of human rights.
Or, How human rights are violated? Suggest remedies.
Answer:
There is no one to enforce or safeguard these rights which are useful not only for individuals but also for society as a whole. Human rights are natural in origin, but it was only after the establishment of the United Nations that efforts are made to protect and safeguard them against violation.

Modes of Violation :
Violations of human rights are frequent in various parts of the world. No society or state can claim to be free from such a violation. The various modes of violation of human rights can be discussed below.

• When one nation attacks another or invades another nation and forcefully occupies the territory of the other human rights are violated. The recent military action of the USA on Iraq is a bright example of human rights violation.
• It can be violated by terrorism, aggressive nationalism and regionalism when people of one region or country try to disrupt normal life and peace in another. Pakistan supported terrorism in Kashmir, Al-Quai-da’s activities in Europe and USA, etc. are examples of human rights violations.
• Establishment of military rule.
• Colonial and imperial domination over backward people
• Racial determinations practiced in South Africa
• Conflicts between religious groups, racial groups and communal factions, tribal conflict and ethnic violence, etc. also lead to violation of human rights.
• Slavery arid forced labor, inhuman treatment to women and backward classes
• Child labor
• Ill-treatment of prisoners of war and criminals in jail.
• War, military expeditions, and use of atomic and chemic weapons, and
•  Social evils, customs, and orthodoxy also lead to human rights violations.

Remedial Measures:
These are two different modes of remedies for the violation of human rights.

Punitive Remedy:
Those violating human rights must be punished severely and this fear of punishment will act as a safeguard to human rights.

Preventive Remedy :

• A worldwide awareness program may be launched to generate consciousness among ordinary people about human rights, their value and the dangers of violation. The mass media, educational institutions and non Government organizations may be engaged in this type of activity.
• There is a need of a law to make it obligatory on the part of individuals and institutions not to violate human rights.
• The woman, children and backward classes must be given moral strength and encouragement to face the situation.
• The Govt, officials responsible for such violations may be severely punished and the Govt must be accountable for such acts.
• The human rights commission set up at different levels must work sincerely in that direction. These are Useful arid valuable both for individuals and society so they must be protected with care.

Question 4.
Define citizens and discuss the methods of Acquisition of citizenship.
Answer:
Citizens are the residents of democracy. They are permanent residents of a state and they discharge their responsibilities properly. They enjoy all rights and privileges granted by the state and discharge obligations towards the state and other associations.
‘Citizenships’ refers to the qualities of citizens in a democratic society. A citizen is a person who resides in a state owes allegiance to the state and is protected by the state. He discharges his duties to the state and society and always gives priority to common internals over personal ones. All civil, political, and economic rights are available to a citizen.

Acquisition of Citizenship:
Citizenship can be acquired in two ways

1. Natural Process and
2. Naturalization

Natural process:
In the natural process, citizenship is acquired by birth. It is governed by two principles. Jus Soli and Jus Sanguinis.

Jus Soli (Rule of Place of Birth):
According to this principle, citizenship can be acquired as per one’s place of birth. That means a child born in a state becomes a citizen of that state, if he or she is born in a foreign country he or she will become a citizen of that country irrespective of his or her parental citizenship. This principle is followed in Japan and Argentina.

Jus Sanguinis (Rule of Blood Relationship):
As per this principle, the citizenship of a child is determined on the basis of the citizenship of his parents irrespective of the place of birth. France, Italy, Germany and India follow this principle.

Naturalization:
Naturalization means a formal process of bestowing citizenship on noncitizens. In this process, one has to apply to the Head of State on certain specific grounds and with the approval of the government, he or she can be conferred with citizenship. This process differs from state to state. In naturalization, there are certain conditions and an alien applying for citizenship must satisfy at least one such condition or else he will not be granted with citizenship. These conditions are as follows.

According to Plato “Justice consists in allocating to each individual functions for which he is best fitted in accordance with his natural fitness and training”. Aristotle interpreted justice in the sense of fairness and equality. According to Benn and Peters, “Justice is to treat all men alike except where there are relevant differences between them. Charles Merriam defines justice as, “Consisting of a system of understanding and procedures through which each is accorded what is agreed upon as fair. Barker treats justice as the synthesis of Political values.”

Thus, justice can be explained from a broad and narrow point of view, Broadly, speaking justice is eternal and absolute which is infallible and unchangeable. It is determined according to social needs and circumstances. But from a narrow point of view justice is associated with the legal system and legal process in society. It is concerned with the protection and maintenance of the rights and obligations of individuals by an independent and impartial juridical system.

Types of justice: Justice can be classified into legal, social, economic and political, etc.
Legal justice :
Legal justice means lawyers’ conception of justice. It is associated with the legal system and the judicial process. This type of justice can be realized through the instrumentality of laws. Justice of this nature demands that, the laws of the state should be reasonably fair and proper and every individual should get justice according to the rule of law as opposed to the arbitrary will of men, legal justice stressed upon independent and impartial judiciary and equality before law. Legal justice demands that the laws, the judges and the judiciary must be free from corruption and outside pressures.

Social Justice :
Social justice implies the absence of discrimination among individuals on artificial grounds social justice is related to the general welfare of the community and the state should take steps to promote the interests of the weaker sections of society. Social justice is a balance between individual rights and social control ensuring the fulfillment of the legitimate expectations of the individual under the existing laws and assuring benefits consistent with the unity of the nation and the needs of the society. Again social justice implies that, in case of conflict between social and individual interests, the common interest must prevail. Allen criticized social justice as vague and confusing. Sometimes, it implies the distribution of wealth and equality of opportunity.

Political justice :
Political justice implies that, the people should be given a chance of fair and free participation in the political life of the country. By the provision of universal adult franchise, people are able to participate in the election of their representatives. Grant of equal Political rights and opportunities to influence the policies of the government is a condition of Political justice.

Political Justice further demands that :

• Elections must be free, fair, and regular
• There must be a rule of law as opposed to the rule of men.
• Freedom of speech, expression, assembly, petition, and criticism must be given to all.
• The judiciary must be independent and deliver impartial justice guaranteeing individual rights.
• The press must be free to organize public opinion.
• And the state of Govt must be free from the external pressures of foreign countries.

Economic justice :
Economic justice is the foundation of all other kinds of justice. It seeks to eliminate economic exploitation of the rich to tire poor by providing the basic minimum needs of every individual in society. National every one is treated equally the economy should be so shaped that the benefits are shared by the maximum number of people. Lask defining economic justice has said, no ma I can be entitled to a house of twenty-one rooms until all people are adequately housed. One man even in that environment is not entitled, to a house of twenty rooms because his father is an advocate or an industrial. Economic justice aims at the reduction of the gap between rich and poor and the principle of equal pay for equal work must prevail.
Economic justice further demands that :

• Every citizen shall get a right to adequate means of livelihood.
• Distribution of ownership and control of wealth to achieve the common good.
• The state shall take steps toward social security.
• The state must take care to promote the socio-economic and educational interests of the weaker sections.
• And equality in matters of employment, etc.
• Thus justice can prevail in a society where there is social, economic, political, and legal justice.

Question 5.
Write an essay on Social Justice.
Answer:
The concept of social justice is an essential element of the welfare state. The term is used to denote the organization of society on the basis of ideas of equality and fairness. Social justice seeks to erect a social order in which Social justice is closely related to social equality. It believes in the elimination of inequality and privileges based on birth, wealth, status, religion, sex or color. According to G.D. H. cole, social justice is a way of life ensuring equality in status and opportunities in all aspects of the social life of individuals.
Social justice is related to social equality and social rights. In a liberal democracy, social justice seeks to remove exploitation, oppression, and discrimination.

Nature:

• Social justice reduces inequality and removes special privileges by positive state action.
• It creates a just and fair social order.
• It gives special protection to the weaker sections and backward classes like, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes women and children.
• It makes a balance between individual rights and social control.
• Social justice enjoins upon the state to undertake far-reaching welfare measures to improve a lot of the lower classes.

A welfare state in order to maintain social justice introduces social security measures providing unemployment & sickness allowance- old age pensions, maternity benefits, and accident insurance etc. It allowances equitable distribution of goods and commodities and equal opportunity is given for all aspects of life irrespective of social classes or distinctions.

Social justice in India:
The Indian constitution has introduced a series of measures to ensure social justice.

• The Fundamental Rights and the Directives seek to ensure social justice.
• The Constitution has abolished discrimination on grounds of religion caste, sex or place of birth.
• Untouchability is abolished under Art 14.
• Art 23 prohibits forced labor. The exploitation of backward classes illegal use of women and child labor.
• The interests of minorities are protected under Art. 29.
•  Art. 42 directs the state to provide just and humane conditions of work and . maternity relief. The Govt takes special care for the education and economic interests of the children of the backward classes, and to save them from exploitation and justice.
• The Govt provides for the reservation of seats for S.C. and S.T. in order to promote social justice.
• The Govt has introduced economic planning and given the backward classes social status economic security, and a share in political power.

Question 6.
Define secularism and discuss the western and Indian approaches to secularism
Or, Distinguish between western and Indian aspects of secularism.
Answer:
The term secularism was used for the first time in 185.1 by Holyoke in its Latin
form speculum, this means that the activities of the state must be free from the influence of religion. In the ordinary sense, secularism implies equal treatment to religion and being tolerant towards any religion. As far as the interpretation of the term is concerned the word secularism is interpreted in the west in a different way from that of India. The difference in this approach may be explained below.

Secularism in India:
Indian secularism contains the following features:

• Secularism in India is commonly used to mean equal treatment to religions.
• It believes in the coexistence Of all religions and tolerance towards all religious faith.
• In India the” majority religious communities exercise their superiority over minority communities.
• It does not give scope for religious discrimination, or inequality of exploitation. The exploitation of women & backward classes is strongly resented by secular forces.
• Secularism allows everybody to accept any religion of his own choice and to reject it at will. Every religious community is given full freedom to practice and propagate its religious values and ideas, and to perform religious rights and ceremonies.
• The state has no religion of its own, but it can initiate religious reforms for the abolition of child marriage or untouchability.
• The state never tolerates religious atrocities. Every religious community shall have the liberty in India to preserve its culture by establishing its own educational institution. But, the state is nor completely from religious pulls and pressures.

Western Secularism:
The basic features of western secularism may be discussed below:

• In the western world, there is no state religion nor the state patronize any religion.
• The state remains completely free from religious influence. It neither interferes in the freedom of religion of the people nor allows religious principles to guide state activities.
• No state policy or program violates the religious freedom of the people.
• The state does not provide any grant to any religious institution nor does it obstruct the activities of any religious institutions.
• Religion is considered purely a private affair. No religious community enjoys special status in the west. The state does not tolerate religious exploitation or oppression. However, the basic difference between the two approaches is that while in the western state and religion remain completely detached in our country it is only in pen and paper. In India, there are enough examples of appeasement to religious communities by the government for securing political support. Further, in our country, secularism is used mostly as a vote-catching slogan but that never happens in the west.

Question 7.
Define development and discuss the various models of development.
Or, Write an essay on the models of development.
Answer:
Development is a continuous process of growth. It is a progression from a simpler to a more advanced or complex form of society. It includes all aspects of human growth like, including physical, mental, intellectual, social, and economic development.

Origin :
The process of development started in the post world war era. It was first of set in Europe and western countries and the process thereafter followed in other parts of the world. Depending on the process of development the western states were called developed nations and the states of Asia and Africa developed.

Models of development :
There are three models 6f development, such as

• Capitalist model
• Socialist model and
• A sustainable model of development

Capitalist model of development:
This model of development is working today in the USA, UK, Australia, Canada, and other European countries. It is otherwise known as individual-centric or market-based development.

• In this model economic development is considered to be a condition for political development.
• The capitalist model pleads for the round development of individuals.
• Rapid industrialization, technological development, modernization, employment generation, etc. are the ingredients of the capitalist model of development.
• It further believes in the Liberalisation of the social, political, and economic systems.
• The capitalist model further relies on free market economy and economic competition for growth.

Criticism:
This capitalist model widens the gap between rich and poor countries and here the underdeveloped states are the worst sufferers.

Socialist model of development:
The Socialist model is also known as the Marxist model of development. It is just the opposite of the capitalist model. It is now found in China. Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Cuba and North Korea.

• It believes in a state-controlled economy, production and means of distribution.
• This model emphasizes on socioeconomic rights Of individuals, equality and social justice.
• It looks after the well-being of the poor working class and depressed classes.
• The state here, exercises control over industry, health, education, communication and transport and distribution system.
• The state can sacrifice the interests of an individual or a group for the greater interests of society. This model was popular from 1920 to1980 but with the downfall of the Soviet Union, this model is losing ground.

Sustainable model of development:
In view of the rapid growth of population, industrialization, urbanization and modern lifestyle energy and natural resources are depleting first. Unplanned social and economic development has led to increasing in environmental pollution. Therefore, a new model of sustainable development has been introduced in place of the capitalist and socialist models.

• The sustainable model believes in socio-economic development with due concern for environmental safety.
•  It insists on the limited use of natural resources like water, air, soil and mineral resources and fossil fuels. Resources must be used with utmost care so that the future generation will not be deprived of those resources.
• It focuses on ensuring a healthy and enduring balance between human needs natural resources and the economic system.
• The development shall meet the needs of the present without keeping the future generation of risk.
• There must be plans to ensure population control. Poverty alleviation, socio-economic justice protection of the environment, biodiversity, and conservation of natural resources.
• This model emphasizes more on creating awareness among people for a secured future life with due importance toward environmental safety.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 2 Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 2 Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1:
Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life.
Answer:
Stress is derived from Latin word ‘strictus’ which means tight or narrow. Stress can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes t6 stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. All the challenges, problems, and difficult circumstances put us to stress. It gives energy, increases human arousal and affects performance.

High stress too can produce unpleasant effects and cause our performance to deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress may cause one to feel somewhat listless and low on motivation which may lead us to perform slowly and less efficiently. It is important to remember that not all stress is inherently bad or destructive.

Examples from daily life:

• Attending parties may be stressful for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home.
• If a person gets low marks than his/her expectations, then it may be stressful and a sign of frustration for them.
• When someone is forced to choose a job due to family pressure then it may stressful for him afterwards.

Question 2:
State the symptoms and sources of stress.
Answer:
Symptoms of stress :
Some of us know our pattern of stress response and can gauge the depth of the problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behaviour. These symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved, might have serious implications.

Sources of stress:
A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress. Among the most important of these are major stressful life events, such as the death of a loved one or personal injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that affect our lives.

Question 3:
Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of an example.
Answer:
Selye studied the body when stress is prolonged by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time. He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.

• Alarm reaction stage:
  The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to the activation of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system. This triggers the release of
  hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight or flight.
• Resistance stage:
  If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The para-sympathetic nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through confrontation.
• Exhaustion stage:
  Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely. Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress.
  Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress. How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions, personalities and biological constitutions.

Question 4:
Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress.
Answer:
To manage stress we often need to reassess the way we think and learn coping strategies. Different ways of coping with stress are:

• Task-oriented Strategy:
  This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome. lt also involves deciding priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation. For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I have solved similar problems.
• Emotion-oriented Strategy:
  This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions. It can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration or deciding that nothing can be done to change things. For example, tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am going to do.
• Avoidance-oriented Strategy:
  This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation. It also involves the conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self-protective thoughts. Examples of this are watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to be with other people.

Question 5:
Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning.
Answer:
The effect of stress on psychological functioning:

Emotional Effects:
Those who suffer from stress are far more likely to experience mood swings and show erratic behaviour that may alienate them from family and friends. In some cases this can start a vicious cycle of decreasing confidence, leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological tension and mood swings.

Physiological Effects:
When the human body is placed under physical Or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity. Although this physical reaction will help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to the body in the long-term effects. Examples of physiological effects are the release of epinephrine and nor-epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive system, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate and constriction of blood vessels.

Cognitive Effects:
If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from mental overload. This suffering from high levels of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability to make sound decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, in career, or at the workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or even loss of job. The cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration and reduced short-term memory capacity.

Behavioural Effects:
Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing intake of stimulants such as caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquillisers etc. Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of concentration, poor coordination, and dizziness. Some of the typical behavioural effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and reduced work performance.

Question 6:
Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges.
Answer:
Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands and keep equilibrium in our lives. These life skills can be learned and even improved, upon. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care and overcoming unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, and procrastination, etc. are some life skills that will help to meet the challenges of life.

Question 7:
Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being.
Answer:
Various factors have been identified which facilitate the development of positive health. Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health comprises the following constructs: “a healthy body, high quality of. personal relationships, a sense of purpose in life self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks and resilience to stress, trauma and change”. Specifically, factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health are diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive thinking and social support.

Question 8:
How does stress affect the immune system?
Answer:
Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system. How does the immune system work? The white blood, cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the production of antibodies.

There are several kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders and T-helper cells increase immunological activity. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HTV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses and tumours.

Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the defence against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in people who are highly stressed, including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons and those who are severely depressed. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support. Also, changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune systems are already weakened.

Question 9:
Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.
Answer:
Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment we are born. We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval. If several of these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prone to the symptoms of stress.

Unexpected accidents or trauma or the death of close family members are examples of life events which are very stressful for the members, relatives of the family and friends. The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as the age at which the event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event and social support are the reasons which is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.

Question 10:
Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to your friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives.
Answer:
Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. I would suggest my friends to adopt problem-focused strategies and emotion-focused strategies. Both are coping strategies which can be used to handle stressful situations.

Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain information, to alter the event and to alter beliefs and commitments. They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They can act to reduce the threat value of the event. For example “I made a plan of action and followed it”.

Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself. For example “I did some things to let it out of my system”. While both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are necessary when facing stressful situations, research suggests that people generally tend to use the former more often than the latter.

Question 11:
Reflect on the environmental factors that have (a) a positive impact on the being, and (b) a negative effect.
Answer:

•  Environmental factors that have a positive impact on the being are social and public campaigns, fair governmental policies, plantation of green plants, medical policies etc.
• Environmental factors that have a negative impact on the being are unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc. Another group are catastrophic events, or disasters such as fire, earthquake, floods, etc.

Question 12:
We know that certain lifestyle factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases like cancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour. Explain why?
Answer:
Stress can lead to an unhealthy lifestyle or health-damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health and quality of life. Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens which are agents causing physical illness. People who are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are likely to engage in other health risk behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse.

Such health-impairing behaviours develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences temporarily. However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging effects and underestimate the risk they pose to our lives. Studies have revealed that health-promoting behaviour like a balanced diet, regular exercise, family support, etc. play an important role in good health.

Adhering to a lifestyle that includes a balanced low-fat diet, regular exercise and continued activity along with positive thinking enhance health and longevity. The modem lifestyle of excesses in eating, drinking and the so-called fast-paced good life has led to the violation of basic principles of health in some of us, as to what we eat think or do with our lives.

Question 13:
What is ‘Eustress’?
Answer:
It is the term used to describe the level of stress that is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for achieving peak performance and managing a minor crisis. Eustress, however, has the potential of turning into ‘distress’. It is this latter manifestation of stress that causes our body’s wear and tear. Thus, stress can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope.

Question 14:
Describe the Nature of Stress.
Answer:
The word stress has its origin in the Latin words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow and ‘stringere’, the verb meaning to tighten. These root words reflect the internal feelings of tightness and constriction of the muscles and breathing reported by many people under stress. Stress is often explained in terms of characteristics of the environment that are disruptive to the individual. Stressors are events that cause our body to give a stress response.

Such events include noise, crowding, a bad relationship, or the daily commuting to school or the office. The reaction to external stressors is called ‘strain’. Stress has come to be associated with both causes as well as effects. However, this view of stress can cause confusion. Hans Selye,-the father of modem stress research, defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand” that is, regardless of the cause of the threat, the individual will respond with the same physiological pattern of reactions.

Many researchers do not agree with this definition as they feel that the stress response is not nearly as general and nonspecific as Selye suggests. Different stressors may produce somewhat different patterns of stress reaction and different individuals may have different characteristic modes of response. You may recall the case of an opening batsman mentioned earlier.

Each one of us will see the situation through our own eyes and it is our perception of the demands, and our ability to meet them, which will determine whether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or not. Stress is not a factor that resides in the individual or the environment, instead, it is embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their social and cultural environments, making appraisals of those encounters and attempting to cope with the issues that arise.

Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or an imbalance that gives rise to a requirement for the resolution of that imbalance or restoration of homeostasis. The perception of stress is dependent upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and the resources available to deal with them.

Question 15:
Explain the stress process of Lazarus.
Answer:
The stress process is based on the cognitive theory of stress propounded by Lazarus and his colleagues. An individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the perceived events and how they are interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary.
Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as positive, neutral or negative in its consequences. Negative events are appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge.

Harm is the assessment of the damage that has already been done by an event. The threat is the assessment of possible future damage that may be brought about by the event. Challenge appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability to cope with the stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from the event. When we perceive an event as stressful, we are likely to make a secondary appraisal, which is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources and whether they will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat or challenge of the event.

These resources may be mental, physical, personal or social. If one thinks one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social support to deal with the crises she/he will feel less stressed. This two-level appraisal process determines not only our cognitive and behavioural responses but also our emotional and physiological responses to external events. These appraisals are very subjective and will depend on many factors. One factor is. the past experience of dealing with such a stressful condition. If one has handled similar, situations very successfully in the past, they would be less threatening for her/him.

Another factor is whether the stressful event is perceived as controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery or control over a situation. A person who believes that s/he can control the onset of a negative situation, or its adverse consequences, will experience less amount of stress than those who have no such sense of personal control. For example, a sense of self-confidence or efficacy can determine whether the person is likely to appraise the situation as a threat or a challenge. Thus, the experience and outcome of a stressor may vary from individual to individual.

Stress includes all those environmental and personal events, which challenge or threaten the well-being of a person. These stressors can be external, such as environmental (noise, air pollution), social (break-up with a friend, loneliness) or psychological (conflict, frustration) within the individual. Very often, these stressors result in a variety of stress reactions, which may be physiological, behavioural, emotional and cognitive. At the physiological level, arousal plays a key role in stress-related behaviours. The hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways.

The first pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases a large amount of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream. This leads to physiological changes seen in the fight-or-flight response. The second pathway involves the pituitary gland, which secretes the corticosteroid (cortisol) which provides energy. The emotional reactions to the experience of stress include negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression or even denial.

The behavioural responses are virtually limitless, depending on the nature of the stressful event. Confrontative action against the stressor (fight) or withdrawal from the threatening event (flight) are two general categories of behavioural responses. Cognitive responses include beliefs about the harm or threat an event poses and beliefs about its causes or controllability. These include responses such as the inability to concentrate and intrusive, repetitive or morbid thoughts.

As indicated in Figure 3.2, the stresses which people experience also vary in terms of intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity), duration (short-term vs. long-term), complexity ( less complex vs. more complex) and predictability (unexpected vs. predictable). The outcome of stress depends on the position of a particularly stressful experience along these dimensions. Usually, more intense, prolonged or chronic, complex and unanticipated stresses have more negative consequences than have less intense, short-term, less complex and expected stresses.

An individual’s experiences of stress depend on the physiological strength of that person. Thus, individuals with poor physical health and weak constitution would be more vulnerable than would be those who enjoy good health and a strong constitution. Psychological characteristics like mental health, temperament and self-concept are relevant to the experience of stress.

The cultural context in which we live determines the meaning of any event and defines the nature of the response that is expected under various conditions.  Finally, the stress experience will be determined by the resources of the person, such as money, social skills, coping style, support networks, etc; All these factors determine the appraisal of a given stressful situation.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 2 Long Answer Questions Part-2.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 2 Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the Signs and Symptoms of Stress?
Answer:
The way we respond to stress varies depending upon our personality, early upbringing and life experiences. Everyone has their own pattern of stress response. So the warning signs may vary, as may their intensity. Some of us know our pattern of stress response and can gauge the depth of the problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behavior.

These symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional and behavioral. Any of the symptoms can indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved, might have serious implications, that are often unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding, noise, the heat of the summer, winter cold, etc. Another group of environmental stresses are catastrophic events or disasters such as fire, earthquake, floods, etc.

Question 2.
Discuss the Types of Stress.
Answer:
The three major types of stress, viz. physical and. environmental, psychological, and social are listed. It is important to understand that all these types of stress are interrelated.

Physical and Environmental Stress :
Physical stresses are demands that change the state of our body. We feel strained when, we overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer an injury, or fail to get enough sleep. Environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings.

Psychological Stress :
These are stresses that we generate ourselves in our minds. These are personal and unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources of stress. We worry about problems, feel anxiety, or become depressed. These are, not only symptoms of stress, but they cause further stress for us. Some of the important sources of psychological stress are frustration, conflicts, internal and social pressures, etc.

Frustration:
Frustration results from the blocking of needs and motives by something “or someone that hinders us from achieving the desired goal. There could be a number of causes of frustration such as social discrimination, interpersonal hurt, low grades in school, etc.

Conflicts:
Conflicts may occur between two or more incompatible needs or motives, e.g. whether to study dance or psychology. You may want to continue your studies or take up a job. There may be a conflict of values when you are pressurised to take any action that may be against the values held by you.

Internal pressures:
Internal pressures stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to ourselves such as, ‘I must do everything perfectly. Such expectations can only lead to disappointment. Many of us drive ourselves ruthlessly towards achieving unrealistically high standards in achieving our goals.

Social pressures:
Social pressures may be brought about from people who make excessive demands on us. This can cause even greater pressure when we have to work with them. Also, there are people with whom we face interpersonal difficulties, ‘a personality clash’ of sorts.

Social Stress :
These are induced externally and result from our interaction with other people. Social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships, and trouble with neighbors are some Examples of social stresses. These social stresses vary widely from person to person. Attending parties may be stressful for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home while an outgoing person may find staying at home in the evenings stressful.

Question 3.
Write the Sources of Stress.
Answer:
A wide range of events and conditions Can generate stress. Among the most important of these are major stressful life events, such as the death of a loved one or personal.
Life Events:
Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment we are born. We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval. If several of these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prone to the symptoms of stress.
A Measure of Stressful Life Events

Life Events Mean Stress Score
Death of a close family member	66
Unexpected accident or trauma	53
Illness of a family member	52
Break-up with friend	47
Appearing for examinations	43
Change in eating habits	27

The mean number of stressful life events experienced over a period of one year. Holmes and Rahe developed a life event measure of stress. A measure of stressful life events based on the above scale known as the Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale has been developed for the Indian population by Singh, Kaur and Kaur. It is a self-rating questionnaire made up of fifty-one life changes, that a person may have experienced. Each of these life events is assigned a numerical value in terms of their severity.

For example, the death of one’s spouse is assigned 95, personal illness or injury 56, failure in examination 43, appearing for examination or interview 43, and change in sleeping habits 33, as the mean stress score. Both positive and negative events are taken, believing that both kinds of changes cause stress. The respondent’s stress score is the weighted sum of all the items/life change events in the past one year checked by her/him. Some sample items of without producing overt physical or mental illness is approximately two.

However, the correlations between life events and susceptibility to any particular illness is low, indicating a weak association between life events and stress. It has been argued as to whether life events have caused some stress-related illness or whether stress caused life events and illness. The impact of most life events varies from person to person.

Factors such as age at which the event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event and social support must be studied in evaluating the relationship between stressful life events and the subsequent illness episode, injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that affect our lives.

Hassles :
These are the personal stresses we endure as individuals, due to the happenings in our daily life, such as noisy surroundings, commuting, quarrelsome neighbors, electricity and water shortage, traffic snarls and so on. Attending to various emergencies are daily hassles experienced by a housewife. There are some jobs in which daily hassles are very frequent. These daily hassles may sometimes have devastating consequences for the individual who is often the one coping alone with them as others may not even be aware of them as outsiders. The more stress people report as a result of daily hassles, the poorer is their psychological well-being.

Traumatic Events :
These include being involved in a variety of extreme events such as a fire, train or road accident, robbery, earthquake, tsunami, etc. The effects of these events may occur after some lapse of time and sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety, flashbacks, dreams and intrusive thoughts, etc. Severe trauma can also strain relationships. Professional help will be needed to cope with them especially if they persist for many months after the event is over.

Question 4.
What is the Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning and Health,
Answer:
Many of the effects are physiological in nature, however, other changes also occur inside stressed individuals. There are four major effects of stress associated with the stressed state, viz. emotional, physiological, cognitive, and behavioral.

Emotional Effects :
Those who suffer from stress are far more likely to experience mood swings and show erratic behavior that may alienate them from family and friends. In some cases this can start a vicious circle of decreasing confidence, leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological tension and mood swings. Box 3.2 presents the phenomenon of ‘Examination Anxiety’.

Physiological Effects :
When the human body is placed under physical or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity. Although this physical reaction will help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to the body in the long-term effects. Examples of physiological effects are release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, slowing down of the digestive system, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate, and constriction of blood vessels.

Cognitive Effects :
If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from mental overload. This suffering from high level of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability to make sound decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, in career, or at the workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or even loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration and reduced short-term memory capacity.

Behavioral Effects:
Stress affects our behavior in the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing intake of stimulants such as caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquilizers etc. Tranquilizers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of concentration, poor coordination and dizziness. Some of the typical behavioral effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and reduced work performance.

Stress and Health :
You must have often observed that many of your friends (maybe including yourself as well!) fall sick during examination time. They suffer from stomach upsets, body aches, nausea, diarrhea and fever etc. You must have also noticed that people, who are unhappy in their personal lives fall sick more often than those who are happy and enjoy life. Chronic daily stress can divert an individual’s attention from caring for herself or himself.

When stress is prolonged, it affects physical health and impairs psychological functioning.People experience exhaustion and attitudinal problems when the stress due to demands from the environment and constraints are too high and little support is available from family and friends. Physical exhaustion is seen in the signs of chronic fatigue, weakness and low energy. Mental exhaustion appears in the form of irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.

This state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as burnout. There is also convincing evidence to show that stress can produce changes in the immune system and increase the chances of someone becoming ill. Stress has been implicated in the development of cardiovascular disorders, high blood pressure, as well as psychosomatic disorders including ulcers, asthma, allergies and headaches. Researchers estimate that stress plays an important role in fifty to seventy percent of all physical illnesses. Studies also reveal that sixty percent of medical visits are primarily for stress-related symptoms.

General Adaptation Syndrome :
What happens to the body when stress is prolonged? Selye studied this issue by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays, and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time. He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion.

Alarm reaction stage :
The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to the activation of the adrenal pituitary- cortex system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight or flight.

Resistance stage :
If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The parasympathetic nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through confrontation.

Exhaustion stage:
Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely. Selye’s model has been criticized for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress. Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress. How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions, personalities and biological constitutions.

Stress and the Immune System:
Stress ean cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside.

Psychoneuroimmunology:
Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system. How does the immune system work? The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune (antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the production of antibodies. There are several kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper cells increase immunological activity. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells produce antibodies.

Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses and tumors, Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the defense against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural, killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in people who are highly stressed, including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons, and those who are severely depressed. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support. Also, changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune systems are already weakened.

Figure 3.4 depicts this sequence comprising negative emotions, release of stress hormones which lead to the weakening of the immune system, thereby affecting mental and physical health. Psychological stress is accompanied by negative emotions and associated behaviors, including depression, hostility, anger and aggression. Negative emotional states are of particular concern to the study of the effects of stress on health. The incidence of psychological disorders, such as panic attacks and obsessive behavior increases with the build-up of long-term stress. Worries can reach such a level that they surface as a frightening, painful physical sensation, which can be mistaken for a heart attack.

People under prolonged stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias, and may experience fits of depression, anger and irritability. These negative emotions appear to be related to the function of the immune system. Our ability to interpret our world and to invest that interpretation with personal meaning and emotion have a powerful and direct effect on the body. Negative moods have been associated with poorer health outcomes. Feelings of hopelessness are related to the worsening of disease and increased risk of injury and death due to various causes.

Lifestyle :
Stress can lead, to unhealthy lifestyles or health-damaging behavior. Lifestyle is th,e overall pattern of decisions and behaviors that determine a person’s health and quality of life. Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing physical illness. People who are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are likely to engage in other health-risking behaviors like smoking and alcohol abuse. Such health-impairing behaviors develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences temporarily.

However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging effects and underestimate the risk they pose to our lives. Studies have revealed that health-promoting behavior like a balanced diet, regular exercise, family support, etc. play an important role in good health. Adhering to a lifestyle that includes a balanced low-fat diet, regular exercise and continued activity along with positive thinking enhances health and longevity. The modem lifestyle of excesses in eating, drinking and the so called fast-paced good life has led to violation of basic principles of health in some of us, as to what we eat, think or do with our lives.

Question 5.
How to cope up with Stress?
Answer:
In recent years the conviction has grown that it is how we cope with stress and not the stress one experiences that influence our psychological well-being, social functioning and health. Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. The way we cope with stress often depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based on experience, e.g. when caught in a traffic jam we feel angry because we believe that the traffic ‘should’ move faster.

To manage stress we often need to reassess the way we think and learn coping strategies. People who cope poorly with stress have an impaired immune response and diminished activity of natural killer cells. Individuals show consistent individual differences in the coping strategies they use to handle stressful situations. These can include both overt and covert activities.

The three coping strategies given by Endler and Parker are:

Task-oriented Strategy :
This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome; it also involves deciding priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation. For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I have solved similar problems.

Emotion-oriented Strategy:
This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions; it can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to change things. For example, tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am going to do.

Avoidance-oriented Strategy:
This involves denying or minimizing the seriousness of the situation; it also involves conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self-protective thoughts. Examples of this are watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to be with other people. Lazarus and Folkman has conceptualized coping as a dynamic process rather than an individual trait. Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to master, reduce or tolerate the internal or external demands that are created by the stressful transaction.

Coping serves to allow the individual to manage or alter a problem and regulate the emotional response to that problem. According to them coping responses can be divided into two types of responses, problem-focused and emotion-focused. Problem-focused -strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviors designed to gain information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments. They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge, and range of behavioral and cognitive coping options. They can act to reduce the threat value of the event.

For example “I made a plan of action and followed it”. Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself. For example “I did some things to let it out of my system”. While both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are necessary when facing stressful situations, research suggests that people generally tend to use the former more often than the latter.

Stress Management Techniques:
Stress is a silent killer. It is estimated to play a significant role in physical illness and disease. Hypertension, heart disease, ulcers, diabetes and even cancer are linked to stress. Due to lifestyle changes stress is on the increase. Therefore, schools, other institutions, offices and communities are concerned about knowing techniques to manage stress. Some of these techniques are.

Relaxation Techniques :
It is an active skill that reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of illnesses such as high blood pressure and heart disease. Usually, relaxation starts from the lower part of the body and progresses up to the facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed. Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the body.

Meditation Procedures :
The yogic method of meditation consists of a sequence of learned techniques for refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness. It involves such a thorough concentration that the meditator becomes unaware, of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness.

Biofeedback :
It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects of stress by providing feedback about current physiological activity and is often accompanied by relaxation training. Biofeedback training involves three stages: developing an awareness of the particular physiological response, e.g. heart rate, learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions; and transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life.

Creative Visualisation:
It is an effective technique for dealing with stress. Creative visualization is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination. Before visualizing one must set oneself a realistic goal, as it helps build confidence. It is easier to visualize if one’s mind is quiet, body relaxed and eyes are closed. This reduces the risk of interference from unbidden thoughts and provides the creative energy needed for turning an imagined scene into reality.

Cognitive Behavioural Techniques :
These techniques aim to inoculate people against stress. Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum. The essence of this approach is to replace negative and irrational thoughts with positive and rational ones.

There are three main phases in this: assessment, stress reduction techniques, and application and follow-through. Assessment involves discussing the nature of the problem and seeing it from the viewpoint of the person/client. Stress reduction involves learning the techniques of reducing stress such as relaxation and self-instruction.

Exercise :
Exercise can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal experienced in response to stress. Regular exercise improves the efficiency of the heart, enhances the function of the lungs, maintains good circulation, lowers blood pressure, reduces fat in the blood and improves the body’s immune system. Swimming, walking, running, cycling, skipping, etc. help to reduce stress. One must practice these exercises at least four times a week for 30 minutes at a time. Each session must have a warm-up, exercise and cool-down phases.

Question 6.
What is Stress-Resistant Personality?
Answer:
Recent studies by Kobasa have shown that people with high levels of stress but low levels of illness share three characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits of hardiness. It consists of ‘the three Cs i.e. commitment, control and challenge. Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how they interact. It takes shape as a Sense of personal commitment to what you are doing, a sense of control over your life and a feeling of challenge.

Stress-resistant personalities have control which is a sense of purpose and direction in life; commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life and challenge, that is, they see changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat. Everyone does not have these characteristics, many of us have to relearn specific life skills in areas such as rational thinking and assertiveness to equip ourselves better to cope with the demands of everyday life, etc.

Life Skills :
Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with and-counterbalance everyday demands and keep equilibrium in our lives. These life skills can be learned and even improved upon. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care and overcoming unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, and procrastination, etc. are some life skills that will help to meet the challenges of life.

Assertiveness :
Assertiveness is a behavior or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and confidently, our feelings, needs, wants and thoughts. It is the ability to say no to a request, to state an opinion without being self-conscious, or to express emotions such as love, anger, etc. openly. If you are assertive, you feel confident and have high self-esteem and a solid sense of your own identity.

Time Management:
The way you spend your time determines the quality of your life. Learning how to plan time and delegate can help to relieve the pressure. The major way to reduce time stress is to change one’s perception of time. The central principle of time management is to spend your time doing the things that you value, or that help you to achieve your goals. It depends on being realistic about what you know and that you must do it within a certain time period, knowing what you want to do and organizing your life to achieve a balance between the two.

Rational Thinking :
Many stress-related problems occur as a result of distorted thinking. The way you think and the way you feel are closely connected. When we are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective bias to attend to negative thoughts and images from the past, which affect our perception of the present and the future. Some of the principles of rational thinking are: challenging your distorted thinking and irrational beliefs, driving out potentially intrusive negative anxiety-provoking thoughts and making positive statements.

Improving Relationships:
The key to a sound lasting relationship is communication. This consists of three essential skills: listening to what the other person is saying, expressing how you feel and what you think and accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are different from your own. It also requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy and sulking behavior.

Self-care :
If we keep ourselves healthy, fit and relaxed, we are better prepared physically and emotionally to tackle the stresses of everyday life. Our breathing patterns reflect our state of mind and emotions. When we are stressed or anxious, we tend towards rapid and shallow breathing from high in the chest, with frequent sighs. The most relaxed breathing is slow, stomach-centered breathing from the diaphragm, i.e. a dome-like muscle between the chest and the abdominal cavity. Environmental stresses like noise, pollution, space, light, color, etc. can all exert an influence on our mood. These have a noticeable effect on our ability to cope with stress and well-being.

Overcoming Unhelpful Habits:
Unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, avoidance, procrastination, etc. are strategies that help to cope in the short-term but which make one more vulnerable to stress. Perfectionists are persons who have to get everything just right. They have difficulty in varying standards according to factors such as time available, consequences of not being able to stop work, and the effort needed. They are more likely to feel tense and find it difficult to relax, are critical of self and others and may become inclined to avoid challenges.

Avoidance is to put the issue under the carpet and refuse to accept or face it. Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do. We all are, guilty of saying “I will do it later”. People who procrastinate are deliberately avoiding confronting their fears of failure or rejection. Various factors have been identified which facilitate the development of positive health.

Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health comprises the following constructs: “a healthy body high quality of personal relationships; a sense of purpose in life; self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks and resilience to stress, trauma, and change”. Box 3.3 presents the relationship between resilience and health. Specifically, factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health are diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive thinking and social support.

Diet:
A balanced diet can lift one’s mood, give more energy, feed muscles, improve circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the immune system and make one feel better to cope with stresses of life. The key to healthy living is to eat three main meals a day and eat a varied well-balanced diet. How much nutrition one needs depends on one’s activity level, genetic makeup, climate and health history. What people eat and how much do they weigh involve behavioral processes. Some people are able to maintain a healthy diet and weight while others become obese. When we are stressed, we seek ‘comfort foods that are high in fats, salt and sugar.

Exercise :
A large number of studies confirm a consistently positive relationship between physical fitness and health. Also, of all the measures an individual can take to improve health, exercise is the lifestyle change with the widest popular approval. Regular exercise plays an important role in managing weight and stress and is shown to have a positive effect on reducing tension, anxiety and depression.Physical exercises that are essential for good health are stretching exercises such as yogic asanas and aerobic exercises such as jogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Whereas stretching exercises have a calming effect, aerobic exercises increase the arousal level of the body. The health benefits of exercise work as a stress buffer. Studies suggest that fitness permits individuals to maintain general mental and physical well-being even in the face of negative life events.

Positive Attitude:
Positive health and well-being can be realized by having a positive attitude. Some of the factors leading to a positive attitude are: having a fairly accurate perception of reality; a sense of purpose in life and responsibility; acceptance and tolerance for different viewpoints of others and taking credit for success and accepting blame for failure. Finally, being open to new ideas and having a sense of humor with the ability to laugh at oneself help us to remain centered Mid see things in a proper perspective.

Positive Thinking:
The power of positive thinking has been increasingly recognized in reducing and coping with stress. Optimism, which is the inclination to expect favorable life outcomes, has been linked to psychological and physical well-being. People differ in the manner in which they cope. For example, optimists tend to assume that adversity can be handled successfully whereas pessimists anticipate disasters. Optimists use more problem-focused coping strategies, and seek advice and help from others. Pessimists ignore the problem or source of stress and use strategies such as giving up the goal with which stress is interfering or denying that stress exists.

Social Support:
Social support is defined as the existence and availability of people on whom we can rely upon, people who let us know that they care about, value and love us. Someone who believes that she/he belongs to a social network of communication and mutual obligation experiences social support. Perceived support, i.e. the quality of social support is positively related to health and well-being. In contrast, social network, i.e. the quantity of social support is unrelated to well-being because it is very time-consuming and demanding to maintain a large social network.

Studies have revealed that women exposed to life event stresses, who had a close friend, were less likely to be depressed and had lesser medical complications during pregnancy. Social support can help to provide protection against stress. People with high levels of social support from family and friends may experience less stress when they confront a stressful experience, and they may cope with it more successfully. Social support may be in the form of tangible support or assistance involving material aid, such as money, goods, services, etc.

For example, a child gives notes to her/his friend, since she/he was absent from school due to sickness. Family and friends also provide informational support about stressful events. For example, a student facing a stressful event such as a difficult board examination, if provided information by a friend who has faced a similar one, would not only be able to identify the exact procedures involved, but also it would facilitate in determining what resources and coping strategies could be useful to successfully pass the examination.

During times of stress, one may experience sadness, anxiety, and loss of self-esteem. Supportive friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring the individual that she/he is loved, valued, and cared for. Research has demonstrated that social support effectively reduces psychological distress such as depression or anxiety, during times of stress. There is growing evidence that social support is positively related to psychological well-being. Generally, social support leads to mental health benefits for both the giver and the receiver.

Question 7.
Effect of noise on Child health.
Answer:
Noise :
Children’s reading abilities, cognitive development, physiological indicators, and motivational tasks are affected by exposure to noise. The most common noises that children are exposed to are transportation (e.g. cars, airplanes), music and other people. Evans’ research reveals significant reading delays for children living near airports and exposed to airport noise. He and his colleagues found these delays in reading to occur alnoise levels far below those required to produce hearing damage or loss.

Chronic and acute noise exposure also affects cognitive development, particularly long-term memory, especially if the task is complex. Short-term memory appears to be less affected, but this is dependent upon volume of noise. One way that children adapt to chronic noise is by disregarding or ignoring auditory input. A consequence of this coping strategy is that children also tune out speech, which is a basic and required component of reading. As a result, not only are children’s reading abilities affected, but also their abilities at tasks that require speech perception.

Noise levels also indirectly influence children’s cognitive development via their effect on the adults and teachers who interact with children. Teachers in noisy schools are more fatigued, annoyed and less patient than teachers in quieter schools. Teachers in noisy schools also losC instruction time due to noise distractions and have a compromised teaching style. Children exposed to chronic loud noise also experience a rise in blood pressure, and stress hormones. And children as young as four are less motivated to perform on challenging language and pre-reading tasks under conditions of exposure to chronic noise.

Question 8.
Short notes :
Answer:
Crowding:
Research demonstrates that crowding has an effect on interpersonal behaviors, mental health, motivation, cognitive development and biological measures. Family size has not been found to be a critical factor in crowding. Rather, Evans identifies density, or number of people per room, as the crucial variable for measuring effects of crowding on children’s development. Regarding child development, Evans has found that 10-12-year-old children are more likely to withdraw in overcrowded situations. Children may engage in withdrawal behavior as a means of coping with an overstimulating environment.

Evans’ research also reveals that a highly concentrated number of children in an activity area results in more distractions and less constructive play among preschool-aged children. Overcrowding also influences parenting behaviors. Parents in crowded homes are less responsive to young children. Evidence of parental unresponsiveness begins early— before a child is one year old and occurs at all income levels. Overcrowding also strains parent-child Relationships. Parents in overcrowded homes are more likely to engage in punitive parenting, which in turn, affects the level of children’s distress.

Evans’ research shows that strained parent-child relationships negatively influence social, emotional and biological measures (e.g. elevated blood pressure) in 10- to 12-year-old children. Children’s mental health status may be affected by overcrowding. Elementary school-aged children who live in more crowded homes display higher levels of psychological distress and they also have higher levels of behavior difficulties in school.Evans has found that overcrowding produces psychological distress among 3rd and 4th-grade students as reported by both the children and their teachers. These effects are intensified if children reside in large, multifamily structures. Effects were also intensified among a group of 8- to 10-year-olds if the family home was chaotic.

Chronic overcrowding influences children’s motivation to perform tasks. Independent of household income, children aged 6-12 show declines in motivational behavior and also demonstrate a level of learned helplessness—a belief that they have no control over their situation and therefore do not attempt to change it—although they have the power to do so. But there are gender differences: Evans found the link between overcrowding and learned helplessness among 10-to- 12-year-olds to exist for girls, but not for boys.

Evans’ studies find several effects of overcrowding on both objective and subjective measures of children’s cognitive development. Elementary school children living in more crowded homes score lower on standardized reading tests and they see themselves as less scholastically competent than their classmates.  Parenting behaviors directly related to children’s cognitive and language development are also affected by density level.Evans found that parents in crowded homes speak less to their infants and rise fewer complicated words during the period from infancy up to age two and a half. Research demonstrates that the quality and sophistication of speech as well as the quantity of words spoken by parents to their children are significant factors in the amount and types of words children produce.

Biological measures implicate the effects of overcrowding on children’s physiology. In one study, Evans found gender differences in measures of blood pressure among 10-12- year-old children with males in higher residential crowding situations demonstrating elevations in blood pressure, but not females. However, higher overnight levels of the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine were found in both 8- to 10-year-old male and female children living in high-density apartments. This finding was especially relevant when chaos and disorder was present in the family.

Housing and Quality of Neighborhood:
Housing quality and the neighborhoods in which houses are situated have also been investigated in relation to children’s socio-emotional development. For example, families living in high-rise housing, as opposed to single-family residences, have fewer relationships with neighbors, resulting in less social support. Studies on housing and the quality of neighborhoods have also examined the role of chaos in children’s environments finding an association between chaotic home environments and levels of psychological distress among middle school children.

Research has identified the physical characteristics of neighborhoods that significantly influence children’s development. These characteristics include residential instability, housing quality, noise, crowding, toxic exposure, quality of municipal services, retail services, recreational opportunities, including natural settings, street traffic, accessibility of transportation and the physical quality of both educational and health facilities. Perhaps not surprisingly, Evans’ research findings support the therapeutic effects of children’s exposure to natural settings.

Natural settings are preferred by children and allow them to exercise gross motor abilities as well as engage in social interactions. In addition, these settings also alleviate the adverse effects of children’s exposure to chronic stress. The research outlined above demonstrates both the direct and indirect effects of the physical environment on children’s development. Direct effects include cognitive, social, emotional and biological outcomes.Indirect effects include interactions with parents and teachers, which in turn, influence developmental outcomes such as learning and language development.

Although in several studies Evans demonstrates these effects for children at all income levels, low-income children experience excessive exposure to noise, overcrowding and unfavorable housing and neighborhood conditions.Exposure to these poor-quality physical conditions is linked to other psychological and social aspects of the environment, especially poverty. Using a building block analogy, low-income children have more blocks stacked one on top of the other than children of other income levels. Thus, children living in poverty experience multiple exposures, rather than a single exposure to risk.

What You Can Do to check the impact of the environment on human behavior?

Guard against additional, interior noise sources:
Individuals living in noisy environments often habituate or become accustomed to the noise level. Aim to reduce the existing noise instead of adding other sources of noise. Check the volume level on your child’s music devices (e g., iPod, Walkman; it is too loud if someone else can hear the music). If he listens to his favorite music too loudly, make proper volume adjustments. Also monitor the volume level on computers, televisions, and other electronic devices, keeping them as low as possible.

Engage your child:
Children ignore and tune out speech as a way of coping with environmental overstimulation. Take notice if your child is not paying attention or listening to your speech and if so, intervene. Take your child to a quiet outdoor nature spot or a quiet indoor location such as the local library) This is especially important during the preschool and early elementary school years (ages 3-6 years) when children are learning to read.

Tune in instead of tuning out:
Parents living under high noise exposure appear to withdraw, be less responsive and talk less to their children. The natural tendency is to disengage from speaking and reading to children so as not to compete with the noise. These coping strategies negatively affect children’s reading and cognitive abilities. Be alert to the occurrence of these behaviors and counter them by talking to your child, reading aloud to her, engaging her in discussions, and actively listening to what she has to say to you.

Modify your environment:
If your budget permits, consider purchasing extra noise attenuation devices for your child’s room for use during homework activities and sleeping. Earplugs are a low-cost alternative.

Consider your child’s school environment:
If you have a choice, send your child to a quiet, less chaotic school. This is particularly desirable if your home environment is also noisy. Be active in your community. The noisiest environmental conditions occur in low-income and ethnic minority communities. One way to counteract this is to be active and involved. Ask your representative why it is noisier, in these communities.

Seek information:
If a major source of noise in your community is road traffic, check with your local planning department. Note that traffic volume is closely aligned with traffic noise levels. The busiest streets are usually the noisiest.

Examination Anxiety:
Examination anxiety is a fairly common phenomenon that involves feelings of tension or uneasiness that occur before, during, or after an examination. Many people experience feelings of anxiety around, examinations and find it helpful in some ways, as it can be motivating and create the pressure that is needed to stay focused on one’s performance. Examination nerves, worry, or fear of failure are normal for even the most talented student. However, the stress of formal examination results in such high degrees of anxiety in some students that they are unable to perform at a level that matches the potential they have shown in less stressful classroom situations.

Examination stress has been characterized as “evaluative apprehension” or “evaluative stress” and produces debilitating behavioral, cognitive and physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stressor. High stress can interfere with the student’s preparation, concentration and performance. Examination stress can cause test anxiety which adversely affects test performance. Persons who are high in test anxiety tend to perceive evaluative situations as personally threatening; in test situations, they are often tense, apprehensive, nervous and emotionally aroused.Moreover, the negative self-centered cognitions which they experience distract their attention and interfere with concentration during examinations.

High-test anxious students respond to examination stress with intense emotional reactions, negative thoughts about themselves, feelings of inadequacy, helplessness and loss of status and esteem that impair their performance. Generally, the high-test anxious person instead of plunging into a task plunges inward, that is, either neglect or misinterprets informational cues that may be readily available to her/him, or experiences attentional blocks.While preparing for examinations, one must spend enough time for study, overviewing and weighing one’s strengths and weaknesses, discuss difficulties with teachers and classmates, plan a revision timetable, condensing notes, space out revision periods and most importantly on the examination day concentrate on staying palm.

Question 9.
What do you understand by the term ‘environment’? Explain the different perspectives to understand the human-environment relationship.
Answer:
‘Environment’ refers to all that is around us. Literally, it means everything that surrounds us including the physical, Social world and cultural environment. In general, it includes all the forces outside the human beings to which they respond in Some way. There is more than one way of looking at the human-environment relationship.
A psychologist named Stokols (1990) describes three approaches that may be adopted to describe the human-environment relationship.

• The minimalist perspective assumes that the physical environment has minimal or negligible influence on human behavior, health and well-being. The physical environment and human beings exist as parallel components.
• The instrumental perspective suggests that the physical environment exists mainly for use by human beings for their comfort and well-being. Most of the human influences on the environment reflect the instrumental perspective.
• The spiritual perspective refers to the view of the environment as. something to be respected and valued rather than exploited. It implies that human beings recognize the interdependent relationship between themselves and the environment, i.e. human beings will exist and will be happy only as long as the environment is kept healthy and natural.
  The traditional Indian view about the environment supports the spiritual perspective.

Question 10.
“Human beings affect and are affected by the environment”. Explain this statement with the help of examples.
Answer:
Human beings exert their influence on the natural environment for fulfilling their physical needs and other purposes. The human-environment relationship can be appreciated fully by understanding that the two influence each other and depend on each other for their survival and maintenance. Some aspects of the environment influence human perception.

• Environmental influences on perception :
  Some aspects of the environment influence human perception. For example, a tribal society of Africa lives in circular huts, that is, in houses without angular walls. They show less error in a geometric illusion (the Muller-Lyer illusion) than people from cities, who live in houses with angular walls.
• Environmental influences on emotions:
  The environment affects our emotional reactions as well. Watching nature iri any form, whether it is a quietly flowing river, a smiling flower, or a tranquil mountain top, provides a kind of joy that cannot be matched by any other experience. Natural disasters, such as floods, droughts, landslides, and quakes on the earth or under the ocean, can affect people’s emotions to such an extent that they experience deep depression and sorrow, a sense of complete helplessness and lack of control over their lives.
• Ecological influences on occupation, living style, and attitudes :
  The natural environment of a particular region determines whether people living in that region rely on agriculture (as in the plains), or on other occupations such as hunting and gathering (as in a forest, mountainous or desert regions), or on industries (as in areas that are not fertile enough for agriculture). In turn, occupation determines the lifestyle and attitudes of the residents of a particular geographical region.

Question 11.
What is noise? Discuss the effects of noise on human behavior.
Answer:
Any sound that is annoying or irritating and felt to be unpleasant is said to be noise. From common experience, it is known that noise, especially for long periods of time, is uncomfortable and puts people in an unpleasant mood.

Effects of noise on human behavior:

• When the task being performed is a simple mental task, such as the addition of numbers, noise does not affect overall performance, whether it is loud or soft.
  In such situations, people adapt, or ‘get used to noise.
• If the task being performed is very interesting, then, too, the presence of noise does not affect performance. This is because the nature of the task helps the individual to pay full attention to the task and ignore the noise. This may also be one kind of adaptation.
• When the noise comes at intervals, and in an unpredictable way, it is experienced as more disturbing than if the noise is continuously present.
• When the task being performed is difficult or requires full concentration, then intense, unpredictable and uncontrollable noise reduces the level of task performance.
• When tolerating or switching off the noise is within the control of the person, the number of errors in task performance decreases.
• In terms of emotional effects, noise above a certain level causes annoyance, and can also lead to sleep disturbance. These effects are also reduced if the noise is controllable, or is necessary as a part of the person’s occupation. However, continued exposure to uncontrollable and annoying noise can have harmful effects on mental health.

Question 12.
What are the salient features of crowding? Explain the major psychological consequences of crowding.
Answer:
Crowding to a feeling of discomfort because there are too many people or things around us, giving us the experience of physical restriction and sometimes the lack of privacy. Crowding is the person’s reaction to the presence of a large number of persons within a particular area or space. When this number goes beyond a certain level, it causes stress to individuals caught in that situation. In this sense, crowding is another example of an environmental stressor.

The experience of crowding has the following features :

• Feeling of discomfort,
• Loss or decrease in privacy,
• Negative view of the space around the person, and
• The feeling of loss of control over social interaction.

1. Crowding and high density may lead to abnormal behavior and aggression. This was shown many years ago in a study of rats. These animals were placed in an enclosure, initially in small numbers. As their population increased within this enclosed space, they started showing aggressive and unusual behavior, such as biting the tails of other rats. This aggressive behavior increased to such an extent that ultimately the animals died in large numbers, thus decreasing the population in the enclosure. Among human beings also, an increase in population has sometimes been found to be accompanied by an increase in violent crime.
2. Crowding leads to lowered performance on difficult tasks that involve cognitive processes and has adverse effects on memory and the emotional state. These negative effects are seen to a smaller extent in people who are used to crowded surroundings.
3. Children growing up in very crowded households show lower academic performance. They also show a weaker tendency to continue working on a task if they are unsuccessful at it, compared to children growing up in non-crowded households. They experience greater conflict with their parents and get less support from their family members.

Question 13.
Why is the concept of ‘personal space’ important for human beings? Justify your answer with the help of an example.
Answer:
Personal space or the comfortable physical space one generally likes to maintain around oneself, is affected by a high-density environment. In a crowded context, there is a restriction on personal space and this can also be a cause of negative reactions to crowding.

For example: In social situations, human beings like to maintain a certain physical distance from die person with whom they are interacting. This is called interpersonal al physical distance and is a part of a broader concept called personal space, i.e. the physical space we like to have all around us. One reason for the negative reactions to crowding, as described earlier, is the decrease in personal space.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-2.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss various factors affecting the caste system.
(Or)
What are the causes responsible for the disintegration of the caste- system?
Answer:
The caste system, under the impact of certain powerful factors, is undergoing drastic changes in modem India. Under the impact of all these powerful forces, wide cracks have already appeared in the walls of the citadel of caste in India. The major factors which are responsible for such changes in the system are

• Modem education
• Industrialization
• Urbanization
• Modem means of transportation
• Increase in importance of wealth
• New social movements
• Political changes
• The new legal system and
• The Indian constitution.

Modern education:
Modem education has played a major role in undermining the importance of caste in Indian social life. Modem education is secular in nature. So it is on one hand based on such democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity, on the other hand, it is based on such scientific values like reason and observation. Modem education is also very much indifferent to religion.

With the spread of modem education beliefs like the divine origin of caste. Karma and Karma fala are growing weaker and weaker in the minds of people with the influence of democratic values like equality, Modem man finds it difficult to accept the principle of inherited inequality on which the entire structure of the caste system is based.

In modem educational institutions children of different castes sit side by side in the same classroom, as a result, the feeling of untouchability do not find scope to develop in the minds of children. Modem co-educational institutions also encourage inter-caste marriages based on love, among educated young men and women. Thus, Modem education acts as a very powerful force against caste in India.

Industrialization :
The effects of industrialization is very much disastrous on the caste- system. Occupational castes cannot survive in the face of large-scale industrialization. For example, the members of the weaving castes are finding it extremely difficult to follow their traditional caste occupations. Because it is not possible for them to compete with the textile mills in the open markets.

The caste system is based on the rural economy. The tradition of the following caste- occupation gradually crumbled down. The members of all castes are interested and getting employment in modem factories. In a factory people of different castes work together. A Brahmin who works by the side of an un-touchable cannot avoid his touch. So the idea of pollution by touch is losing its ground gradually in an industrial setting.

Urbanisation:
Urbanisation, which invariably follows industrialization, has also made it impossible to practice caste- restrictions. Under urban conditions of life, the idea of pollution by the touch of a shadow cannot be translated into action. Because it is impossible on one’s part to restrict himself in a dining place, in a hotel, in a shopping centre etc.

Modern means of transportation:
Geographical isolation was a favourable condition for the creation and continuation of the caste- system in India. But modem means of transportation have increased spatial mobility of the people and thereby put an end to geographical isolation. Again while travelling in a bus, train or tram, it is impossible to observe caste rules regarding food, drink and social intercourse.

Increase in importance of wealth:
In the present age, wealth is replacing birth as the basis of social prestige. Hence, caste, which is based on birth, is no longer the basis of social status. In modem society, a rich Shudra is getting more prestige than a poor Brahmin. Hence people while choosing their occupations, give more consideration to income than to occupation.

New social movements:
A number of movements were launched in the past against the caste system. The social movements started by Raja Rammohan Roy, and Dayananda Saraswati could influence the intelligence of the country against the caste- system and other evils of Hindu society.

Political Changes:
One of the main aims of the Indian national freedom movement was to abolish all discrimination particularly the caste- a system in Indian society. This movement created a strong public opinion against the caste- system in India. Hence, when India got independence, a democratic form of society abolished all discriminatory practices based on caste, creed, sex, etc. Secondly, ideologies like communism, which is based on the principle of a classless society, have also become popular in India. New groups based on class interests rather than caste interests have emerged in the country.

New legal system:
The new legal system has also played a vital role against the caste- system, as a result, the age-old legal discrimination against the lower castes has been removed. Under the new system, the principle of equality before law has firmly been instituted in legal proceedings. Again with the establishment of judicial courts, the caste, panchayats have lost their power to punish the culprits and enforce the caste rules. Besides a number of acts like. The untouchability Offences Act of 1995 and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 have been passed, which prove too disastrous to the caste system.

The Indian Constitution:
Our constitution is taking strong steps against the very existence of caste in India Para 15(2) of the constitution which declares all citizens as equal, directly attacks the Hindu social order based on the caste system. It is clear from the above discussion that due to the influence of the above factors the caste- system has been changing in India. But it would be a gross mistake to think that the caste- system has completely disappeared from the Indian scene.

Question 2.
Discuss recent changes in the institution of caste.
(Or)
Discuss the changing aspects of the caste system in Indian Society.
(Or)
“Caste has never maintained its traditional forms” – justify the system.
Answer:
As a consequence of the impact of a number of factors like industrialization, urbanization, modem education, development in modem means of transportation, new social movements, the new legal system, an increase in the importance of wealth, political changes and the constitutional provisions, there have been a number of changes in the caste system. As a result, caste has never maintained its traditional forms.
The changes in the caste systems are –

• The decline in the supremacy of the Brahmin.
• Changes in status structure.
• Development in the socio-economic conditions of the Harijans.
• Changes in the functions of caste.
• Changes in rules regarding marriage.
• Change in restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse.
• Changes in restrictions regarding the choice of occupations.
• Changes in the ideas regarding the doctrine of karma.

The decline in the supremacy of the Brahmin:
Under the caste system, the Brahmin occupied the highest position. The whole system revolved around the prestige of the Brahmin. But today he does not enjoy the same high and dominant social position. For example, in the past, the Brahmin is only allowed to read Vedas, Epics etc. But now other lower caste people are enjoying the position of Brahmin.

Changes in the status structure:
Traditionally caste society was a closed and rigid society. Each caste had its own traditional status in the hierarchy of castes, which was more or less permanently fixed. Besides, every caste had its own style of life, followed exclusively by its members.

It was these differences in the styles of life that made the people of different castes appear distinct from one another. But at present people of lower castes are adopting the lifestyles of higher castes and claiming and actually achieving higher status in society. This process which Srinivas refers as Sanskritization.

Development in the socio-economic conditions of the Harijans:
Thirdly, as a result of the governmental policy of protective discrimination, the socio-economic condition of the Harijans has been considerably improved. As a result, the downtrodden people of the society namely the Harijans have been able to get higher status.

Changes in the functions of caste:
In the fourth place, there are changes in the functions of castes. For example, in a caste system, people get status according to their caste. So the caste system was the determinant of one’s status. But under the changed conditions of modem society, birth is no longer regarded as the basis of social prestige. Today wealth and achievement have replaced birth as the basis of social status. Asa result caste has lost its traditional function of determining the status of an individual in society.

Changes in the rules regarding marriage :
The other important change in the caste- system is marriage. Under the caste system, there were strict rules regulating the choice of mates. Every caste and sub-caste was an endogamous group, each caste was not allowed to marry outside one’s own caste. But nowadays inter-caste marriages are more prevalent in society. The Special Marriage Act and Hindu Marriage Act have removed all the restrictions and declared inter-caste marriage as legally valid.

Changes in restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse:
Sixthly, there are changes in the ideas of pollution and other restrictions on food, drink etc. The higher caste people i.e. Brahmin do not take food and drink from lower caste people. Similarly, if a lower caste people touch a higher caste then the higher caste people got polluted. So there were very many restrictions. But. today these rules have lost their significance in Hindu society.

Changes in restriction regarding the choice of occupation:
In the caste system choice of occupation was not free. Each caste had its own traditional occupation, which its members had invariably to follow. But now- a -days people follow occupations which are not their own caste’s occupation. Nowadays those occupations which arc profitable are followed by people irrespective of their caste. Now a Brahmin works in a leather factory whereas a Shudra is accompanied By a teaching profession, which in traditional society could not be imagined.

Changes in the ideas regarding the doctrine of Karma:
The family caste system has lost its grip on the minds of the people. People have begun to doubt the validity of the caste system. Now, they do not believe in the theory of Karma, or the doctrine of Karma, Karmafala etc. So also they do not believe that the caste system is a divinely ordained institution.

Question 3.
Do you think that the caste system is disappearing from India? Give reasons in support of your opinion.
(Or)
Discuss the present trends and future of the caste system.
Answer:
In India, we find a unique system of social stratification based on birth, the like of which is not found elsewhere in the whole world. This system is known as the ‘caste- system’ and divides Indian society into several groups. This caste system transforms into casteism in the evil hand. It has contributed a number of functions to its credit and is also not devoid of dysfunctions.

The caste system serves as a device of the division of labour in society. It integrates society and also brings stability to society. In a traditional way, it determines the status of the individual and it also guides the individual behaviour. The age-old system, i.e. caste system, under the impact of certain powerful factors is undergoing drastic changes in modem India.

At the same time it is right to say that due to modem education, industrialization, urbanization, development in the means of transportation, increase in the importance of wealth, political changes and the new legal system some changes have taken place in the caste- system. As a result, wide cracks have already appeared in the walls of the citadel of caste in India.

Encouraged by the visible changes in the system, some students of the institution have come to believe that the caste system is soon going to dis- integrate in India. But scholars like Prof. Ghurye and Prof. Srinivas do not agree with this view. They on the contrary assert that caste in modem India is becoming stronger and will continue to exist for some time to come.

Dr Ghurye, says that caste will continue to exist in India for some time due to certain factors that are active today in the country. He says that while democracy weakens caste, the method of elections at present strengthens the caste system. As the governmental machinery in a democracy is run by the elected representatives of the people, elections in India have become imperative.

But unfortunately, in this country elections are fought and won on the basis of caste. Candidates contesting elections seek support from their caste fellows by drumming the cause of casteism. These leaders maintain casteism even after the elections by showing special treatment to their caste members. Even political parties are not free from ‘caste politics’.

Political parties in India sponsor candidates having a social base, which is nothing but the numerical strength of the caste of a candidate in the constituency. Thus elections have actually encouraged casteism in India. So caste has assumed political functions and has become stronger today. Dr Ghuiye also says another factor encouraging caste in India, is the special constitutional protection accorded to the scheduled and other backward castes.

The Indian constitution makes special provisions for the protection of these castes in the form of reservations in the central and state legislative government services. In addition, it directs the government to provide many other facilities to them. These constitutional provisions have created casteism among the people of these castes.

Prof. M.N. Srinivas holds that the establishment of a national government for the whole country, the political boundaries of the small independent states, that hitherto acted as barriers and prevented the members of a caste, spread over a large- part of the country, from uniting have disappeared. As a consequence castes especially the larger ones have found it easier to organize themselves on an unprecedented scale.

Hence castes in modem India have become more organized and stronger.  Secondly, modem developments in the means of transportation and communication are regarded by him as another potent factor in strengthening caste in India. He is of the opinion that modem means of transportation and communication such as the railways, buses, printing press, postal services, newspapers etc. have enabled the members of castes, scattered all over the country, to come together and discuss problems concerning the interests of their own castes and organize more effectively into large caste associations.

As such, in modem India, castes have actually become more effective and stronger. Besides, no accurate predictions can be made about the future of the caste system in India. Therefore many thinkers would like to be non-committal about its future. But there are scholars like Prof, Srinivas, who believe, that caste is so an organic part of Hindu society and Hindu social organization that it is difficult to conceive of Hindu society without it.

There are other scholars like Prof. Ghurye, who think that caste has outlived its usefulness and therefore it should go. They also believe that Hindu society will sooner or later, be got rid of caste. In modem day, there are already some important changes in the salient features of the system like marriage, occupation, styles of life etc. brought about by forces discussed before.

But at the same time, there are equality powerful factors like the method of elections, protection of the scheduled and other backward castes etc. which encouraged casteism. From the above analysis, it may be said that some more changes will certainly take place in the system. But it is wrong to believe that the system. But it is wrong to believe that the system will altogether be eliminated from Indian social science. It may assume new forms and perform new functions in the changed conditions of modem society.

Question 4.
What do you mean by class? Write an essay regarding the emergence of the class- system in Indian society.
Answer:
If the caste system is found to be unique to India, the class- system is universal in nature. ‘ Social class’ is a principal type of social stratification found especially in the modem civilized countries. Sometimes the word ‘class’ is used to represent groups of professors, artists, engineers, doctors, students etc. The word ‘class’ is also used to refer to the quality of things whether good, better, best and so on.

But the concept of ‘social class’ is more used in sociology representing a kind of social stratification than anything else.  P. Gisbert says “A social class is a category or a permanently determines their relation to other groups.” Ogburn and Nimkoff say that “A Social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the same social status in a given society.

Maclver and Page define “A social is any portion of the community marked off from the rest by social status”. A social class is understood mainly in two different ways. Firstly, there is the Marxian conception of class. The Marxists define a class in terms of its relation to the means of production. According to them, a class is determined by its possession of such objective, usually economic criteria like wealth, occupation and income.

Secondly, there are thinkers like Maclver, who view class as a status group. But there are also other sociologists like Max Weber who tried to reconcile these two divergent approaches to class in their studies of modem social organization.

Characteristics of social class:

• A social class is essentially a status group.
• Status in the case of the class system is achieved and not ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status. The achievement of an individual mostly decides his status.
• Class is almost a universal phenomenon which appears in all the modem complex societies of the world.
• A social class is not transitory nor unstable like a crowd or a mob. It is relatively a stable group.
• There is a feeling of equality in relation to members of one’s own class. Individuals belonging to the same social class are expected to maintain a similar standard of life.
• There is a feeling of inferiority and superiority in the social hierarchy.
• The class system is associated with class consciousness, Class consciousness is the sentiment that characterises the relations of men towards the members of their own and other classes.

The emergence of class, as we understand them today, is the direct result of British rule in India. The British in India established a new social economy and a new administrative system. It also introduced modem education and industrialization. These forces give rise to new social classes in Indian society. The British introduced drastic changes in the economy through legislation.

Firstly, private property in the form of Zamindari and Ryotwari systems was recognized and as a result of two classes, namely the zamindars and the peasants came into being. Secondly right to lease, the land created the tenants and sub-tenants. Finally, the right to purchase and sell the land and the right to hire and employ labour on land created conditions for the emergence of such classes as absentee landlords and the agricultural proletariat.

Under the agrarian economic system there developed new classes of intermediaries like money lenders, absentee landlords and merchants. However, it is not to say that merchants and money lenders did not exist in pre-British India They did exist but their position and function in the old economy were fundamentally different. After Independence, the agrarian class structure has undergone radical changes due to the abolition of the zamindari system, ceilings on land holdings, tenancy reforms etc.

As a consequence, the agrarian class structure, at present, consists of two principal classes namely land owners and agricultural labourers.
Under British rule production in India became more and more for the market. The internal market expanded and got linked up with the world market Thus, the class of commercial bourgeoisie came into being.

A large class of merchants grew who were primarily engaged in the import and export of goods from and into India. The new commercial class purchased the agricultural and industrial goods produced in India and sold them in both Indian and world markets. The profits and savings made by the trading class zamindars and wealthy members of professional classes served as the capital for the growth of Indian-owned industries like textile, mining etc.

With the growth of industries, the bourgeoisie and proletariat came into existence. There also grew professional classes comprising lawyers, doctors, teachers, managers, engineers, technologists, and journalists in response to the needs of the new society. In addition to the above-mentioned classes, another class of petty traders and shopkeepers also developed in every town and city.

Along with these new classes, some old classes like the village artisans and urban handicraftsmen also survived and existed side by side in India. C.H. Cooley opines that three principal conditions favour the growth of social classes. They are:-

Marked differences in the constituent parts of the population:
When the population is composed of different races, this racial heterogeneity facilitates the growth of social classes. Little communication and enlightenment: Lack of inter-communication among the people also favours the growth of social distances increase.

A slow rate of social change:
Perhaps the slow rate of society is the principal factor favouring the growth of social classes. When society does not change and condition remains much the same from generation, social classes develop. The Indian society remained static for about three thousand years with the result that untouchables were not permitted to use public wells or enter temples.

Question 5.
Distinguish between ‘Caste and Class’.
(Or)
Both ‘Caste’ and “Class’ co-exist in Indian society – Justify the statement.
Answer:
There are a number of points which have so far remained unclarified in regard to the nature of caste and class in India. Caste and class are polar opposites. Caste is being replaced by class; caste is a rural phenomenon whereas clan is found in urban industrial settings. Caste is an ascriptive system and class is based on the achievement principle.

Caste is a closed system and does not allow mobility for its members, whereas class is an open system and allows mobility for its members, India has/had a caste system, hence a ‘caste model’ for studying Indian society and the west has/had classes. Hence a ‘class model’ for studying western societies – is some of the familiar misconceived notions about caste and class in India.

However, these notions are rooted in the historicity of Indian society and its culture including British and post-independence academic colonialism. Battelle does not offer a ‘class analysis’ of Indian society as an alternative to the ‘caste – model’, In fact, he suggests a sort of modification of the caste model by putting an emphasis on the study of economic and political activities of inter-caste relations.

However, he points out that it could be wrong to consider India as a ‘caste society and the united states as a ‘class society and Europe as a ‘caste society. Bettie takes a clue from Leach, Bailey and Dumont who have offered a ‘caste- model’ of Indian society. The essence of the views of Leach, Bailey and Dumont is that caste is a non-competitive system, the castes are non-antagonistic strata.

Competition refers to class and cooperation refers to caste. This is really a very erroneous view about both class and caste and more so about the understanding of caste, in India. Bailey refers to caste groups which cooperate and do not compete. But western scholars including Leach look at the caste system from the viewpoint of class in western societies.

Leach finds competition within the ‘dominant caste’ and not between the dominant caste and other castes. Ketkar mentions hereditary membership and endogamy as the most striking features of the caste, system in India. Funeral, Hutton and Sherring observe that the caste system is ‘functional’ for Indian society. Ghurye refers to six features of the caste system and upholds the endogamy of its essence.

Other students of Indian society have also provided a view that either refers to the uniqueness of the caste system or they have viewed it from the viewpoint of their own society. Marx related to Asiatic mode of production to the stability of the caste system in India. H.J.S. Maine referred to caste as an example of a non-contractual4 status society’ Senate.

Hocart and Dumont have emphasized ritual Criteria and pollution Purity as the basis of Hindu society. Weber considered caste as a system of status groups based on the other world by doctrines of Hinduism.  At the same time scholars of the west glorified the class system with a view to establishing the superiority of western society and culture, Class was considered an open system, the individual was given freedom of movement under the system and achievement was the essence of the system.

In contrast to caste system was a closed system, the individual could not move up the hierarchy and it was a system based on aspiration. Caste and class were polar opposites. Caste was considered a feature of an archaic society like India and class was considered a characteristic feature of the industrially advanced achievement based on western society.

This clearly shows that western scholars mainly the American and the British tried to establish their hegemony by academic propaganda. Maclver and Page do not define class strictly in the economic sense. They refer to status’ as the basis of what they call the social class”. T.H. Marshall. T. Parsons, K. Davis and W. Moore. T.B. Bottomore and Richard centres decline class either in terms of status or in psychological terms.

The perfect example of the definitions of caste cis-a-vis class is found in India and class is a feature of the western world. Berreman recently published essay which has been written over a period of two decades emphasises that ‘caste-based’ inequalities in India are not different from race-based inequalities in the United States of America. Gough has been highlighting the class basis of the caste system in India.

N.K. Byse refers to the class genesis of the caste structure in Bengal. Changes from caste to class are noted by Mishra, Beteille, Miller and Kolenda. A class analysis of Indian society in general and the caste system and village community, in particular, is found in A.R. Desai’s edited work on rural sociology. D. Souza decisively concludes that class is replacing caste and the individual is replacing the group.

Beteille realized that caste alone is not the totality of social stratification and that caste is not being replaced by class. Class in India is generally seen as a consequence of a change in the caste system and not as a concomitant and co-existent system separate from caste. Dube and Singh both realize that the concepts of caste and class have been basically Western and therefore ignore the historicity of Indian society in their formulations.

Caste has been taken as synonymous with the social formation of Indian society and therefore class is treated as an alternative system to caste. However the fact is that neither does caste refer to the totality of social formations nor is class the polar opposite of caste, caste and class; caste, class and power, caste, religion and power and caste, class and politics do not provide a corrective to the caste alone approach.

These studies are rooted in the falsity of the western dichotomy of tradition and modernity and the trilogy of class, status and party. They do not incorporate the existence of Indian society into the concepts of caste, class and power etc. Hence they are inadequate in rescuing us from these aline concepts and theories. Class in India has existed along with caste and power.

Caste incorporates class and class incorporates caste in the Indian context. ‘Neither the ‘caste alone’ view nor the class alone’ perspective will help in a proper and fuller understanding of Indian society. Castes have been functioning as classes for all practical considerations. The Varna and the Jajmani system can be explained in terms of class relations.

The main classes today in India are – the agrarian classes, the industrial classes, the business and the mercantile classes and the professional classes. Industrial, business and professional classes characterize urban India and land owners, tenants, and agricultural labourers are found in the countryside.

Question 6.
What is a joint family? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
An Indian family is based upon the sanctity of domestic life and value commitments which make it intimate, personal and durable Family for an Indian is a sacred institution in which the interrelationship between husband and wife, father and son. brother and sister is booked by religious and spiritualists consideration notify more annexations of consanguinity. Thus, the family bond, the sense of duties and obligations toward each other continues even for generations together.

As such, an Indian family, more particularly a Hindu family becomes large, extended and of the type described as joint. Thus, now it is very much clear that a joint family is a large group of the members of two or more generations having a common ancestry, common – property, common culture, and common household, playing, different roles of father, mother, son, daughter, brother and sister and contributing towards the betterment of family as a whole.

Characteristics of a joint family:

Large size:
The members of two or more generations constitute a joint family. As Jolly puts it, not only do parents and children brothers and step-brothers live on the common property but it may sometimes, include ascendants, descendants and collaterally up to many generations. Hence, it is quite natural that the size of a joint family becomes large in comparison to a nuclear family in which a man lives his immediate family consisting of only his wife and children.

Joint property:
Another feature of a joint family is that all the members hold the property in common. Everyone works according to his capacity and brings the earnings to home. Mostly the economy of a family is based on agriculture. The adult members cultivate their inherited property. Whatever property is bought or sold, is added or subtracted from the common property of the family. The head of the family, generally known as ‘Karta’ manages the entire socio-economic affairs like a trustee.

Common Residence and Joint Kitchen:
All the members of a joint family generally live under one roof. The entire house is divided into many small rooms for the use of different brothers. Sometimes separate rooms are also constructed for grown-up children depending on the resources and condition of the family. All these members take their food cooked in one kitchen. Mostly there is a common arrangement for joint living and common dining.

Common rituals and ceremonies:
Every joint family has its own rites and rituals in accordance with caste norms and religious obligations. All the members participate in such common rites and rituals. Each family has its own ‘kula devata’ (family deity) which is worshipped by all the members.

Socialist system:
Functionally, the joint family is a sort of cooperative enterprise based on secularistic norms. Everyone works for the benefit of the family as a whole. The rights and privileges are distributed equally among all the members. Each member contributes according to his capacity and gets according to his necessity. The responsibility of children old am unable members are shared by all.

Mutual obligations:
In a joint family all the members, due to their common ancestry feel mutually obliged to each other. No one works against the interest of the other. Everyone is interested in the welfare of all the members of his family. A mutual understanding, co-operative spirit, and give-and-take informal relationship bind all the members together.

The ‘Karta’ as the authority:
The Karta or the head of the family acts as the formal authority in all the affairs of the family. Generally, the ‘Karta’ is the eldest male member. All the earning members keep their earnings with him and the entire property is kept under his control. All the family celebrations like marriage, birth and death anniversary are held under his direction and guidance. The disputes and dissatisfaction among the members are settled by him. All the members remain obliged to him and his decision stands final in all matters.

Question 7.
Define joint family and discuss its functions.
Answer:
A joint family is a large social group in which the father, mother, their children, uncle, aunt, grandfather and grandmother live together. According to Dr Iravati Karve, “A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.” According to D.G Mandelbaum, ‘Joint family consists of typically’ of a set of men related to each other as father and sons are brothers and live together with their wives and children.

Functions of joint family:
Following are the functions of the joint family

Social control:
Social control is the function of a joint family. In a joint family, the relations between the members are direct, intimate and personal. The social relationship of a joint family acts as an important means of social control of the parents and other elder members 6f the family. In a joint family the leaders have direct control of the activities of the members.

Socialisation:
A joint family plays a very important role in the socialisation process of the child. If fosters good qualities among its members. In a joint family, children learn social adjustment and other social virtues, like obedience, self-discipline, love, cooperation, self-sacrifice, self-confidence and patience. The youngsters always have a sense of respect for the elders in a joint family.

Development of personality:
It is one of the important functions of a joint family which work in close collaboration with each other. All the members sacrifice themselves for the sake of the family. In a joint family, the children can be brought up and regarded properly by the family members. All these lead to the development of the personality of the members.

Economic functions:
A joint family also performs some economic functions. It acts as both productions as well as consumption unit. A joint family fulfils all the economic needs on the principle of joint ownership of land. It saves land from being fragmented into small and economic holdings. All earnings in a joint family are pooled into a common fund, and every member gets an almost equal share irrespective of his income. In a joint family cooking and household, purchases are done jointly resulting in considerable savings.

Educational function:
A joint family imparts education to the members. It is from the family that children learn the first letter under the affectionate guidance of either parent and other members. A joint family provides vocational education of its members. All the social virtues of children are developed by members of the family regarded as the first school of children.

Division of labour:
A joint family system creates a division of labour among the members. Every member in a joint family is as signed with work according to his ability and none is overburdened.

Question 8.
Discuss the merits and demerits of a joint family.
Answer:
A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, participate in common worship and are related as some particular type of kindred.

Merits of joint family:

Economic merits:
From an economic point of view, joint family system has many advantages. It creates obstacles for subdivision and fragmentation of landed property. That means it prevents family property from being divided due to indivisibility and non-fragmentation of family property. Economic production increases considerably. In a joint family, all the members work together in the family property.

Division of labour:
The joint family system is based on the principle of division of labour. Every member of the family is provided work in accordance with his ability and capacity. For example, in joint families, women look after domestic affairs and care of children whereas men work in the fields. Similarly, in farming season all the members collectively work according to their abilities.

Protection of members:
Our late Prime Minister Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru had said that the joint family system is insurance for the family members which provides a guarantee of protection to those who are physically and mentally weak. It provides social security to those members who are sick, old, invalid, destitute, infirm and instance.

Cradle of social virtues:
A joint family is a storehouse of social virtues or good qualities like love, cooperation, affection, sympathy, sacrifice, tolerance, honesty, obedience, discipline, a broad spirit of selfless service generality, self-control, and mindlessness, for one among its members. These qualities are very essential for every individual in society. Joint family has checked the undesirable and anti-social tendencies of these youth through the care of elders. Thus, a joint family is a cradle of social virtues.

Means of Recreation:
A joint family is one of the best means of recreation. It creates friendly and stimulating taking of the children, mother’s love, love between brothers and sister and the like for the entertainment of the members. Joint family has formed many recreation and cultural institutions. At the time of the fifth, marriage and death, the joint family arranges many cultural functions. The joint family actually takes over the role of a club by providing recreation to all the members.

Sense of unity :
A joint family creates a sense of oneness and unity among its members. It is a strong ‘we feeling’ or belongingness among the members of a joint family. All the family members face a crisis collectively. It gives them a sense of security which is necessary for the development of personality.

Economy:
The joint family system is very economic in nature because there is a common residence and a common kitchen. It secures the economy of expenditure. The things consumed in large qualities are purchased at a wholesale rate and are secured as economically secure.

Socialism on wealth:
According to Sir Henry Maine, a joint family is like a cooperating trust where the father acts as its trustee. Every member in a joint family Works according to this necessity. Thus, the joint family achieves the socialistic form according to his needs. The fundamental of a joint family is to provide minimum needs such as food, clothing and shelter to every member.

Demerits of joint family:
In spite of the above merits, the joint family system has certain demerits also. The following are the main demerits of a joint family.

Hindrance to the development of personality:
The main demerit of a joint family is the hindrance to the development of the personality of its members. In the joint family, the head is the absolute ruler.He directly controls the behaviour of all the members. He regards them as children though they have turned adulthood. The head is the sole authority to take any decision in the family affairs. The members are not permitted to express their views independently or against the supreme administration of the head nor they can disobey the rules and regulations of the family when framed by the head.

Miserable conditions of women:
The miserable condition of women is yet another disadvantage of the joint family system. In a joint family, women are generally known as neglected and backward persons because they do not get any opportunity to develop their personalities. They are confirmed within the four walls of the house and deserve the entire family like slaves.

The women can neither talk nor express their views independently particularly. In a joint family, the condition of the daughter-in-law is very miserable. They are often ill-treated by their mother-in-law and sister-in-law. Some of them even commit suicide due to intolerable and unendurable oppression and suffering hence the condition of women is very pitiable in the joint family.

Increase of Idleness:
The point family system encourages idleness. All the members of a joint family are sure of economic security. lt is because whether a member works or not, a joint family provides minimum economic needs such as food, clothing and shelter to all members. Therefore, some members do not work for the progress of the family due to this facility. As a result of this laziness of the member’s increases. It hinders the economic prosperity of the family. Thus, a joint family acts as a centre of idleness.

Centre of quarrels:
A joint family is generally known as a centre of the conflict. It is a hotbed of quarrels and bickering, especially among female members. Due to their selfishness and jealous nature the mother-in-law, the sister-in-law and the daughter-in-law create conflict with each other frequently. The activities of children create tension in the family daily disputes and conflict make the family a bed for its members.

Lack of privacy:
In a joint family, there is a lack of sufficient accommodation for its members Newly married couples face great difficulty in a joint family. They do not discuss the- problems in the presence of their elders. The wife cannot meet her husband in a daytime. It imposes certain restrictions upon husband and wife by which they cannot enjoy their marital life fully. Due to these restrictions, they do not have the opportunity to develop their personality.

Uncontrolled reproduction:
A joint family is the centre of uncontrolled reproduction. The responsibility to bring up children and educate them is shared in a joint family. Therefore, no members brothers about the number of children he should produce. In a joint family, the individual does not feel the responsibility of individual members. Thus, uncontrolled reproduction is a serious demerit of disadvantaged or a joint families and it leads to poverty.

Hindrance to social change :
Joint family acts as a great obstacle to social change. The members are more conservative and they do not accept any change of society easily. They strictly follow the old traditional custom, folkways and modes in that way it hinders social change. The members of the joint family do not avoid old culture and values as a result of which new scientific inventions and discoveries are retarded.

Hindrances to economic progress:
A joint family hinders the economic progress of society because those who work hard are not properly rewarded. There is always satisfaction among the earning members. The wives of the earning members instigate their husbands not to manage the family and work in proportion to what they get from the family. It checks and hinders the economic progress of the family.

Social problems:
Lastly, a joint family disorganises society by creating social problems. Actually, the joint family is a solid place for social problems. Firstly, uncontrolled reproduction it increases the population of a country. Secondly, the joint family does not take proper care of the children. As a result of which children become juvenile delinquents in joint families. Thirdly, it increases the unemployment problem due to a lack of education and proper training.

Fourthly, on the basis of the dowry system, it leads to survival and bride-burning among young women. Fifthly, due to family quarrels, joint family increases divorce among the members. Lastly, it does not control its members directly. As a consequence, they indulge in various antisocial works. Owing to these reasons, the joint family system violates the peaceful atmosphere of society.

Question 9.
Describe the recent changes in a joint family.
Answer:
Changes in social conditions led to changes in social institutions. A joint family which was once upon a time created in response to certain needs of man is now undergoing a large number of changes. These changes in the institution of the joint family were due to the influence of a large number of factors like the influence of western culture, legislation, enlightenment of women, modem education, economic freedom, industrialisation, overpopulation etc.

Thus, as a result of the impact of the above-mentioned some changes in the joint family structure; features and have become inevitable. These changes are as follows. The first change in the institution related to the common residence. Nowadays members of a joint family are no more living in a common residence but still, but live in a joint family.

In spite of living under one roof, they also remain as a member of a joint family. The second kind of change is related to a common kitchen. Because of industrialisation and urbanisation members of joint families are living in far-off places as they are working in different places. Hence, in spite of their separate kitchens they still also remain in a joint family.

Thirdly, there is also a change in the concept of common worship. Members of joint family are no more gathering in everyday morning and evening, for worship. They are only coming together at the time of common festivals. Fourthly, change is also occurring in the large size of joint families. Joint family has ceased to be very large in size. It does not have more generation depth, than before.

Fifthly, a great deal of change is also being noted in the authority of the head or in the rule of the Karta. The eldest male member of the joint family is no more enjoying his previous power. He is no more exercising such absolute power over the members of the joint family. Sixthly, there is a change in the functions of the joint family. The joint family instead of developing good.

Questionuestionuestionuestionualities among its members create jealousy, self- centredness etc.  Now- a – days joint family ceases its role of providing healthy recreation in its members. Even in many places, joint families failed to provide all sorts of social security to their members. Thus, these are the changes found in the institution of a joint family.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the factors responsible for the different changes in the village community?
Answer:
Change is universal.
Every society and culture no matter how traditional and conservative is constantly undergoing changes and transformations are part of over lives Indian village community is not an exception to this. The village community is less dynamic than the undergoing change, no doubt but this does mean that the cultivators have absolutely no mobility. The village communities to are changeable even though the rate of change within them is very slow.

The characteristics of village community which have been eliminated above can be found to exist in those villages which have remained unaffected by the influence of the town. Otherwise, these elements are vanishing from the village community. Some important aspects of the village community in which changes are taking place are discussed below.

Change in caste system :
Changes in the elements of caste have brought changes in the different aspects of the village community. They are the following.

Caste is no more closed in today’s society. During British rule, the caste in the village community has lost its eight. The linkage between caste and occupation is no longer because the people are adopting new vocations in large numbers. This has happened because traditional occupations are unable to provide jobs to all its members in the context of the technological advances in agriculture. So many Brahmins and Kshatriyas have started farming.

The members of the untouchable castes have become agriculture labourers so in these days members of different. Caste, high and low, taking to factory work and other manual jobs. Regarding the status of an individual now it is determined no through his birth in a family but by his personality, financial conditions and activities as well. The Caste Panchayats have lost their power.

It has completely died away although some castes have formed their organisation for the protection of their interests. Although the caste system appears to be growing weak on the one hand. It seems to go in strength upon the other casteism is increasing due to political and other interests. Government as well as non-government authorities think it desirable to employ only the members of their own caste in elections who would try to gain advantages for their own caste.

Marriage:
The institution of marriage in the village community has completely changed. Marriage is no more endogamous Marriage is now contracted between members of neighbouring villages and groups. Marriage which was treated as a religious sacrament now it is found that a sacred base of marriage is gradually det deteriorating. Because the customs of marriage are undergoing changes. The area of selection of mates is increasing. Although the parents decide on the marriage.

It is considered quite proper to take the consent of the boy and girl. In today’s society, there is heavy demand for dowry which is increasing day by day among Hindus. So is that of Mehar in Muslims. Apart from it, the education and qualities of girls are still an important factors in marriage. The growth of divorce is very high in the village community. There is also a decline of child marriage and acceptance of widow remarriage in modem village communities.

Joint family:
The joint family which was previously treated as the unit of the village community has been replaced by the nuclear family. So the size of the family is being smaller and smaller and there is the growth of individualization, and materialisation showing the sign of disintegration. The role of elders in family decision-making has been weakened. Each and every member wants to become stronger by which the family ties are discarded.

The enlightenment of women has made them conscious of their position in the family. Their lives are no more confined to the four walls of the house and they have taken many activities inside the family, which is sometimes responsible for the breakdown of the family in the village community.

Jajmani system:
The jamjar system in the traditional village community was closely connected with the caste system. Due to changes in different aspects of caste the growth of the Jajmani system has been affected. As a result of different efforts made by the government, the lower castes have now gained a certain degree of self-respect and their Jajmani relations with other castes are in the progress of being broken.

The occupations are no longer based on caste and the caste panchayats have lost their power which leads to the elimination of the Jajmani system. The circulation of money in place of services in the village has a degenerating effect on the Jajmani system.

Food and Dress:
Many changes have been noticed in the mode of living of the village community, particularly in the dress and food habits, many changes have been taken place. There is a quick change in the dress of the village. They use modem-fascinated dresses by imitating the urban civilisation. It has given emphasis to the will-made cloth which has replaced the handspun cloth.

They have a liking towards western dresses. The village women are now consuming more clothes of artificial silk, artificial jewellery and cheap cosmetics. So there is an unexpected change not in food habits but in dresses also.

Recreation:
A great change has been noticed in the village communities. In traditional society, the family was treated as main centre of recreation. But today the young men of the village have developed a liking for cinema, newspapers, clubs, hotels, and parks. So the means of recreation are gradually getting into life patterns of village communities. The organized facilities like radio, television, and video have attracted the villagers in the village community on the place of old music sing theatre and drama.

Economic life:
There are rapid changes in the economic life of the village community. The development of industries, factories, factories and mills are the main cause of change in the economic condition of villagers. The use of modem machinery in agriculture has increased the agricultural products Establishment of a cooperative society and facilities of loans to them have brought changes and have brought changes and have improved the condition of financial capital.

The standard of living is rising creating a demand for new things. There is a quick change in the food, dress and housing etc. The education of young -men are preferring to towns in search of jobs instead of agriculture. The cottage industries have been encouraged by government aid.

Political changes:
Political change has deeply influenced the village communities in today’s society. The political consciousness of the people has increased because of the introduction of panchayats in the village communities. The knowledge of politics has emerged among the villages due to the availability of newspapers along with radio and television.

So the number of participants of the people with politics is increasing. The village community has been divided into many groups on the basis of political parties as a result of which individualism and community feelings have increased along with cooperation. So modem Indian village communities are not free from politics.

Health:
The modem age is the age of science and technology. Due to the development of science and technology, changes in health in the village communities are easily visible. There is progress of sanitation and an increase in the number of doctors in the village community. The number of PHCs and dispensaries have been increased.

The health condition of women including children is improving by the proper arrangement made by the Government. Control of Government over Malaria, T.B. Small Pox has been successful. But the excessive use of tea, opium and tobacco etc. has undermined the health of the villages.

Social Control:
A great difference is evident in the social control of the traditional villages and modem villages. The village community have much control over its members. But this has decreased to a great extent The means of control like customs traditions, folkways and modes have become weak due to the spread of education and the decrease in superstition. The primary groups like family neighbourhoods have lost their hold over their members.

The control is now in fact normal and is exercised through most police and law. anti-social activities like crime juvenile delinquency, prostitution and suicide have become common. From the above discussion, it is clear that the village community is not free from changes. It is also not correct to say that it is static. It is changing and it will keep on changing in future. So the change in the village community is quite inevitable and easily justified.

Question 2.
Discuss the important classification of the village community.
Answer:
With differential climatic and historical conditions different types of village communities have emerged in different periods of human history. They are different from each other in their social systems, folk- culture, traditions etc. For example, a wide variance is marked between a Saxon village the German murk Russian mi Indian Gram, a Village of feudal Europe, a U.S.A. village western – Eur or village etc. Different social thinkers and sociologists have classified village communities into different types on the basis of several factors. The major types may be discussed as follows.

On the basis of Residence:
On the basis of residence, H. J. Peake has classified village communities into three types such as:

Migratory village:
The people of this type of village live for months or for a season in a particular locality and arrange their food from wild fruits animal meats etc. When the food supply at a place exhausts they shift to another place where they can find an adequate amount of food.

Semi-permanent village:
In semi-permanent agricultural villages, people reside for a few years at a particular place and migrate to another place due to the exhaustion of the productivity of the land. The duration of residence is larger in comparison to the migratory type of villages. In this type of village, people keep domestic animals like cows and goats but do not cultivate the land for agriculture.

They generally bum down the small trees and bushes etc and sow seed over the earth which gives them some coups after rainfall. And when people find that, the land is not yielding the required amount of food grains, they leave the place for another new settlement.

Permanent Agricultural villages:
In such a type of village, people live permanently for generations. They develop their farm practices village organisation and social relations within their own village as well as with their neighbouring villages. Usually, they do not change their place of living and place of cultivation. In such types of villages, permanent households are created the number of households may vary from a little number to hundreds or thousands.

On the basis of settlements:
On the basis of settlement, the citizen classified the village community into two heads such as nucleated and Dispersed villages.

Nucleated village:
In the nucleated villages, the residents dwell in one cluster and it has a dense population. The different families live in physical proximity to each other and land a common life. Their forms are spread around the village dwelling. Their farmland may be scattered in many plots or may be consolidated in blocks.

Scattered village:
In this type of village, families are scattered over a relatively large piece of land. The villagers live separately in their respective farms which is away from one another. Since their homes are dispersed they have a lesser degree of contact with each other. Their social life assumes a different form. However, some sort of relationship binds all the families together. Generally, they participate in common festivals and observe common functions.

On the basis of organisation:
On this basis villages may be classified as follows:

Co-operative villages:
In this type of village, the land is owned individually and people pull their resources together for common cultivation and farming. Generally, cooperative villages in India and Saxon villages in Germany fall in this group.

Semi-collective villages :
In such villages, the land belongs to the collective body. All means of production and resources are owned collectively. The people work together for the production of food grains and other essential goods. For consumption they get their monthly or annual dues fixed according to the income of the village. The income of the villager is not associated with the hours of labour but in by him. The families receive their quota according to the numerical strength of the family.

Collective villages:
In this type, villages live in a communal settlement where all property is collectively owned and all the arrangements are done on a collective basis. Members of the village only render their labour to the common pool and get all the necessities of life like food, clothing, housing education etc. There is a common dining hall, common store and communal kindergarten in the village. The old and disabled persons are also maintained from the common fund. As a whole such type of village gives full security for the whole life of a person, his children and dependents.

On the basis of land ownership:
On this basis, villages may be classified into two categories such as:

Landlord village:
In such villages, the land is owned by individuals, families or a few families known as landlords. The landlords possess the rights over the land but give the land to the tenants. The landlords also impose rent on the land which tenants usually pay. The landlords give a certain percentage or rent to the Government and keep a good percentage for themselves. Such types of villages existed in India before the abolition of intermediaries in agricultural sectors.

Ryotwary villages:
In rotary villages, farmers are the owners of the land and they cultivation it. They directly pay the rent to the Government without any intermediary. Such villages are known as ryotwari villages where land is owned by ryot or cultivators.

Question 3.
Discuss the main characteristics of the urban community.
Answer:
A close examination of dominant features of urban life shows that there are significantly different between those who live in cities and those in rural areas. Urbanism as way of life, following is characterised by an extensive conflict of norms and values by rapid social change by increased social differentiation, greater social mobility, by a higher level of education and income.

By emphasis on material possessions and individualism. Urban values discussed by birth and other sociologists on western countries are not yet completely pre-dominant in India. In can be said that they are beginning to take root in Indian cities. Thus in the Indian context, the following description may not be wholly relevant.

Formal and impersonal Human relationship:
The large size and heterogeneous composition of urban areas prevent intimacy and purpose, for example, buyers and sellers in a store, and doctors and patients in a clinic. They are not usually concerned with all aspects of a person’s life. Apart from their family members and friends, urban people do not normally interact with others. This feature among the urban dwellers results in formal, impersonal superficial and secondary contacts.

Materialism:
In urban communities, external appearances and material possessions are of primary importance. Urban dwellers have often known for their status symbols such as the number of their financial assets or salaries the costliness of their homes and its furnishing T. V. or Video etc.

Individualism:
Urban dwellers give primary emphasis on their own interests and personal happiness. Urbanities do not show any concern for others and they do not think about the interests of others.

Mobility:
One of the distinctive features of urban life is greater mobility. People move again and again from one job to other from one locality to other. Residential mobility tends to weaken ties to the local community.

Formal Social Control:
Social control in Urban communities is more formal. Control in the urban community depends to large extent on large – scale super-local institutions. Responsibility for controlling behaviours in cities is largely shifting to police the court and other agencies of government to enforce the norms.

Norms and Social Role Conflict:
The diversity of social life is the most important characteristic or urbanism. It springs from the size, density and heterogeneity of the extreme specialisation of various occupations and the class structure existing in the larger communities the latter factors in farms generally result in divergent group norms and values and complicating social rules.

In urban communities, the ends sought by different groups are so differentiated and divergent that individuals often do not know in many areas of life exactly what are the norms are standards of behaviour and suitable social roles. The clash of norms and social rules creates a situation where no single standard is wide to be upheld and where deviation from it is not penalised.

Rationality:
With the impersonal nature of urban relationships, urban orientations tend to be utilitarian. That is people then enter into relationships after calculating potential gains from these associations. Here relationships are generally of the contractual kind where profit and loss are carefully evaluated. Once the contract is over the relationship between the people tends to end. Of course, there exists a wide range of variety in an individual relationship and all relationship is pointed out.

Secularism:
Heterogeneity of physical such as racial, social and cultural elements in urban life results in routine exposure to divergent styles and values. People become accustomed to seeing others very differently from themselves. As a result, they become more tolerant to differences. This rational and tolerant attitude produces a secular orientation in life. It is assumed that secular as opposed to religious orientation have been associated with urban social structure.

The decline in the functions of family:
Many of the educational recreational and other functions, performed within a rural joint family context are taken over by the institutions such as schools, clubs and other voluntary organisations in the urban social context, In urban society, there is generally a clear demarcation between the home and place of work which is not always found in rural society. Because of greater geographical mobility, regular contact between kins is often difficult if not impossible on these families.

Rapid social and cultural change:
Rapid social and cultural change also characterises urban life. Urban life itself also tends to facilitate changes in norms and ideologies as well as systems of behaviour which may greatly change the social structure and relations of the people to one another. The above description of the characteristics of the urban way of life should, however, be regarded as an ideal type. Cities vary in the extent or the degree to which they are characterised by urban qualities.

Question 4.
Discuss the important characteristics of the village community.
Answer:
The village community has certain basic and specific characteristics. This nature of the village community can be properly understood by an analysis of its characteristics. The important characteristics are as follows:

Agriculture as the dominant mode of occupation:
Agriculture is the main occupation in the village community. It is not only a mode of production, but also away of life. The entire village life is influenced by it. Smith remarks that “agriculture and the collective enterprise are the bases of rural economy. The ‘Farmer’and the ‘Countryman’ are almost synonymous terms”.

Maclver also proclaims that “the predominant occupation of agriculture has other attributes which impress themselves on the mentality of the countrymen and are reflected in his social life. He is not like urban wage earner, an employee working under immediate supergvision of a task specially assigned to him.

Whether he is tenant or free holder even where he is a serf his time and season, his vaiying tasks,his alteration of work and rest are set for him not by the community of a master by the exigencies of nature,” Thus, agriculture is the predominant mode of occupation of villagers which influence the entire gamut of relationship in rural setting.

The small size of the viallage community:
Village communities are comparatively small in size. Due to it a sense of belongingness and primary group relationship develop among the villagers. Smaller the group the more intimate it is. Thus, in village community a deep, intense and enduring type of relationship is found among the people. A deeper sincerity in affairs of fellow beings, intensity of community sentiment, we feeling, role feeling, feeling or dependence, are all due to the small size of village community.

The dominant role of family and neighbourhood:
Family occupies a very dominant position in village community. It acts as the main agent of social- control. It also determines the various activities of the people like marriage, religious performances, political affiliations etc. Such dominant position of the family also provides impetus for masked stability of village community. About the role of family Maclver says, “In rural life where the family is relatively dominant and self contained a group responsibility prevails.

The status of an individual is likely to be the status of the family. Property is likely to be thought of as family possession. Family opinion develops about most matters of interests of interest and is apt to permeate all its members. Neighbourhood plays a very important role in village community. It is constituted of almost identical cluster of huts and houses.

Neighbours are intimately connected with each other. They assist each other during the time of difficulties. Their topic of gossip is common. Everybody is under constant guidance of the whole neighbourhood. This reciprocal relationship in community marked ever one to act according to the prevailing ways.

Homogeneity of life:
The village community has comparatively a greater homogeneity. It means that people are more or less like in a village community and have relatively similar way of life. It is mainly due to the agriculture as predominant mode of occupation. Other occupations also exist in rural communities. But they are in a small scale and more or less linked with the agriculture. Thus, the predominance of single occupation and the common ways of living in a particular area for generations together makes the village life relatively homogeneous.

Simplicity and frugality of living:
Simplicity and frugality of living is another important characteristic of village life. Most of the individual farmers possess small size of the cultivable land. The agricultural production is limited due to many natural as well as man made factors. By didn’t of his hard labour and sweat, the farmer gets the substantial amount of crops by which he maintains his family.

The ill practices like theft, robbery, misconduct etc. are not significantly visible in villages. The villagers lead an idealistic life in accordance with the traditions of family and caste. Generally, they, do not make false pretentions’and boasting. Their life is plain and open. They are not so much mad after the material possessions and are satisfied with their hand. All these make them relatively simple, sober and soft.

Faith in God and religion:
Most of the village people are illiterate and ignorant. So they have strong belief on God and religion. They are nearer to nature. Nature causes heavy loss and devastation for the rural people.Thus, villagers develop a kind of fear for the natural forces and start worship in them with a view to escape for their wrath. Such nearness to nature also determines the attitude of farmers towards land, animals, wealth, natural calamities etc. Thus, religion becomes part and parcel of rural, social life.

Group feeling and natural co- operation:
In village life group feeling or feeling of occupies a important place. Villagers are ready to sacrifice their own interests or even life for the sake of village. They led a life based on co- operation and mutual understanding. Agriculture, the main occupation of the villagers is a sort of cooperative enterprise.

It needs a lot of man power, necessitating the people to co- operate with each other. Therefore, co- operation is a natural necessity of the village community. This co- operation is based on love, affection, goodwill and fellow feeling. Due to these things the social relationship in a village community, becomes genuine, sacred and permanent.

Common ideology and culture:
In village community people have common ideology, due to their compact living in a definite locality for years together over generations, a common ideology or belief naturally emerges out of their association and interaction. Generally in village, people have common views on politics, religion, customs etc. Thus, the people of a village cultivate some common cultural traits, behavioural patterns and follow common customs and traditions.

Lack of specialisation:
In village community there is no or little specialisation. Even in occupational activities, although different sectors of population are supposed to practice different types of occupations, there is no such specialisation in modem sense of the term. For example, agricultural occupation is a common occupation in rural community. Person belonging to different castes are engaged in agriculture. Due to lack of specialisation there is less innovation and discovery. People are governed by traditional norms and heritage.

Low density of population:
Comparatively, the concentration of population at a particular space is very low in a rural area. In urban centres a large number of people concentrate within a specified territory which leeds to high density of population. But in rural areas people are scattered over a large stretch of land living near to their agricultural fields. Again, due to heavy migration of people to urban areas, the number of village community decreases resulting in low density of population.

Hard-working and painstaking :
Village people are very hard- working and painstaking. Their life is governed by nature. Neither they feel suffocated in summer, nor chilled in winter, nor afraid of the lighting and thunders of rain. Hard conditions of life and the hardship of agricultural activities make them more pain staking from the very childhood.

Poverty and illiteracy:
Poverty and illiteracy are the constant friends of village life. Owing to pressure on lands it is fragmented in to small holdings which results in poor productivity. Besides there are also a number of landless labourers in village community. The agriculture is often affected by natural calamities. Villagers do not have other sources of income.

The ever increasing poverty, deprives them even from elementary education what to speak of highly expensive, technical, specialised education. Those minority who can afford for such are led by blind belief and religious dogmas which kills their initiative for higher education.

Caste System :
Caste system is another unique characteristic feature of village community. The whole village community is divided in to many groups on the basis of caste system. All the important aspects of social life are governed by the caste norms. Social life is governed by the caste norms. Social intercourse, ritual performance occupation- everything is decided by Caste Panchayats.

Less intensity of mobility and change:
Mobility of population in village community is less intensive. Because people generally follow the same occupation. The change of occupation or change of caste is not permissible. One’s status and position is permanently fixed on the basis of birth in a particular caste and family. The speed of social change in village community is very slow due to the rigidity of customs, traditions and value system.

Therefore, the village community is comparatively less dynamic. Smith has remarked that “Urban community may be said to resemble “swiftly moving river, where water chums about incrssantly, rural community is a quiet pond with small waves created by cool breeze. “Zimmerman, comments “rural community is similar to calm water in apail and the urban community, to boiling water in a kettle.”

Local Self- Government:
In early, days, village was a independent, self- sufficient and autonomous organisation. The villagers tried to manage their own affairs by themselves through the traditional institutions like Caste Panchayat or Village Panchayat. Village as a “Little Republic” have every thing for its member. Now- a – days a number of steps are being taken by this Govememnt to reorganise these “republics”, which had lost their vitality during British rule. These local self- governing bodies run the day- to- day life of village community through informal methods and thereby preserves its socio- economic identity.

Rigidity of social control :
In village community, the primary institutions play a very significant role in exercising social control. Such primary institutions are family, Caste- Council, neighbourhood, religious opinion etc. These institutions regulate the behaviour of individuals through informal means. Due to the rigidity of value system, customs, traditions etc. the observance of the information rules becomes obligatory etc. the observance of the information rules becomes obligatory for members. There is little chance of deviation from it. and such’deviation is severely criticised and published by the people in most informal manner.

Tradition:
The age- old tradition is peculiar characteristic of village community, Village community is custom bound and tradition- ridden. The minds of villagers are so much pre- occupied with traditional beliefs and faith that the diffusion of new ideas and beliefs take place very slowly.

Question 5.
Describe the various types of village communities.
Answer:
With different climates and historical conditions, different types of village communities have emerged in different periods of human history. They differ from even others in their social system folk- cultures, traditions etc. For example, a wide variance is marked between a Saxon village, the German Mark, a Russian city- Indian Gram, the village of Feudal Europe, a U.S.A. village, a Western Europe village etc. Different social factors. The major types may be discussed as follows

On the basis of Residence :
On the basis of residence, H.T. Peake has classified village communities into three types such as:

Migratory village:
The people of this of villages live for months or for a season in a particular locality, arranging their foods from natural resources in the form of wild hunts, animal meals etc. When the food supply at a place exhausts, they shift to another place where they can find an adequate amount of food.

Semi-permanent village:
In semi-permanent agricultural villages, people reside for a few years at a particular place and migrate to another place due to die exhaustion of the productivity of the land. The duration of residence is more as compared to the migratory type of village. In this type of village, people keep domestic animals like cows and goat but do not cultivate the land for agriculture.

They generally bum down the small trees and bushes etc. and sow seed over the earth which gives them some crops after rainfall. And when the people find that the land is not yielding the required amount of food grains, they leave the place for another new settlement.

Permanent agricultural village:
In such type of village, people have lived permanently for generations. They develop their farm practices, village organisations and social relations within their own village as well as their neighbouring villages. Usually, they do not change their place of living and place of cultivation. In such types of villages, permanent households are created. The number of households may vary from any little number of hundreds or thousands.

On the basis of settlement:
On the basis of settlement, we have classified village communities into two heads as Nucleated and Dispersed villages or scattered villages.

Nucleated village:
In the nucleated village, the residents dwell in one cluster and it has a dense population. The different families are in physical proximity to each other and lead a common life. Their forms are spread around the village dwelling. Their farmland may be scattered in many plots or may be scattered in many plots or may be consolidated in a block.

Scattered village:
In this type of village, families are scattered over a relatively large piece of land. The villagers live separately in their respective farms which is away from one another. Since they are dispersed they have a lesser degree of contact with each other. Their social life assumes a different form. However, some sort of relationship binds all the families together. Generally, they participate in common festivals and observe common functions.

On the basis of organisation:
On this basis villages may be classified as follows:

Co-operative village:
In this type of village, the land is owned individually and people pull their resources together for common cultivation and farming. Generally, co-operative houses are organised to supply them with their necessary commodities. The Mosawdion type of village of Israel, Co- an operative village in India and a Saxon village in Germany fall into this group.

Semi-collective village:
In such villages, the land belongs to the collective body. All means of production and resources are owned collectively. The people work together for the production of food grains and other essential goods. In respect of the consumption side, they get their monthly or annual duties fixed according to the income of the village. The income of villagers is not associated with the number of hours worked by a member of a particular family. The families receive their quota according to the numerical strength of the family.

Collective village:
In this type of village, villagers live in a communal settlement where all property is collectively owned and all the arrangements are done on a collective basis. Members of the village only render their labour to the common pool and get all the necessities of life like food, clothing, housing, education etc.

There is a common dining hall, common store and communal kindergarten in the village. The old and disabled persons are also maintained from the common fund. As a whole such type of village gives faith secretly for the whole life of a person, his children and dependents.

On the basis of Land Ownership:
On this basis, villages may be classified into two categories such as:

Landlord villages :
In such villages, the land is owned by individual families or a few families known as landlords. The landlords possess, all powers over the land but give the land to the tenants. The landlords also impose rent on the land which tenants usually pay. The (landlords) give a certain percentage for themselves. Such types of villages existed in India before the abolition of intermediaries in the agricultural sector.

Ryotwari villages:
In Ryotwari villages farmers are the owners of the land and they cultivate they directly pay the rent to the government without any intermediary.

Question 6.
Bring out the distinction between rural and urban communities.
Answer:
The rural and urban communities differ from each other on the basis of social, economic, religious and cultural standpoints. The sociologists like E.S. Bogardus, K. Davids, E.A. Ross, P. A. Sorokin and so on the point out the following distinction between rural communities and urban communities.

The difference in size:
The size of village community is small.Its scope is very narrow and limited because it is constituted by a small number of people.Due to the small size, the people of village can identify each other and create personal relations among them. But the size of urban community is large. Its scope is very wide and vast because it includes a large number of people of different religions. As a result the people can not identify each other personally.

The difference in Environment:
The environment of die rural community is pure, peaceful and natural than that of the urban community. The villages carry on agricultural works being constantly is struggle with sun, rain and winter. The environment becomes pure and healthy by cultivation instead of being polluted.But the environment of urban community is polluted and artificial. The city is the centre of factories and motor vehicle. The movement of vehicles, smoke and poisonous gas from the factories and the water of the drains make the environment polluted.

The difference in occupation:
Agriculture is the main occupation of the village community.lt is the life and soul of Villagers. Most of the people in the village depend directly on agriculture to earn their livelihood. Though a few landless people depend to cottage industries, yet agriculture is the main occupation from the economic stand point. But the only dwellers generally do not depend on agriculture, trade and commerce and job in government and private sectors is their main occupation. They earn their livelihood by depending directly on some non-agricultural occupation.

The difference in family system:
The family life of the village community is very simple and peaceful. Joint family system is mostly seen in villages. Most of the people in village live together in one house and take part in sorrow and joys of each other. Joint family is the main basis of rural unity. But on the other hand, the family of urban community is indisciplined, hard, rigid. The families or urban areas are nuclear type.

The difference in marriage:
The rural and urban communities differ from each other on the basis of marriage systemin village community marriage is performed according to the approval and consent of two families. Marriage outside the caste, is strictly prohibited in village. The son or the daughter has no right in the selection of mates. The marriage which is fixed by the parents and relatives is unanimously accepted. From this stand point, love marriage in urban community is performed according to the will and choice of two persons. The role of son and daughter is more important than the parents in the selection of mates.

The difference in caste system:
In village community, caste system is very hard and rigid. The villagers are distinguished from each other on the basis of caste. They deeply believe in caste system and create many restrictions in food, drink and social intercourse. The higher caste people village enjoy all kinds of social, economic, religious and cultural privileges and the lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities. But on the other hand, caste system has no importance in urban community.The city dwellers do not believe incaste system. They uproot all restrictions of caste system.

The difference in Religion:
The village community is deeply influenced by religion. The villagers are more religious-minded. They worship many Gods and Goddesses. Different rituals and worships are the fundamental principles of rural life. The villagers fear honour and believe God. But the urban community is not much more influenced by religion. The city dwellers have less religious belief. They consider religion as a symbol of superstition. From this stand pointmany anti-social works happens in urban communities.

The difference in cultural life:
The cultural life of both rural and urban communities are different from each other. The rural culture is more static than that of the urban culture. The belief, art, law,customs and traditions of the rural people are rigid. The cultural life of the villagers is motivated on the basis of the caste system. The caste feeling controls and guides the day- to day life of the people. But the culture of the urban community is simple, flexible and changing. It is always based on the secular principles.

The difference in social relationship:
Village community is mostly characterised by primary relationship. There is a strong we feeling among the people. The villagers help each other and share the joys and sorrows. Their relationships is fundamental to the case. Tins relationship is direct, intimate, face- to- face, informal and stable. But, on the other side, the urban community is mostly characterised by secondary relationship. The city dwellers rarely know each other. The relationship among the people in an urban community is indirect impersonal, formal and short.

Question 7.
Define caste and discuss its various characteristics.
(Or)
What is caste? Point out its distinctive features.
(Or)
Examine the structural and functional features of caste in India.
Answer:
Stratification is a general feature of every society. An “unstratified society with a real equality of its members is a myth, which has never been realized in the history of mankind. Indian society presents a unique system of stratification based on birth, which is not found elsewhere in the world. This form, with other forms of social stratification, is the caste system.

The English word ‘caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word ‘Caste’. ‘Caste’ means breed, race or kind. The Hindi equivalent of caste is ‘Jati’ or ‘Jat’. Jati means birth or descent. Risley defines caste as “A collection of families or groups of Families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and is regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.

Ketkar defines caste as “A social group having two characteristics.

• Endogamy and
• Membership is confined to those who are born of members and includes all persons so born.

According to Anderson and Parker, “Caste is that extreme form of social class organization . in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth”. Prof. Ghurye discusses some of the important characteristics of caste N.K. Dutta also gives a list of the salient features of the caste system, which is an essence not very much different from the one given by Prof. Ghurye. The general features of caste are:

Segmental division of society:
Society is divided into several small social groups under the caste system. Each social group is called a caste. The membership of a caste is based on birth, so mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Thus, each caste is a social world by itself.

Hierarchy:
Prof. George says that all the castes are arranged into a hierarchy on the basis of their social precedence. At the top of the hierarchy, there is the Brahmin caste and followed by Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra castes. The relative position of all these castes are not always very clear.

Restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse :
Every caste imposes restrictions on its members, with regard to food, drink and social intercourse. The members of a higher caste do not accept water or food from the lower castes or untouchables. For example, the Brahmins do not accept water and food from the Harijans. Likewise, there is restrictions on social inter¬course. There are widespread beliefs of pollution by touch which require the members of different castes to maintain social distance from one another.

Differential civil and religious privileges and disabilities:
In a caste society, there is an unequal distribution of privileges and disabilities among its members. While the higher caste people enjoy all the privileges the lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities. The un- touchable castes live far away from the residential areas of the higher castes. They are not allowed to move freely in the community.

The untouchables along with the Shudras, are not permitted to study the Hindu scriptures like the Vedas. Punishment for crime varies not according to the caste of the criminal. They are not allowed to participate in public fairs etc. They are even not allowed to use public fairs etc. They are even not allowed to use public wells, ponds, roads etc.

Restrictions on choice of occupation:
The choice of occupations in a caste system is hereditary and the members of a caste are expected to follow their traditional occupations without fail. Thus, a Brahmin should be a Priest and Chamar should always cure hides and make chappals.

Restrictions on marriage:
Each caste is an endogamous group. Every caste or sub-caste imposes restrictions that its members should many within the group. Marriage outside one’s caste is strictly prohibited. Any deviation of this rule is viewed as a serious offence and results in ex-communication from the caste or severe punishment.

Sub-caste:
Each caste in Hindu society is subdivided into a number of sub-castes. Each sub-caste, like a caste, is an endogamous group.

Caste- panchayat:
Every caste has its own panchayat or praise. It discusses various matters and problems of its own caste. It functions like a governing body. It settles various disputes of caste and punishes the offenders who violate the rules of the caste.

Question 8.
Discuss various theories of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
The English word ‘Caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word ‘caste’. ‘Caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word ‘caste’. ‘Caste’ means breed, race or kind. The Hindi equivalent of caste is ‘Jati’ or ‘jaf. Jati means birth or descent. So caste of a person is determined by his birth. A number of theories are found in India to explain the origin of the caste system in India. Some important theories of the origin of the caste system are

• Racial Theory
• Political Theory
• Occupational Theory
• Traditional Theory
• Theory of Mana.
• Functional – Racial Theory
• Theory of cultural integration.
• Evolutionary Theory

Racial Theory:
The racial theory is regarded as an important theory of the caste system. Sir Herbert Risely, GS. Ghurye and D.N. Mazumdar are the main propounders of racial theory. Sir Herbert Risely points out that the Caste system originated in India after the entrance of Aryans from Persia to India. He points out that when Aryans came to India, at that time there was a scarcity of women among them.

So they started marrying from non-Aryans or lower vamps. But the Aryans refused to give their women in Marring to the non-Aryans. Later on, when the Aryans had enough of women they closed to marrying women from the non-Aryans or lower vamps. Hence they married women among their Aryans and the custom of endogamy was founded.

Risely argues that the caste system originated due to this attitude of Aryans toward non-Aryans. Prof GS- Ghurye argues that the Aryans invaded India and conquered the original non-Aryan races. Later on, these non-Aryans were regarded as ‘Sudras’. The Aryans did not give permission to the non-Aryans or the Sudras to participate in all their religious and social activities.

Even the Aryans did not allow the non-Aryans to reside near their houses. This racial conflict is the cause of the origin of the caste system. Mazumdar points out that the caste system originated in India after the entrance of Aryans to India. After their arrival, hierarchy increased gradually in India. This hierarchy is the basis and origin of the caste system. Hutton criticises the racial theory of the origin of the caste- system.

He says that it is very difficult to believe that hypergamy has created the caste system in India alone. Secondly, the existence of two races cannot convincingly refer to the existence of untouchability in India Lastly, this theory only stresses race while it neglects many other possible factors which contribute to the formation of the caste system.

Political Theory:
Some early European observers point out that the Caste system was a creation of the clever priesthood on a single law- given for the division and subjection of the masses. Dr Ghurye says that the “Caste system in India is a Brahminic child of the Indo- Aryan culture.” But the critics of this theory says that caste system is so widespread and deep-rooted in Hindu society that it could not have been imposed upon the public either by a clever priesthood or by an administrative measure.

Secondly, the caste system is so co-related with Hindu society that it is difficult to conceive of Hindu society without a caste- system. Hence caste system is organic rather than artificial to Hindu society.

Occupational Theory:
Nesfield is the main propounder of this theory. According to him, some occupations were regarded as higher than others occupations. So occupation or function alone is responsible for the origin or caste- system in India. The critics of this theory say that if the occupation is the sole basis of the caste- system then why agricultural castes in the south are considered lower castes whereas they are regarded as respectable in North India.

Traditional Theory:
The traditional theory explains the caste- system in terms of divine origin. Rigveda states the four varhas have emerged from the four limbs of the supreme being. The Jatis or castes have been formed due to the prevalence of hypergamy and hypogamy marriages between the four original games.

The mixed offspring of such unions created many different castes. The critics of this theory say that from a scientific point of view it is wrong to believe that the four games are the creation of divine beings. Secondly, it is also wrong to believe that all the various castes have been formed by vamasankara.

Theory of Mana:
J.H. Hutton is the main propounder of this theory. He says that the belief in “Mana” has given rise to the caste system. Mana is a supernatural power in which, the tribal people believe. Mana has the power to do good or bad, profit or loss to people. It is also believed by the tribal people that “Mana” can be transmitted through contact and social- intercourse.

Functional Racial Theory:
Slater has tried to explain the origin of the caste system by functional and racial elements. According to him, the caste system developed in India much before the Aryans came. He says the caste system arose in India as a result of occupations becoming hereditary and marriage being arranged by parents to safeguard craft secrets. Further, the occupational groups were created because of magic and religious ceremonies attached to crafts. He says, the Aryans came and strengthened the existing tendency by associating a colour to castes.

Theory of Cultural Integration:
Sarat Chandra Roy is the main propounder of this theory. In his opinion, the caste system arose due to geographical intimacy and equality of social ideas of different races. He says the caste system evolved as a result of the integration and assimilation of different cultures. For example, the Aryan “Varna system us a cultural entity which is based on ‘Karma’, and the Dravidian division of society is<a culture which is based on occupation.

Evolutionary Theory:
Denzil Ibbetson is the main propounder of this theory. He points out that the caste system evolved as a result of the interaction of tribes, occupational guilds and religion. Therefore, from the above discussion, it is very clear that a number of theories are found to explain the origin of the caste- system.

But no theory has yet been able to explain its origin convincingly. The caste system is so complex that it is not easy to explain it in terms of any one factor. The Indian caste system is not the product of any one single factor. This system is a natural result of the interaction of geographical, social, political, economic and religious factors.

Question 9.
Discuss various merits or advantages of the caste system,
(Or)
Discuss different functions of the caste system.
Answer:
Risley says caste of “A collection of families or groups Of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and is regarded by those who are competent to give opinions as forming a single homogeneous community.” Under the caste, system society is divided into a number of castes.

Though the castes are hierarchically ordered hence the relative positions of different castes are always not very clear. The membership of a caste is based on birth, so mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Each caste has its own traditional social status, occupation, customs, rules and regulations. Each caste is an endogamous group. So a marriage outside one’s own caste is prohibited.

Every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food, drink and social- intercourse. Each caste also has its own occupation. Freedom is not allowed for the members of the different castes to choose their occupations freely. Similarly, each caste has its own governing body called the ‘caste council’ of ‘ Jati’ Panchayat’, which enforces the caste rules. Thus, each caste is a social world itself. But in all activities, all the castes are dependent upon each other and serve as the device in our division of labour for the smooth functioning of society.

The caste system has certain merits and demerits:
The merits of the caste system can be viewed from two angles. One from the individual’s point of view, the other from social point of view. So the merits or advantages on functions of caste system from an individual point of view are:-

Determines Social Status:
As caste- system is based on the principle of birth an individual automatically becomes a member of it and gets the traditional status of that caste. For example, a Brahmin occupies the highest position in Hindu society not because of his extra- ordinaiy qualities or achievements, but because of his birth in a Brahmin caste. So in the caste- system the ascriptive status of the individual is fixed.

Provides Social Security:
A caste offers social security to the individual from his birth to death. It provides him with an occupation, acts as a trade union, a benefit society, health insurance and also provides for his funeral if it is needed.

Guides the Individual behaviour:
Caste- system controls the behaviour of the individual. Every caste has its own behaviour patterns. The members of each caste obey this behaviour patterns in matters like dress, diet, ceremony, rituals at birth, initiation on Upanayana, marriage, death etc.

Functions of the caste system from the social point of view –

Caste – system preserves culture:
Every society for its stability passes its culture from one generation to another generation. The caste system is specially, fit for such a task of handling over cultural patterns like skill, knowledge and behaviour from one preceding generation to the other succeeding generation with little change. In the caste- system the hereditary occupation and the caste customs are safeguarded and handed over to the next generation.

It integrates Society:
Caste system has acted as an effective means of integrating the diverse racial, religious, national and ethnic groups in to a vast Community. The caste- system is capable of integrating these groups in such a way that it becomes a part of the social whole and yet retains its own distinctive character and identity.

Caste – system establishes stability in society:
The caste- system has also been responsible for the stability in society. Hindu society has proved stable because it is firmly based on a caste- system, which survives even conversion to Islam or Christianity. It has also saved Hindu society from being disrupted under the pressure of alien invasions, famines and upheavals of all kinds.

Caste- system brings Political – stability in Society:
The caste- system has acted as a political stabilizer in the country. It acts as a constitution for the Hindu. The caste- system is responsible for the preservation of India from complete barbarism, a sure basis of orderly government, a defence against despotism and as a means for preserving the arts as a sure means for preserving Hindu pattern of culture under the regime of alien conquerors.

It serves as a device for the division of labour:
caste- system acts as a unique system of division of labour in Hindu society. It provides to the individual, with all functions ranging from education to scavenging. One important feature of this system is that it believes in the religious dogma that is belief in ‘Karma’. This belief in Karma makes in-equitable division of labour acceptable to the people. It is said that the present position and occupation of the individual is the result of his past life, and if he performs his caste duties perfectly in present life then he will maintain a better life in future.

The caste- system maintains the purity of blood:
The caste- system has served as a method for preserving the purity of blood by its instance on endogamy. Because the caste system prohibits marriage outside one’s own group. So this endogamy prevents hybridisation and thereby maintains the purity of blood.

Question 10.
Discuss dysfunctions of caste-system Or. Discuss the demerits of the caste- system
Answer:
‘No doubt’ caste- system has certain merits. It is not altogether devoid of dysfunctions or demerits. The system has been responsible for various evils in Hindu society. The main disadvantages or demerits or dysfunctions of caste- system are:-

Hinders Social Progress:
Caste-system is a hindrance to social progress. Because it does not easily allow the changes in society.Under caste system the individual has no freedom.He is bound to conform to his age old customs of his caste. If some one violates the age old customs, then he is published. Since the members of caste believe in the law of Karma, they become conservative in society. This rigidity of the system has almost paralysed Hindu society. Innovation has no place in it. So caste system hinders social progress in Hindu society.

Caste – system creates un- touchability:
Un- touchability is the ugliest expression of caste- system. Caste- system is mainly responsible for the prevalence of untouchability in Hindu society. These untouchables suffer from all kinds of disabilities. They are economically suffered, specially disabled, politically have no rights in the society.

Caste- system hinders the national unity:
Caste- system creates love and loyalty towards one’s own caste and hatred attitude towards other castes. This sense develops casteism among the people. Under caste system the lower caste people become dissatisfied with the behaviour of upper caste- people. As a result conflict takes place between different castes, which ultimately hinders the national unity.

Caste- system leads to political disunity:
Under caste- system an individual is required to be more loyal to his caste than to any other group. As such, it fosters casteism rather than nationalism among the people. It is for this reason that the Indians could not develop nationalism and combine against foreign invasions. In fact, disunity and lack of patriotism among the Indians encouraged many foreigners to invade India.

The past two hundred and fifty years of India’s recorded history reveals that India was a victim of foreign invasions for atleast hundred and twenty five times. In other words, India was attacked by foreign powers in every 20 years on an average. Even now, caste seems to be one of the most disruptive forces in India.

Caste- system perpetuates social in- equality :
Caste system has served as an instrument in the hands of the upper castes to maintain their own privileged position in society. It led to the disposition of the upper castes and created permanent feelings of inferiority and insecurity in the minds of the lower caste people.

The caste system imposes hardships on women:
Under caste system, a caste wishing to raise its status in the caste hierarchy, should follow certain customs like child marriage, prohibition on window remarriages and seclusion of women, which entails hardship for women.

Caste system hinders economic progress:
Caste – system acts as an obstacle on the path of economic development. Under the caste- system a person is not freely allowed to choose any occupation. Because there is fixed occupation for every caste and this custom is transmitted from one generation to other. Hence it leads to immobility and inefficiency of labour and there by to economic backwardness.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Social Inequality, Exclusion and Movement Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 4 Social Inequality, Exclusion and Movement Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
In the caste system, occupation is
(a) Changing
(b) Fixed
(c) Discontinued
Ans:
(b) Fixed

Question 2.
Status in the caste system is
(a) achieved
(b) ascribed
(c) None of the above
Ans:
(b) ascribed.

Question 3.
Marriage is the caste system is
(a) Endogamous
(b)Exogamous
(c) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Endogamous.

Question 4.
The word caste owes is the origin to which word.
(a) Greek
(b) Spanish
(c) French
Answer:
(b) Spanish.

Question 5.
Warner and Hunt had not given one of the following classifications of classes.
(a) Upper – middle class
(b) Lower-lower class
(c) Capitalist class
Answer:
(a) Upper – middle class

Question 6.
Who said this waste as a closed class?
(a) MajumdarandMadan
(b)MacIver
(c)Kingsely
Answer:
(a) Majumdar and Madan

Question 7.
Who said this “When the status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot in their life without any hope of changing it then class takes the form of caste”.
(a) C.H. Cooley
(b) Madan
(c) Majumdar
Answer:
(a) C.H. Cooley

Question 8.
Who write in “History of Caste in India”?
(a) Ketkar
(b) C.H. Cooley
(c) Madan
Answer:
(a) Ketkar

Question 9.
Who said this “Classes are aggregates of individuals Who have for same opportunities of acquisition goods, the same exhibited standard of Hv
(a) Max-Weber
(b) MacIver and Page
(c) P. Gisbert
Ans :
(a) Max-Weber

Question 10.
A social class is any portion of a community marked off from the rest by social status”.
(a) Maclver and page
(b) Max-Weber
(c) P. Gisbert
Answer:
(a) Maclver and Page

Question 11.
Who said this “A social class is one or more broad groups of individuals who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior positions”.
(a) OgbumandNimkoff
(b) Maclver
(c) P.Gisbert
Answer:
(a) Ogbum and Nimkoff

Question 12.
Who said this “A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in society which permanently determines their relation to other groups.
(a) P. Gisbert
(b) Maclver
(c) Max-Weber
Answer:
(a) P. Gisbert

Question 13.
Who said this, “The untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social and political disabilities many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced by the higher castes”.
(a) D.N. Majumdar
(b)Dr. B.R.Ambedker
(c) Mahatma Gandhi
Ans :
(a) D.N. Majumdar

Question 14.
Who said this, “Tribal society is a collection of families bearing the name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and it is not usually endogamous though originally it might have been so”.
(a) Imperial Gazette
(b) D.N. Majumdar
(c) W.W. Hunter
Answer:
(a) Imperial Gazette

Question 15.
Who said this “A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, members of which occupy of the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage profession or occupation and hence developed a well-assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation”.
(a) D.N. Majumdar
(b)W.W. Hunter
(c) Imperial Gazette.
Answer:
(a) D.N. Majumdar.

Question 16.
Who said this “The tribe is a well-organised social structure where the human group lives in the defined physical environment. It is a collection of families which have a common name, which normally claims descent from a common ancestral living in a defined territory speaking a common dialect and is endogamous”.
(a) Imperial Gazette
(b) D.N. Majumdar
(c) W.W. Hunter
Answer:
(c) W.W. Hunter

One Word Answers

Question l.
A system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status ladder at least ideally may not occur.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 2.
An endogamous group membership of which is hereditary.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 3.
A class is somewhat strictly hereditary.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 4.
Restrictions in social intercourse.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 5.
Mention any one characteristic of the caste system.
Answer:
Endogamy

Question 6.
Mention one demerit of the caste system.
Answer:
Hinders social progress

Question 7.
Mention any one merit of the caste system.
Answer:
Helped in the integration of society.

Question 8.
Mention any one factor responsible of the caste system.
Answer:
Industrialisation

Question 9.
Mention any one changing aspect of the caste system.
Answer:
Change in endogamy.

Question 10.
Mention any one characteristic of the class.
Answer:
Universal

Correct The Sentences

Question l.
Caste is based on wealth.
Answer:
Caste is based on birth.

Question 2.
Class is based on birth.
Answer:
Class is based on birth

Question 3.
Class in an open system.
Answer:
Caste is a closed system

Question 4.
Class is a closed system.
Answer:
Class is an open system.

Question 5.
Caste choice of occupation.
Answer:
Caste determines occupation.

Question 6.
Class system determines occupations.
Answer:
Class system is the choice of occupations

Question 7.
Caste prescribes on such rules regarding eating, drinking and social interaction among its members.
Answer:
Caste prescribes certain rules regarding eating, drinking and social interaction among its members.

Question 8.
Caste is a simple social system.
Answer:
Caste is a complex social system.

Question 9.
Caste is old to Indian society.
Answer:
Caste is unique to Indian society.

Question 10.
Caste and class close in Indian society.
Answer:
Caste and class co-exist in Indian society.

Question 11.
Caste is a secular system.
Answer:
Caste is a sacred system.

Question 12.
Class is a sacred system.
Answer:
Class is a secular system.

Question 13.
Class consciousness is an important feature of the caste system.
Answer:
Class consciousness is an important feature of the class system.

Question 14.
A social class is a relatively temporary group.
Answer:
A social class is a relatively permanent group.

Question 15.
In a class system, there are two modes of feeling.
Answer:
In a class system, there are three modes of feeling.

Question 16.
A social class is a social phenomenon.
Answer:
Social class is a universal phenomenon.

Fill In The Blanks

l. Caste is based on ______.
Answer: Birth

2. Caste is based on _______.
Answer: Wealth

3. Caste is a _______ system.
Answer: Closed

4. Caste is a _______ of its members.
Answer: Occupation

5. Caste is a ________ social system.
Answer: Complex

6. Caste and class _______ in Indian society.
Answer: Co-exist

7. A social class is _______ a permanent group.
Answer: relatively

8. A social class is essentially a _______ group.
Answer: status

9. The term varna literally means ________.
Answer: Colour

10. Caste groups are _______ groups.
Answer: Open

11. Caste which means ______ of ________.
Answer: Breed, Lineage

12. A social class is an ______ group.
Answer: Open

13. Class is a ______ phenomenon.
Answer: Universal

Very Short-Answer Type Questions

Question l.
What do mean by caste?
Answer:
The word caste owes its origin to the Spanish word Cast which means breed, race, strain or a Complex of hereditary qualities. The Portuguese applied this term to the classes of people in India known by the name of Jati.

Question 2.
Caste taboos
Answer:
Caste are required to observe certain taboos and moral rules. Castes that fail to observe these rules lose status, while the caste that follows them gains status. For example, taboo, eating, taboo and the commensality taboo (Which is concerned with the persons from whom one may accept cooked food or with whom one may take food, the food taboo which prescribed what kinds of food a man may eat).

Question 3.
Class
Answer:
Class is a major type of stratification found especially in the modem civilized countries. It is a social group within the collectivity. It is a product of economic process and division of labour. It emerged in its present form as the result of industrialisation. It is based upon rule and differentiation.

Question 4.
Define caste
Answer:
“When the status is wholly predetermined so that when are home to their lot in their life without any hope of changing it then class takes the form of caste”.

Question 5.
Define class.
Answer:
Max- Weber “classes are aggregate of individuals who have the same opportunities of acquiring goods the same exhibited standard of living”.

Question 6.
What is Scheduled Caste?
Answer:
The Scheduled Castes who comprise the bulk of untouchables are technically outside the four-fold vama scheme. These castes were imputed with the maximum degree of ritual and social impurity while their occupations were treated as the lowest defiling occupation in the hierarchy.

Question 7.
Define Schedule Caste.
Answer:
The untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social and political disabilities, many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced by the higher castes”.

Question 8.
Who are the Tribes?
Answer:
Tribe refers to the indigenous Janas. They are commonly designed as Adivasi (original settlers) and Girijan (hill dwellers.) Girijan (hill dwellers. Vampjati( forest caste men), Adimjati (primitive castes Janjati (folk communities), Anusuchit janjati (Scheduled Tribes).

Question 9.
Define tribe,
Answer:
According to the Imperial Gazette “Tribal society is a collection of families bearing a name, speaking a common dialect occupy a common territory and it is not usually endogamous though originally it might have been so”.

Question 10.
Hierarchy and Hereditary:
Answer:
Hierarchy is one of the most original and basic features of the caste system. Hierarchy refers to an organisation with grades or classes ranked one above the other. The castes are arranged on the basis of superiority and inferiority to each other. Each caste is a hereditary group. The membership of the caste is confined only to those who are born into it by an endogamous marriage relation. The status of an individual is determined by virtue of his birth. The rights and privileges that is socially due to an individual is determined hereditarily.

Question 11.
Openness Vs. Closeness.
Answer:
The caste system is strictly a closed structure. One’s position and status is determined once for all by virtue of his birth in a particular caste. No amount of material possession or personal qualities can bring him up in the social hierarchy or caste. On the other handed class system is an open structure. Here the status and position of a man is determined on the basis of bis personal qualities, material possessions and achievements in different aspects of social life, the class system gives enough scope for upward and downward mobility.

Question 12.
Divine Sanctions Vs Secular Norms
Answer:
Whatever may be the origin of caste, it can be told without the fear of contradiction that it derives its strength of continuity from divine sanctions. The beliefs like, one has to observe Jati, Dharma (Caste duties) to have a better birth till future, life, it is the God who has created caste distinctions to punish those who had done bad deeds in past life etc.

Have given a religious and divine sanction to the caste system. But there is no such dogmatic belief in the class system. It is based on purely objective things like wealth, power and position and it is quite free from religious considerations or controls.

Question 13.
Rigidity Vs Flexibility.
Answer:
The caste system is too rigid with regard to the rules of social intercourse. The taboos of eating and drinking and norms of inter-caste marriage are strictly followed. A lot of restrictions are imposed upon the members of a particular caste with regard to their relationship with the members of other castes. Taking of water or cooked food from the hands of a man of a lower caste is punishable. Caste endogamy is strictly maintained by prohibiting inter-caste marriage.

Question 14.
Caste and Democracy.
Answer:
‘Caste is basically a social institution. Politics and Government are related aspects. It plays its role in these areas of democracy. On the other hand, democracy is basically a political system, with social justice and equality as its main objective. But since both these systems emerge from social life, it is quite natural and inevitable that they get interrelated.

Question 15.
Segmental division.
Answer:
Caste groups are segmental groups. They have well-defined boundaries. So to say, each caste is an autonomous group independent of the other. The status of an individual is determined by his birth. No amount of power, prestige and wealth can change the position. The membership of a caste, therefore, is unchangeable and immutable. Further, each, in a way has its own way of life.

Question 16.
Caste Council
Answer:
The Caste Council consists of elder members of the caste, the recognised leaders who command the respect and confidence of their community. It functions to settle caste disputes. Matter- such as breaking the marriage promise, refusing by the husband to take his wife to his house adultery by the wife, killing cows insulting Brahmins, having illicit sexual relations with people of other castes, non-payment of debt, defying the customs of the caste regarding feasts etc.

Question 17.
Hierarchy.
Answer:
The concept of hierarchy forms the crux of the caste groups. Dumont believes that the hierarchical division of caste is based on the concept of purity and pollution and according to, the given caste occupies a particular position in the caste hierarchy.

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Analyse the characteristics of the caste system.
Answer:

Segmental Division:
A caste group is a segmental group. Under the caste system, society is divided into several small social groups known as castes, each caste is a well-developed social group.

Hierarchy:
In a caste society, all the castes are arranged into a hierarchy on the basis of their social importance. At the top of the hierarchy is Brahmanism whereas untouchable castes are at the bottom. In between them, many other castes exist.

Restrictions on Food:
Under the caste system caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food, drink and social intercourse.

Restrictions in civil and religious privileges:
In a caste-based society, there is an unequal distribution of privileges and disabilities along its members. Higher caste people enjoy all the privileges while lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities.

Restrictions on occupation:
Under a caste system choice of occupation is not free. Each caste is traditional with a particular occupation.

Caste endogamy:
Every caste imposes restrictions on its members to marry one’s own caste or sub-caste.

Question 2.
Analyse the functions of caste that do not perform for individuals.
Answer:
Caste provides fixed social status to individuals. Under the caste system, the status of an individual is determined by their birth. His status is constant at all times. Caste provides social security to individuals. Every caste provides necessary social security to its members from its birth to death. It acts as health insurance. Caste guides an individual in his day- to day activities.

Every caste provides a specific behavioural pattern for its members to be followed on different fixed occasions. Caste determines the occupation of the individual. Every caste provides specific occupations for its members to follow. Caste provides mental security to individuals. Caste by prescribing and providing facilities to its member guarantees mental security to individuals.

Question 3.
Analyse the functions of caste in social life.
Answer:
Caste transmits and preserves culture. Every caste has its own culture to which it transmits, from generation to generation. At the same time, it also preserves culture. The caste system establishes social unity. It unites different people in a larger society and at the same time maintains their separate identities.

The caste system brings stability to society. It saves Hindu society from outside invasion, internal conflict and all sorts of problems. It makes religious conversion almost impossible. The caste system brings political stability to society. It acts as a constitution for Hindus. It saves Hindu culture from foreign forces. It continues to maintain political unity since ancient times.

The caste system serves as a unique system of division of labour. It makes provisions for all funds of work. It distributes all works among different castes. It also provides a religious explanation for the social division of labour as a result all perform their work smoothly.
By prescribing marriage within one’s own case or group it maintains the purity of blood.

Question 4.
Briefly discuss the different dysfunctions of caste.
Answer:
The caste system retorts social progress. Under the caste system individual has no freedom of any sort. At the same time, it does not accept change easily. With all the above, its rigidity stands as an obstacle to social progress. The caste system hinders economic progress. Under the caste system, an individual cannot choose his occupation freely.

Individual occupations are determined by caste, as a result, their efficiency suffers and thereby hampers economic progress. The caste system creates political disunity in society. It encourages individuals by loyalties towards one’s own caste and thereby casteism is created which ultimately threatens the unity and integrity of Indian society. The caste system perpetuates social inequalities in society.

Members of higher caste use castes as an instrument to keep their position in that as a result of which inequalities persist. The caste system also creates untouchability in society. It is the ugliest expression of the caste system. It keeps some members of Hindu society as untouchables. The condition of women was very pitiable under the caste system. The caste system also stands as an obstacle in the way of modernisation.

Question 5.
Briefly discuss the factors affecting caste systems.
Answer:
Modern education has played an important role in undermining the importance of caste in Indian society. it is based on democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity. Industrialisation also quality affects the caste system. Caste is based on the rural economy. Hence, the industrial economy cuts to the roots of the caste system. Occupational caste cannot serve large-scale industrialisation.

The spread of urbanisation has made it impossible to practise caste restorations. Caste rules cannot be observed in urban society. Modem means of transportation also help in weakening the caste system by making it impossible to observe caste rules while travelling through it. A number of new social movements were launched against the caste system which helps in its disintegration.

Indian constitution has posed a grave threat to the very continuance of the caste system in Indian society. It makes many special provisions for its disintegration. The new legal system established by the Britishers also helps in weakening caste rigidity and its influence. The increasing importance of wealth also helps in weakening the observance of caste rules.

Question 6.
Briefly analyse a few changes that are being brought in the caste system in recent years.
Answer:
In recent years a number of changes are being introduced in the caste system as a result of the impact of many factors. These changes are discussed below. There is a change in the restrictions regarding the choice of occupation. Now every member of every caste is free to choose the occupation of his liking. There is a sharp decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins in society.

They are no more enjoying their traditional highest position in society. There is also a change in caste rigidity. It becomes more flexible. There is a change in the status of lower caste people as a result of a number of governmental efforts. There is also a change in the restrictions imposed on mental selection. Inter-caste marriages are encouraged. The caste system lost its control over its members. People are to more obeying their caste rules.

Question 7.
What is the class like? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
Social classes constitute an important aspect of social structure in modem Indian society. These social classes have always been present throughout the age, but the social classes as we see them today originated under British rule. Social class refers to the horizontal division of people who share a similar position in society.

Wealth, income, education, and occupation are some of the dying basic determinants of class. Social class is relatively open. There are social classes in society. These classes are hierarchically ranked in the forms of wealth and income.

Characteristics:
Class is a status group:
A social class is essentially a status group. Class is related to the status of the position of an individual in relation to others.

Achieved in nature:
Class is achieved and not ascribed like that of caste factors like income: occupation, wealth, and education.

Question 8.
Discuss the characteristics of the Tribe.
Answer:
The following characteristics of the tribe may be noted.

Definite common topography:
A tribe lives within a definite locality having similar physical features and natural environment it is because of this common habitat they develop similar socio-psychological traits.

A sense of unity:
The individuals of a tribe have a strong sense of unity. Because of the same habitat, and socio-psychological traits they develop a strong sense of solidarity among themselves.

A common name:
Each tribe has a name of its own. Its individual members are identified by the same common name outside the tribe.

A common language:
Each tribe becomes distinct from the others in its language and dialect. Because all the members speak a common language, their sense of unity and solidarity becomes more strong.

Common religious belief:
Each tribe claims a common ancestry and worships the ancestor in the form of a tribe. Religious beliefs and practices have great authoritative control over the members of the tribe. Religions guide the socio-economic as well as the political life of tribes to a great extent.

Endogamic practices:
Generally, a tribe is an endogamous group. The members of a tribe are usually many within their own tribe. But now- a – days because of the frequency of inter¬tribal contacts, the inter-tribe marriage rate is increasing. Even the tribes are also being seen marrying people from other religions like Christianity, Hinduism and Islam.

Political organisation:
Each tribe has a political organisation. This is helped and assisted by a group of other dominant members. The political organisation has its roots in the common need of the people for protection. All the intra- group conflicts are resolved by this organisation. All the important decisions about the tribe’s way of living are taken in this organisation. The authority of the chief is questionable and binding on the members.

Common culture:
Because of a common habit, common language and common religion, a tribe develops a common culture with a distinct way of life for itself.

Question 9.
Distinctions between caste and class.
Answer:
Caste is based on birth while class is based on wealth. Caste determines the occupation of its members. But on the other hand, there is no restriction on the choice of an occupation in the caste system. Caste is a closed system but class is an open system. The caste system is believed to be created by God and supported by religions while the class system is secular in nature. Caste society has a Caste Council but class society does not have such a council.

Question 10.
Distinguish between Caste and Tribe.
Answer:
A caste is a social group whereas a tribe is a territorial group. There are differences in the rank and status of the members of a tribe. But in caste, the status of all its members is generally conceived to be equal. Though a tribe, like a caste, is an endogamous group, endogamy is not strictly enforced in a tribe as it is in a caste. A tribe is always a politically organised group whereas a caste is never a politically organised group, though it performs many political families.

Question 11.
Write a short note on tribal problems.
Answer:
Trials in India are facing a large number of problems which continue to greaten. The very existence of tribes. Some of these important problems are as follows. Integration or assimilation of tribes with the national mainstream is an important problem for the tribes in India. Alienation of the tribes from their own land is an important problem of the tribes in India. Landlords or moneylenders of the plains gradually replaced the tribal landlords. Tribals nowadays are also suffering from many, socio-cultural problems.

Question 12.
Write a short note on tribal welfare programmes.
Answer:
The main aim of the tribal welfare programme was to solve different problems of tribal people arising mainly out of uncontrolled cultural contracts. However, at different times as well as non-government agencies. These measures are as follows:

• Elvin suggested the creation of national parks for tribals.
• Indian constitution had made a number of special provisions for the welfare of the tribal people.

Question 13.
What is the peasant movement? Discuss outs types.
Answer:
Agrarian unrest or peasant unrest is not a recent phenomenon since agriculture and land are regarded as the most important subjects the issue of agrarian unrest is to be taken up and handled carefully by the government. A.R. Desai has used the term peasant struggle to refer to agrarian unrest.

Doshi and Jain have pointed out the root of peasant unrest, therefore, lives on the social structure of the peasantry out history and processes of agricultural modernisation. Some of the peasant agitations have taken place in different places mostly for one or the other local causes. Some of these agitations were revolutions, peasant movements and so on.

Peasant discontent as recorded by historians has been a familiar feature of the 19th and 20th centuries. During the first quarter of the 20th century, pie peasant movements became much more violent. These movements were deeply influenced by the struggle for national freedom. While some of these had taken place prior to independence and a few others took place after the Independence.

Types of peasant struggles :
There are different types of peasant struggles depending upon the purpose ideology, organisational base, working style etc.

• The Santhal insurrection was one variety whereas Bardoli Satyagraha represented another variety.
• The Naxalbarti peasant struggle was actually a violent armed struggle.
• In the Moplah Rebellion of Malabar was the influence of Muslim religious leaders.
• The Champaran movement led by Mahatma Gandhi was absolutely a peaceful non-violent struggle.

Question 14.
Kathleen Gough’s classification of peasant struggle.
Answer:
Restorative Rebellion:
Agitations of this type usually consist of an attempt on the part of the agitations to right for the restoration of one-time existing privileges and statuses. Example The Santhal instruction. The Santhals fought against the British not very much for driving them away from India but for restoring their traditional rights. According to Ganga as many as 29 such rebellions took place in India prior to 1857.

Religious movements :
These types of movements took place under the active leadership of religious leaders. People supported and Joined in these agitations with the hope, wherein social equality Justice and brotherhood would be assured for all Example. The Moplah Muslims of Malabar revolted against the Hindu landlords and also the British.

Social Banditry:
It means a type of robbery in which the leaders loot the properties of the rich people and distribute the looted property among the poor, for example, the banditry led by Narasimha Reddy of Karmol in Andhra Pradesh.

The Terrorist Vengeance:
It is based on violence and armed revolt. Here the agitators make a frontal attack on the opponents who are regarded as their enemies. Here the enemies are tortured tyrannized and finally killed Example Noxalite agitations.

Mass Insurrections:
These take place suddenly and came to an end abruptly. They arise without any leader or any organisational base. Whenever they get a solution, may be temporary in nature, and the agitations may come to a sudden end, For Example, The so-called Deccan Revolt that took place in Poona, Ahmed Nagar, Satara and Solapur.

Liberal reformist movement:
Examples are the Champaran Satyagraha, Bardoli Satyagraha, and Kheda Satyagraha in Bihar and Gujurat, etc. This type of movement helps in removing some of the dangerous or at least harmful lords/ legislations. There is no use of violence, bloodshed, or attraction. These movements do not have the intention of creating any conflict or enmity between different communities.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Political Science Solutions Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Political Science Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Describe the importance of election in a democracy.
(Or)
Examine the role and significance of elections in a democratic country.
Answer:
An independent and efficient election system is essential for the success of democracy. It is through election people exercise their-sovereign power and decide the future of government the electoral process determines the future of a country. Free and fair elections elect competent representatives who can take the nation forward. Defective electoral machinery may invite the downfall of democracy.

Importance of Elections :

Election gives an opportunity to the votes to serve the nation. The voters discharge their duty by exercising voting rights and they elect those representatives who can change government policies and programs. This election helps in organizing public opinion. It is through an election that parties capture ruling power. Through elections, people get an opportunity either to support or oppose, the government.

It offers an opportunity to the votes to dethrone a ruling party out of office peacefully. Thus, an ideal electoral system strengthens the nation-building process. Election brings political stability, economic progress, and social integrity. It brings the ruler’s arid rule closer. The representatives are convinced about the problems facing the people. Election develops public trust on the government and defends the interests of citizens.

In order to win in elections the representatives do everything to satisfy the voters. Participation of voters in the electoral process promotes their political consciousness and they come to realize problems facing the state and other contemporary crises. The election also enhances the rate of political participation. During elections in a democracy a large number of people become active participants they either contest for political office or cry on a campaign for candidates or exercise, voting right.

Thus, the election as a whole makes people politically conscious and responsible. It makes citizens active and develops in them a spirit of service and sacrifice- The more the rate of participation the more success for the political system. It makes people repose their faith on the democratic process.

Question 2.
Narrate the Challenges to free and fair elections in India.
(Or)
Describe the deficiencies facing the Indian election System.
(Or)
Examine the problems facing the Indian electoral process.
Answer:
The new constitution of India has set up an independent and impartial election commission under Art. 324 of the constitution. The commission was set up in 1950 and the first general election was held in 1952. Since then 15 general elections have been conducted successfully under, the guidance and supervision of the election commission The Commission during the last 66 years has proved its efficiency, impartiality, and fairness. But still, the same obstacles are there which affect the integrity of the system.

These challenges and issues need to be discussed below. Challenges or threats to Indian Election System :
Use of Black money:
Election in India has become too costly because most of the political parties and candidates are making use of black money to win o the voters. The situation has become so acute that no ordinary citizen can venture to contest in ckcPwTha money power has affected the success of democracy.

Violence and muscle power :
The second major challenge is the use of muscle power and electoral violence to win elections. Most of the political parties today do not hesitate to give tickets to mafia dons and local goons to contest for the party. All moral ‘slogans of pacifying politics. Mabon, the World safe for women and children are more election slogans.

But no party sincerely contests election on moral grounds. The influx of criminals and anti-socials has increased so much that the election commission has come forward with proposals not to give party tickets to persons having criminal backgrounds.

Caste, Religion, Communal and Regional feelings:
Political parties in India are either based on caste religion community or regional feelings or extend favor, to such narrow feelings to win elections. Parties in the name of 3yizJjng elections create discord and disintegration within the state. The current problems j.tsanj out in k4be4 University ¡NU and NIT in Janimu and Kashmir and bright examples of Political parties encouraging divisive politics. This is not a good sign for the future of Indian democracy.

Defects in the electoral process:
Free and fair election in India is affected badly due to rigging and booth Capturing in various pooling stations. Despite police protection, such practices occur regularly putting a question – mark on the efficiency of the Election Commission.

Abuse of power by the ruling party :
During elections the party in power to center and states tend to abuse power for their political galaxy This poses a challenge to the fairness of the election commission Besides, political parties in India try to win over voters by influencing the poor, illiterate, and women voters So in order to increase the efficiency of election commission all these issues must be resolved by legal and other means.

Question 3.
Define universal suffrage and discuss its merits and demerits.
Answer:
Universal suffrage is a basis for the grant of voting right. When voting right is extended to all adults irrespective of their caste, religion, sex, discrimination, and educational or property qualifications it is called universal suffrage. It is found today in almost every democracy. However, it never gives voting rights to lunatics criminals, aliens, and others.

Merits:
The merits of universal suffrage may be discussed below:
Universal suffrage is in tune with the tune meaning of democracy. It believes in the principle of one man one vote. Universal suffrage establishes political equality. It demands that the right to vote should be equally distributed among all. It is not right to exclude some class or group from exercising franchise on the ground that they are poor, illiterate, or weaker.

The end of the state is common welfare. It is the common people that should determine the content of welfare, Because what touches all should also be decided by all. If one class is given the power to rule then it will always one class given the power to rule then it will always define general good in terms of its own. So if the universal voting right is given then all can have a share in the government.

It enables the minorities to protect their rights by electing their representatives for the national legislature; their feelings are voiced and their grievances are explained on the floor of chambers of parliament. Adult suffrage adds to the dignity and a sense of responsibility and political and civic education. A vote will give them an opportunity to understand the politics of the country and compute the political problems.

Universal franchise helps in bringing national units. and solidarity. Adult suffrage is the means through which people are bound together into a whole
The government as is backed by the majority feels strong which makes the administration stronger.

Demerits:
Universal suffrage is condemned for the following reason by Sidgwick, Mill, Maine, and others.

Universal adult suffrage may impede the scientific progress of the nation. Because the general people cannot make the best choice of candidate and those who shall be elected will be conservative enough to stand in the way of the progress and prosperity of the nation. Sir Henry Maine giving the argument said that universal suffrage would be in vogue in the UK during the scientific inventions and discoveries England could not have advanced so far.

He said universal suffrage could have prohibited the spinning jenny and the power loom. The right to vote for the uneducated ones is meaningless. Because the masses do not have the capacity to understand political problems and they can not elect the right type of representatives. So it should be given to those having the knowledge to make the best use of it. Universal voting right it is hoped, may lead to the loss of individual liberty, order, and civilization.

J.S. Mill argued for education and property qualification of votes. He said, education would make them conscious and property would make them responsible Mill said, no taxation without representation. That means those who do not pay taxes to the state should not vote taxes if they are given the voting right then public property and funds are likely to be spent lavishly.

If all are given the right to vote, then they shall be exploited by selfish individuals and political parties. They will be motivated by emotion and passion and it will be suicidal for democracy. The universal franchise may lead to the rule of ignorance. As the majority are illiterate they will represent an ignorant fellow and the government would be of the ignorant.

An audit franchise will lead to political corruption. Because the poor and the ignorant ones will sell their favor at the cost of tea or meal.
But, in spite of the drawbacks, this has been the order of the day. And ordinary people in poor underdeveloped countries have justified themselves as judicious voters and they have contributed to the success of democracy.

Question 4.
Give your arguments against women’s suffrage.
(Or)
What Is women’s suffrage? Discuss its merits
and demerits.
Answer:
When voting right is granted to all adult women irrespective of any discrimination, it is called women surface, Generally, it was a feeling with the men that women as are weaker to men in physical capacity they should not be given the right to vote. But gradually, women became educated, and they no more remained bound within the four walls, they entered into public service and at present being treated as equals.

Thus, the political emancipation of women was achieved in the first quarter of the 20th century in England and USA and gradually it spread to other states. The women in England got the right to vote in 1918, those above 30 years of age, but in 1928 the age limit was reduced. In USA voting right was conferred upon women in 1920, in France in 1946, and in Switzerland in 1970. However, scholars differ as to the contention about whether women’s franchise is just or not.

Arment of Favour :

First of all, it is argued that women should be given the right to vote to exercise their civil rights. If they will be denied the right to vote then they could not be good citizens and cannot be treated at poor as men. So to protect them from men’s subjugation voting right is necessary. As women today are equal to men in every respect, they are joining the armed forces, and police, they are intelligent and clever, and it is illegal to deny them voting right.

The right to vote does not require physical strength but moral and mental fitness to decide whether an individual is capable or not so it is wrong to deprive women of voting right on the ground of their physical weakness. The right to vote for women will enable them to defend themselves and their civil rights. Voting right for women is useful for them as it will save them from the exploitation of men. Women in politics will definitely purify the system. Corruption, favoritism, and illegal activities will be reduced.

Demerits :
The drawbacks of women’s suffrage are as fiction:

Women’s suffrage disturbs the peace of family life. Women are homemakers, if they will join politics then their household activitie&wiil be neglected. Women’s suffrage will also deprive children of their care and protection. If women join politics then their feminine qualities like tolerance, simplicity, love, and affection will give way to rude behavior, and stress. It will completely disturb the trust and relationship between husband – wife.

Women always remain dependent on men for most of their necessities so if they join politics what can they do for others. Women are conservative and emotional. So they will not handle the stress and strains of a political leader throughout the year. However, women’s suffrage has been in tune with democracy. As they constitute almost half of the population it will be an injustice to deny voting rights to adult women.

Question 5.
What is proportional representation? Examine its merits and demerits.
Answer:
Proportional representation is a form of minority representation. In this system, all groups, factions, and sections of the population are given representation in proportion to the votes secured by them during the election. It is a model of the indirect election that seeks to rectify the defects of the majority vote system.
Proportional representation can be of two types:

• The hare system or single transferable vote system.
• the list system.

The Hare System (single transferable vote system):
This model was developed in 1857 by Thomas Hare of England and it is known as the Hare System of representation. This is useful only for the multi-member constituency where each candidate needs to secure a fixed quota of votes. In this system, each voter has only one vote but exercises this vote in order of preference. The number of preferences is equal to the number of candidates.

Way:-The Quota is determined in the following way:

\(\text { Quota }=\frac{\text { Total number of valid votes }}{\text { Number of state }+1}+1\)

At the time of counting the 1st preference votes are counted first and those who reach the quota are declared elected. If some seats remain vacant then the 2nd choice of those voters who voted for successful candidates are transferred to others. Then counting starts and those who reach the quota are declared elected. Due to this transfer of preferences, it is called a single transferable vote system. The President and vice President arid Rajya Sabha members are elected in this method.

(b) List system:
The list system is useful only for multi-member constituencies. Here every party has to prepare a list Of candidates to be elected. The voters vote for the party without knowing the candidates. After the election seats are divided among the parties in proportion to votes secured by each party. For example, if the total number of valid votes is a hundred and the number of seats is 5 then the quota is \(\frac{100}{5}=20\).

If a party has secured forty votes it will get two seats. If all the seats are not filled up then the party that has the largest fractional surplus gets the remaining seat. This list system is followed in US Presidential elections in Belgium, France, Sweden, and Switzerland.

Merits :
In this system, the defects of the single-member constituency model is rectified. It makes the legislature a true mirror of the nation because all groups and parties are duly represented. It provides an opportunity to minorities to represent in the legislature. In this system, no vote is wasted. It develops a civil interest in the people.

Demerits :
Proportional representation encourages: smaller parties and thus leads to political stability. No party secures a majority in the legislature giving way to coalition ministries. Here the voters elect candidates, whom they do not know. It encourages factionalism and disintegration. It is not suitable for federations. The system of proportional representation enhances the power of party leaders.

They prepare a list of candidates, so the representatives are more loyal to the party bosses than to voters. It breeds corruption. The vested interests can easily control party high commands. In proportional representation, it is not possible to hold by-elections as it requires a multi-member constituency. It encourages divisive forces in society and contributes to the aggravation of successful sectionalism.

Question 6.
What is geographical or territorial representation? Discuss its merits and demerits.
Answer:
Territorial representation is otherwise known as geographic representation and it is found prevailing in most countries having representative governments. In this model, the whole country is divided into geographical areas or constituencies having approximately equal populations. From each constituency a single representative is elected by majority vote, The constituency may be single-member or multi-member, The territorial limits of the constituencies are fixed from time to time with the growth in population and voters.

Merits of Territorial Representation:
Territorial representation is simple and convenient. As the area of the constituency is limited it facilitates intimate contact between the voters and the representative. It is economical as much less amount is required for the restricted area. It ensures a stable majority in the legislature which is conducive to a strong and stable government.

Demerits:
The territorial representation is defective on the following grounds:
It narrows down the list of candidates available to the voter. In this method, no outsider can contest an election even if he or is experienced. Gerry’s meandering is the greatest defect of territorial representation. In this system boundary of the constituencies is manipulated by the ruling party for its advantage. It encourages parochialism in the representatives. They try to secure the local interests of their constituency and neglect national interests.

In this system professions and occupations are not represented. In this system a candidate requires a relative majority to win a seat, thus it leads to the permanent voicelessness of a perpetual minority.

Question 7.
What is functional representation? Examine its advantages and disadvantages.
(Or)
Give your views for and against functional representation.
Answer:
Functional representation is another type of minority representation which is a protest against territorial representation. Proportional representation represents only political minorities, hence, a functional representation that accords with the representation of all Occupation are- expected to be a better alternative to territorial representation.

Functional representation was advocated by Wallas, Webbs, Duguit and G.D.H. Cole, etc. According to them, the Parliament is elected by various professional vocational and functional groups like industry trading corporations, medical associations and lawyers associations, etc. This system was adopted by the Russian leaders after the Bolshevik Revolution.

Mussolini in Italy organized the Italian senate, on these lines. The German constitution of 1919 established an Economic council representing the special interests of labor, capital, and consumers. The Vidhan Parishads in Indian states are also organized on the basis of functional representation.

Advantages of Functional Representation:
The system of functional representation is advantageous on the following grounds:

In modem democracies, vocational groups play an important role so these groups should have representatives in the parliament. Most of the laws that parliament pass deal with industry, agriculture, trade, commerce, and other vocational interests. But these interests find no representation in parliament even though they are affected by the legislation. As the economic sector is playing an important role today functional representation should be adopted as the ideal basis of representation.

Disadvantages:
The system has been popular owing to its glaring detects as discussed below :

Functional representation is found to be inconsistent with national sovereignty. Esme says a legislative assembly elected on the basis of functional representation is expected to represent the interests of a particular group’s profession or interest but not of the nation. These groups within parliament fight for their sectional interests rather than adopt a national outlook.

If functional representation is followed, the then-the legislature shall turn into an area of conflict and every representative will blow his own trumpet and talk of his own group. It can serve no purpose. This system is based on unsound principles. One representative can not represent all shades or opinions. Laski says, how can a doctor talk of foreign policy since there is no medical view of foreign policy. Each representative shall be parochial in outlook and cannot serve the country at all.

There can be no adequate basis to provide adequate representation to various interests and vocations should the medical profession be placed on equal footing with the steel industry, agriculture, or otherwise. This system limits the choice of voters to professionals. Functional representation undermines the unity of the community.

Every voter is first of all a citizen of the country then he is a lawyer, a teacher or a farmer, but if his profession counts first then he will forget about the goal of the nation. On account of the following defects, functional representation is rarely followed. This system can only be supplemented with any other method.

Question 8.
What is direct Election? Discuss its merits and demerits.
Answer:
An election can be of two types. Direct and indirect election. In a direct election, the voters directly cast their votes in favor of the candidate. It is a simple process where the votes go to the pooling booth and press the button on the EVM against their candidate of choice. The candidate who secures the maximum vote is declared elected. Direct election is found in most of countries of the world today. The members of Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha in India, the members of the British House commons and US senate, and the House of Representatives are elected in this process.

Merits :

• In a direct elections, people participate in politics directly and become politically conscious.
• It establishes direct contact between the voters and the candidates. The representatives remain answerable to the people and work for their interests.
• It generates public opinion, interest, and initiative among voters.
• The voters remain more responsible.

Demerits :
The drawbacks of the indirect election are as follows:

• Direct election is not useful for poor, ignorant voters as they fail to choose proper candidates.
• It confuses voters as different parties talk differently to influence votes. Here parties divide voters on caste, religion, and communal lines to seek their favor.
• It tends to be influenced by falsehood & corruption parties go on condemning the character of opposition candidates. It pollutes the entire electoral atmosphere.
• Direct election is costly and more prone to violence. However, this is the best available option in a democracy.

Question 9.
What is an indirect election? Discuss its merits and demerits.
Answer:
The indirect election is a process where the voters do not directly elect the real representatives. It involves two elections. First, the voter elects an intermediary group and then this group elects the real representatives. The President and Vice President and the members of Rajya Sabha are elected in this method.

Merits :
The indirect election is peaceful for which more educated and learned persons participate in the process as candidates. In this method, the voters who vote for the real candidates are conscious, clever and literate so they can not be influenced by false propaganda or lured by money or muscle power. It is suitable for poor, backward, and underdeveloped countries. It is less expensive. It is suitable for electing top political offices.

Demerits :
The indirect election also suffers from the following defects.

The indirect election is less democratic as it never involves more people. In this process, no political awareness is created. It makes voters indolent and inactive. In this method, party decisions prevail over individual preferences. The voters do not have contact with the representatives. In this method, parties try to influence the group through money and power. So it is prone to corruption and bribery. However, this method has limited utility and can be used for the same posts.

Question 10.
Distinguish between direct and indirect elections.
Answer:
Elections in general can be direct or indirect. In the direct election, the voters participate directly and cast their votes in polling stations in favor of their liking; candidates. Those who secure the maximum votes in a constituency are declared elected. But, indirect election involves two elections. First people elect an intermediate body, which by the second election elects the real representatives.

Direct election establishes close contact between voters and representatives. But in an indirect election, no such contact can be established. Direct election promotes the political consciousness of voters and makes them responsible and conscious. But, the indirect election does not stimulate public interest. Direct election is suitable for educated and advanced countries, but the indirect election is useful for backward countries with ignorant and illiterate voters.

Direct election is expensive but indirect elections are less expensive. Direct election involves violence, corruption, booth capturing, rigging, and the use of illegal means to win elections. But in the indirect election, these things do not occur. In a direct election, the voters are free to make choices but in an indirect election, they have no choice but to act on party instructions. Direct election is more democratic than indirect elections. However, we find both practices in almost every state.

Question 11.
Discuss the electoral reforms which are yet to be introduced.
(Or)
Suggest reforms to rectify the Indian election system.
Answer:
The Indian election system is suffering from a member of defects, some of which are structural and others are operational. The election commission in concurrence with the union government has already introduced some reforms and some more are yet to be introduced. So, the proposed reforms should be enumerated below: Reforms suggested not introduced :

In order to reduce the vote-seat gap alternative systems must be followed like, the second ballot system or alternate vote system. To increase voter turnout during elections voting must be compulsory and voters must be encouraged to participate in voting. To eliminate the use of black money a poll fund should be created and donations to political parties must be open to all.

Special courts must be set up to speed up settling election disputes. Steps are taken to reduce the scope of defections. To enhance women’s representation, 33% reservation of seats for women must be introduced. Those violating the election code of conduct must be punished. Election campaigns should be monitored closely to keep it healthy. All these reforms will definitely improve the election system in India.

Question 12.
Discuss the Organisation of the Central Election Commission.
Answer:
For every democratic polity like India, a free and independent electoral machinery is indispensable. The constitution, therefore, provides for an independent Election Commission Under Art. 324 and incorporated several steps for keeping it free from political and executive influences.

Composition:
The constitution under Art. 324 (2) states that the Election Commission of India shall consist of a Chief Election Commissioner and such other commissioners as the president may from time to time determine.

Membership:
Initially, the election commission was a one-man commission and it was only after 1989 its membership increased to three. Besides the chief election commissioner, there are two election commissioners and all of them enjoy equal authority.

Mode of appointment and removal:
The chief election commissioner and other members of the election commission are appointed- by the president as per the rules framed by the parliament. The constitution was silent about the qualification of the members and their terms of office. They hold office at the pleasure of the president. However, once appointed the members of the election commission to continue in office till they attain the age of 65 years or complete 6 years in office, whichever is earlier

They can resign from office at any time or can be removed by the president only on grounds of ‘proved misbehavior and incapacity. The president can’t on his own remove any member unless a proposal to that effect is passed in both houses, of parliament by 2/3rds majority of members present and voting. Thus, the election commission acts as an independent and autonomous body. Which ensures free and fair elections.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Political Science Solutions Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Political Science Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Short Answer Questions

Very Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is an Election?
Answer:
The election is a process of choosing representatives.

Question 2.
What are the different types of elections?
Answer:
The election is of two types
(a) Direct election
(b) Indirect election.

Question 3.
What is a direct election?
Answer:
Direct election is a process where the voters cast their vote directly in favor of candidates.

Question 4.
What is an indirect election?
Answer:
The indirect election is a process in which the voters elect an intermediary group or body which again elects the true representative.

Question 5.
When the Indian election commission was set up?
Answer:
The Indian election commission was set on 26th January 1950

Question 6.
What is the function of the election commission?
Answer:
The election commission conducts free, fair, and impartial elections for the office of the President, Vice President, members of parliament, and the state legislature.

Question 7.
On what ground is the election? commissioners can be removed?
Answer:
The members of the Election Commission can be removed on grounds of proven misbehavior or incapacity.

Question 8.
Which act regulates the election to the office of president and vice president?
Answer:
The presidential Vice-Presidential Election Act. 1952 regulates the election of the President and Vice President.

Question 9.
By which amendment Act the voting age of votes is reduced from 21 to 18 years?
Answer:
The (51st Amendment Act of 1988 has reduced the voting age from 21 to 18 years.

Question 10.
What is the tenure of office of Election Commissions?
Answer:
The tenure of office of each election commission is 6 years but he may retire before if he attains the age of 65.

Question 11.
How the chief election commissioner can be removed?
Answer:
The chief election commissioner can be removed on grounds of proof, of misbehavior or incapacity if a proposal to that effect is passed in both houses of parliament by a special majority.

Question 12.
What is the voter list of the Electoral roll?
Answer:
The electoral roll or voter list is the list containing the names of valid voters of a constituency.

Question 13.
Where do the candidates file their nominations?
Answer:
The candidates file their nomination before the District Returning Officer.

Question 14.
What is repolling?
Answer:
When polling takes place for the second time after the election in a both is countermanded due to irregularities, it is called repolling.

Question 15.
What do you mean by electoral reforms?
Answer:
Electoral reform is an attempt to restrict the effects of the prevailing electoral process.

Question 16.
What is the relative majority?
Answer:
The relative majority refers to a number that is not about half of the voters who cast their vote in an election but is a majority in comparison to all other contesting candidates.

Question 17.
What is a by-election?
Answer:
When an election to an office is held due to runtime death or resignation of the office bearer before the normal term is known as buy election.

Question 18.
What is a mid-term poll?
Answer:
The election held before the end-of normal figure of Loksabha or Vidhansabha for unusual dissolution of the house is called a mid-term poll.

Question 19.
What is constituency?
Answer:
Constituency refers to an electoral segment constituted by taking the voters in that area from which one candidate is elected.

Question 20.
What is the electorate?
Answer:
Electorate refers to the valid voters of a definite constituency.

Question 21.
What is universal suffrage?
Answer:
Universal suffrage means an extension of voting rights to all adults irrespective of caste, color, sex, education, and property qualification.

Question 22.
To whom does the constitution deprive of voting rights?
Answer:
As per Art. 326, the constitution deprived the voting rights to aliens, criminals, lunatics, and bankrupt persons.

Question 23.
What is a single-member – constituency?
Answer:
One candidate can win in a definite election

Question 24.
What is a general election?
Answer:
The general election is a process where all the voters of the nation or state participate and so the election to Lok sabha and Vidhansabha is called a general election.

Question 25.
Who are the constituents of Parliament?
Answer:
The parliament constitutes of Loksabha, RajyaSabha, and the President of India.

Question 26.
What is a quorum?
Answer:
Quorum means the minimum number of members to be present in any house for a day for transacting its business.

Question 27.
How the members of the Rajya Sabha are elected?
Answer:
The members of RajyaSabha are elected indirectly by state legislative assemblies through proportional representation single transferable vote

Question 28.
What is the consolidated fund?
Answer:
The fund in which all the receipts of income of the union government are deposited is called the consolidated fund of India.

Question 29.
What is a contingency fund?
Answer:
The contingency fund is a reserve fund in the hands of the president from which sanctions can be made to meet any unavoidable situation or natural calamity.

Question 30.
What is the financial year?
Answer:
The financial year is a time period that lasts from April 1 st to March 31 st.

Question 31.
What s question hour?
Answer:
Question hour is the very first hour of every parliamentary ‘ session that continues from 11 AM to 12 Noon every day.

Question 32.
What is zero hours?
Answer:
Zero hour refers1 to one hour of parliamentary business that extends from 12 Noon to 1 PM every working day.

Question 33.
What is an adjournment motion?
Answer:
An adjournment motion is a legislative motion introduced in either house to discuss any matter of public importance in place of the regular course of business in a house.

Question 34.
What is half an hour discussion?
Answer:
Half an hour discussion is a brief discussion on administrative lapses arid negligence in the parliament.

Question 35.
What is a censure motion?
Answer:
A censure motion is a parliamentary motion that condemns corruption and inefficiency of any executive department.

Question 36.
What is the bill?
Answer:
Bill is a draft proposal pending legislation.

Question 37.
What is the public bill?
Answer:
A public bill is a bill that affects all or most of the residents in a state.

Question 38.
What is the private bill?
Answer:
A private bill relates to any private person, company or organization or section of the population.

Question 39.
What is the ordinary bill?
Answer:
The ordinary bill includes all bills except money bills and constitutional amendment bills.

Question 40.
What is an appropriation bill?
Answer:
An appropriation bill is a proposal for sanctioning of funds out of the consolidated fund for any specific department.

Question 41.
What is a vote on Account?
Answer:
A vote on the account is a temporary measure sought by the government if it fails to pass the general.budget before 31st March.

Question 42.
What is territorial representation?
Answer:
Territorial representation is also known- as geographical representation. In this process, the entire state is divided into a number of constituencies and from each such constituency, a representative is elected.

Question 43.
What is functional representation?
Answer:
Functional representation is a form of minority representation. It gives representation to people belonging to various functional groups and associations like industry, trading, corporations, medical association, lawyers, engineers, teachers, etc.

Question 43.
What is proportional representation?
Answer:
Proportional representation is a technique of minority representation. In this method, a political party secures seats in proportion to the votes secured. It is further divided into a single transferable vote system and a list system.

Question 44.
What is universal suffrage?
Answer:
When voting right is extended to all adults irrespective of caste, religion, sex, property and educational qualification, it is called universal suffrage. Art. 326 of the constitution deals with it.

Question 45.
Lok Sabha
Answer:
Lok Sabha is the lower house of the Indian Parliament. It consists of 545 by citizen voters of the country.

Question 46.
Rajya Sabha
Answer:
Rajya Sabha is the upper house oi parliament. It is a permanent chamber and its members are elected indirectly b> state legislative assemblies.

Question 47.
Speaker of Lok Sabha
Answer:
Speaker is the chairman and presiding officer of Lok Sabha. He conducts the proceedings of Lok Sabha.

Question 48.
Answer:
The vice-President of India is the ex-officio chairman of the Rajya Sabha. He presides over the meetings of the Rajya Sabha and conducts its proceedings.

Question 49.
Consolidated fund of India
Answer:
Art. 266 of the constitution deals with the consolidated fund. All incomes, revenues, and taxes collected from various sources are deposited in this fund.

Question 50.
Contingency Fund
Answer:
Art. 267 provides for the contingency fund of India. It is under the disposal of the president and funds can be sanctioned to meet unforeseen expenditures.

Question 51.
What is call-attention motion?
Answer:
During the parliamentary discussion, if some members draw the attention of the house with due permission from the speaker about any vital issue affecting the general interest of the nation it is called a call attention motion. The opposition parties use it as a weapon to obstruct government policies and discussions.

Question 52.
What is privilege motion?
Answer:
When any minister is actions, behavior or words affect the dignity of any member or the house as a whole it results in a breach of privilege. The opposition may bring a privilege motion to criticize the ruling party.

Question 53.
What is no confidence motion?
Answer:
A no-confidence motion is introduced by any members of Lok Sabha condemning the behavior and role of the government. If it is passed in the Lok Sabha by a simple majority of votes then the government has to resign.

Question 54.
What is the budget?
Answer:
The budget is the annual estimate of the income and expenditure of the government. It has to be passed in both houses of parliament before the beginning of the new financial year.

Question 55.
What are the financial powers of Parliament?
Answer:

• The parliament approves the annual budget of the state.
• Without its approval no new tax can be levied nor exempted.

Question 56.
What is question hour?
Answer:
Question hour is the very first hour of every working day when the parliament is in session. During this hour the members may ask various questions to the government about different issues.

Question 57.
What is an ordinance?
Answer:
The ordinance is an emergency legislation proclaimed either by the president of India or the Governor of any state. It is declared during the recess of parliament.

Question 58.
Joint sitting of Parliament.
Answer:
The joint sitting of Parliament is held as per Art. 108 of the constitution. The President may convene a joint sitting to settle the dispute sing between the two houses over the passage of an ordinary bill.

Question 59
What is a vote on Account?
Answer:
A vote on the account is a temporary measure taken by parliament when the annual budget can’t be passed before 31st March.  In this process, the Govt has to pass budgetary allocation for two to three months.

Question 60.
What is a closure?
Answer:
The program advisory committee of the Lok Sabha determines the time limit for discussing the demand for grants of every department during the budget. If it is not passed within the time then no discussion demand for grants takes place and that is called closure.

Question 61.
What is the guillotine?
Answer:
During budget discussion, if the demand for grants of various departments can it be discussed then those are simply placed for a vote of the house, which is called the guillotine. It marks the end of the discussion on the demand for grants.

Question 62.
What is cut motion?
Answer:
During a discussion of the demand for grants of different departments, the opposition may initiate a cut motion. This motion proposes to bring down the expenditure of a department to Re.l.

Question 63.
What is the point of order?
Answer:
When any member of parliament seeks the intervention of the honorable Speaker citing irregularities in the parliamentary procedure it is called a point of order. It can be introduced for discussion if the speaker gives permission.

Question 64.
Independence of election commission
Answer:
The independence and autonomy of the Election Commission is essential for the conduct of a free and fair poll. Therefore, the constitution has kept the election commission free from politically arid bureaucratic interference.

Question 65.
Qualifications of an MLA.
Answer:
The qualification prescribed by the constitution for being an MLA is He/she must be a citizen of India. He/ she must be above 25 years of. He/she must pass all other qualifications as prescribed by parliament.

Question 66.
How the Vidhansabha exercises control over the state council of ministers?
Answer:
The members of Vidhansabha may ask questions, supplementary questions, motions, and resolutions to criticize the government. It can introduce not confidence motion to remove the ministry from office.

Question 67.
How the legislature controls the purse of the nation?
Answer:
The legislature passes the annual budget and approves all proposals for imposition, repeal, or collection of taxes. The government can’t raise or spent one rupee without the approval of the legislature. It also controls all incomes and expenditures incurred y the executive.

Question 68.
What are the functions of the speaker of Lok Sabha?
Answer:
The speaker of Lok Sabha presides over the Lok Sabha. He conducts the proceedings of the house as an impartial umpire.

Question 69.
How the Lok Sabha exercises control over the union council of ministers?
Answer:
The Lok Sabha exercises control over the Union Council of Ministers by passing a vote of the no-confidence motion. It can also initiate cut motion, call attention motion, censure motion and put questions to ministers to keep the government under control.

Question 70.
What do you mean by the parliament of India?
Answer:
Parliament is the Union Legislature in India. It comprises the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha, and the President of India. It is the most powerful organ of the state.

Question 71.
What are the two special powers of the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
Rajya Sabha can pass a resolution by 2/3rds majority authorizing the parliament to make law on the state list. It can pass a resolution in respect of the creation or abolition of posts of All India Services.

Question 72.
What are the privileges of Members of Parliament?
Answer:
Members of Parliament enjoy unrestricted freedom to express their views in the house. During their tenure, they can’t be detained for any civil offense during and 40 days before and after the session of the house.

Question 73.
What is an appropriation bill?
Answer:
The appropriation bill contains all the demands for grants of all the departments and the amount charged to the consolidated fund of India. The Parliament by approval of this bill allows the government to incur expenditures for various departments under the government.

Question 74.
What is Finance Bill?
Answer:
The finance bill contains all proposals for taxation in the budget. It is introduced after the enactment of the Appropriation bill. The passage of the finance bill marks the end of the budget process.

Question 75.
How the second chamber of a state legislature can be created or abolished?
Answer:
The second chamber of a State legislature can be created or abolished if a proposal to that effect is passed in the concerned State Legislative Assembly by 2/3rds of its members present and voting. After that parliament reserves the right to take the final decision.

Question 76.
How the members of Lok Sabha are elected?
Answer:
The members of Lok Sabha are elected directly by the people through single-member constituencies on the basis of a universal adult franchise. They are elected through a simple majority vote system.

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Distinguish between direct and indirect elections.
Answer:
Direct election is a single election where the voters directly cast their votes in favor of the actual representative. But indirect election involves two elections, the first one by voters to elect the intermediary group, and by the second the true representatives are elected. In direct election close contact between the voters and the representatives is established. But in the indirect election so contact is established.

Direct election makes people conscious and responsible, but indirect election does not stimulate public interest. Direct election is suitable for developed countries but indirect election is useful for backward countries. Direct election is expensive but indirect election is less expensive.

Question 2.
Election Commission.
Answer:
The Indian constitution under Art. 324 has provided for an independent election commission. It ensures free, fair, and impartial elections in India. It conducts an election for President. Vice President Parliament and the state legislature. It comprises three members appointed by the president. It recognizes political parties and allows party symbols.

Question 3.
Functions of the election commission.
Answer:
The election commission discharges the following functions

• Preparation and revision of electoral rolls.
• Conduct of elections to the office of president, Vice-President, Parliament and state legislature
• Recognition of political parties and allotment of party symbols.
• Appointment of Returning officers, observers, election officers, and polling officers.

Question 4.
Independence of Election commission.
Answer:
The Indian constitution has secured the independence of the election commission. The members of the election commission are appointed by the president as per the law made by the parliament. They can’t be removed from office unless a proposal to that effect is passed in both houses of parliament by a special majority. The salary and allowances of the members of the election commission can’t be lowered during their term of office. They enjoy equal status as that of the judges of the Supreme Court.

Question 5.
Electoral reforms.
Answer:
Electoral reforms are necessary for every democratic system because with changes in time the drawbacks of the election process need modification. The Government of India has therefore introduced some reforms in the election process and some more reforms are self-indispensable. The voting age of voters has been reduced from 21 to 18. Electronic voting machines have been introduced to conduct free and fair polls and speedy counting of results. The voters have been given photo identity cards. To avoid fake candidates number of proposers and seconders has been increased and the security deposit has also been hiked.

Question 6.
Chief Election Commissioner.
Answer:
The senior member of the election commission is known as the chief election commissioner. He is appointed and removed in the same process and enjoys equal powers with the other two members He enjoys a 6 years term and retires at the age of 65 years. He is removed on grounds of proven misbehavior or incapacity if a resolution to that effect is passed in both houses of parliament by a special majority. He has to coordinate the activities of the other two members of the election commission.

Question 7.
Features of an ideal election system.
Answer:

1. After ideal election system is vital for the success of democracy.
2. It must be free from political and . bureaucratic influence.
3. There should be an independent judiciary to adjudicate election disputes.
4. Public trust and support towards the election commission is an indicators of an ideal electoral system.
5. It must have efficient administrative machinery to ensure free polling.

Question 8.
Importance of election for a democracy.
Answer:

• An independent election system is vital for the success of democracy.
• It enables voters to elect efficient and capable representatives.
• Election leads to the formation of a stable government and a good election system makes people repose their faith on government.
• Election lets the representatives enact good laws.
• An ideal election system keeps criminals and evil-minded people away from the democratic process.

Question 9.
Challenges to Indian Election Commission.
Or, Problems with the Indian electoral system
Answer:
The Indian election commission is now facing a few challenges which obstruct its efficiency, and these are

• Use of black money & muscle power in elections.
• The prevailing pattern of the relative majority system
• Abuse of power by central and state employees.
• Defects in the preparation of pectoral rolls.
• Influence of caste, religion, language, communal and regional feelings electoral process. Entry of criminals and anti-socials into the process.

Question 10.
Universal suffrage
Answer:
Universal suffrage is the very basis of representation in a democracy. It believes in the granting of voting rights to all adults irrespective of their caste, color, sex, religious discrimination, and education or property qualification. It supports the one-man-one-vote principle. It ensures more participation of younger people and women in elections and this makes democracy real.

Question 11.
Merits of Universal suffrage.
Answer:
Universal suffrage makes democracy successful. It ensures political, equality and justice. It promotes political awareness among people and develops the self-respect of each voter. Universal suffrage makes the legislature a true representative chamber of various interest groups. It enables women and backward classes to safeguard their own interests.

Question 12.
Demerits of Adult Suffrage.
Answer:
The drawbacks of adult suffrage are as follows:
Universal suffrage gives voting rights to poor illiterate people who do not understand the value of a vote. So it tends to be abusing voting rights. It often results in the selling of votes for a meager amount. Those backward people make a mockery of their voting right. It makes democracy weak because illiterate votes can’t judge good candidates. Universal suffrage further affects the dignity of women and their feminine qualities.

Question 13.
Women suffrage.
Answer:
Women’s suffrage means a grant of voting rights to women. Women’s suffrage makes women equal to men. It develops a spirit of service and sacrifice in women. Women’s Suffrage was first of all granted in the USA in 1919. England in 1928, Switzerland in 1970. India in 1950 and European countries from 1940-50.

Question 14.
Merits of Women suffrage.
Answer:
John Stuart Mill Sidquick and Esmein support women’s suffrage on the following grounds. As in a democracy, women are treated at par with men, There is no, ground to deprive them of voting right. Women’s suffrage will make them safeguard their own rights and privilege. Today women are capable of doing everything even if they are joining- the army and airforce, so it will be an injustice today for them to vote right.

Women’s suffrage will bring a major change in the social setup. Women are less tolerant of corruption. Crime and favoritism so by giving them political rights they can abolish exploitation and inequality in society.

Question 15.
Demerits of women suffrage.
Answer:
Women’s suffrage may lead to disruptions in family life. It will lead to neglect of children and the old. Women joining politics may develop a rift between husband and wife. As women are by nature fearful and apprehensive they may not discharge their duties properly. Unless they are educated it is not at all justifiable to give them voting right.

Question 16.
What is a direct election?
Answer:
Direct election is a process where the citizen voters directly cast their vote at a pooling booth to elect their representatives. It gives the opportunity and freedom to each voter to vote for his / her candidate of choice. In this election, the person who gets the maximum vote is declared elected. Direct election is democratic and it is seen everywhere. The members of Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha are elected by direct election.

Question 17.
Merits of direct election.
Answer:
Direct election gives every voter the freedom to vote for the candidate of his choice. In this process, each Voter gets the satisfaction that he is selecting the government. It establishes close contact between the votes and representatives. It promotes political consciousness. It makes voters accountable and develops the attitude of service.

Question 18.
Demerits of direct election
Answer:
The poor and ignorant people while casting their vote can not make the proper choices of representatives. Indirect election votes are swayed by election waves and do not make good choices. It is too much expensive, so poor people rarely get a chance to win. Violence and muscle power influence the outcome of a direct election.

Question 19.
Indirect election.
Answer:
The indirect election is a process where the voters elect their representatives indirectly that is through an intermediary group. It involves two elections, first, the intermediary group is elected and by second the group elects the real representatives. The Indian President, Vice-President and members of the Rajya Sabha are elected in this method.  It is less expensive and more representative. It may be carried out either by list system.

Question 20.
Minority Representation.
Answer:
Minority representation refers to the representation of minorities. Proportional representation is a technique of minority representation. Each group and party secures seats in proportion to the votes secured. It enables each minority to safeguard its interests.

Question 21.
Merits of indirect election.
Answer:
Indirect election eliminates the evils of the party system, therefore more capable and efficient representatives are elected. Here merit of the candidates counts over the election wave. It is suitable for poor and backward countries. It is less influenced by the evils of party politics.

Question 22.
Demerits of Indirect Election.
Answer:
The indirect election is undemocratic as the voters are not given the scope to elect representatives directly. There is no direct contact between the voters and representatives. It discourages voters in a democracy. Here the party dominates over individual choice. It encourages corruption, bribery, and illegal activities.

Question 23.
Single transferable vote system.
Answer:
A single transferable vote system is a form of proportional representation. It was invented by Thomas Hare of England. It is suitable for multi-member constituencies. In this system, each voter cast his vote in order of preference. The 1st preference votes are taken into account first, and those who secure the required quota of votes are declared elected. Here the 2nd preference vote is transferred to another candidate for which it is called a single transferable vote system.

Question 24.
Proportional Representation.
Answer:
Proportional representation is a form of indirect election. It rectifies the defects of a single-member constituency. In this system, a representative is elected on the basis of votes cast in his favor. So every vote is taken into consideration. It provides an opportunity to smaller parties and groups to win some seats in proportion to their votes. No vote is wasted in this system.

Question 25.
Demerits of Proportional representation.
Answer:
Propositional Representation is a complex process that ordinary voters can not understand. It encourages small parties and factionalism in a democracy. If encourages a multi-party system and most of the time coalition ministries are formed. It establishes no links or relationships between voters and representatives. In this system, the voters are bound by partly decisions and policies.

Question 26.
Communal Representation.
Answer:
Communal representation means the formation of electoral constituencies on the basis of Hindu, Muslim, Christian and Sikh religious communities, This system was encouraged by Britishers during pre-independence In this system, representatives are elected from every religious community. It can be ensured by reservation of seats bn communal lines. The Indian constitution has rejected communal representation.

Question 27.
Functional Representation.
Answer:
Functional Representation means the election of representatives from specific functional groups and units. It is an alternative to the system of territorial representation. This type of representation is prevailing in socialist and communist countries where representatives are chosen from farmers. It tends to neglect general interest for the sake of functional gr I p interest.

Question 28.
Challenges to Indian Election System.
Answer:
The Indian election system is facing, a lot of challenges in the nature

• Lot-of challenges in the nature of
• Increase in corruption and entry of criminals into politics.
• Politicization of caste, religion, communal and regional issues.
• Increasing violence, booth capturing arid rigging during the poll.
• Most of political parties are trying to misguide and confuse voters especially the poor and weaker sections of society.

Question 29.
Difference between money bill and finance bill.
Answer:
The difference between money bills and financial bills is more systematic than real. Art. 110 deals with money bills while Art. li 7 deals with financial bills. Financial bills are mostly bills dealing with income and expenditure and some portions of money bills also deal with similar issues. But all financial bills are not many bills. A finance bill is a mixture of an ordinary bill and a money bill. Money bills can’t be amended by Rajya Sabha but financial bills can be.

Question 30.
Ordinary Bill and Money Bill.
Answer:
An ordinary bill may be a public bill or a private bill, but a money bill is always a public bill. Ah, the ordinary bill can be introduced into either House of Parliament, but a money bill can only be introduced into the Lok Sabha. A money bill is introduced with the prior permission of the President, but an ordinary bill requires no such permission. The President may or may not approve an ordinary bill, but can’t disapprove a motley bill. The Rajya Sabha can reject an ordinary bill, but it can’t reject a money bill.

Question 31.
Bill and Act.
Answer:
Bill is a draft proposal for legislation. It is the preliminary stage of an Act, but Act is the final stage of a bill. A bill is a legislative proposal that after parliamentary action becomes an Act. A bill is not enforceable either by the executive or judiciary but an Act is enforced by the executive and applied in law courts. A bill carries no legal sanction but an Act carries legal sanction.

Question 32.
How does the legislature act as the custodian of the national purse?
Answer:
Without the approval of the budget by the legislature, no money can be raised or spent by the government. Without legislative sanction, no expenditure can be charged out of the consolidated fund, and no tax can be levied or exempted. It maintains a strict vigil over financial transactions made by executives. It appoints legislative committees like public accounts. Committee and Estimates Committee for the purpose.

Question 33.
How the Union Parliament is organized?
Answer:
Union Parliament is bicameral in structure, its Lower House is called Lok Sabha, and its Upper House as Rajya Sabha. Lok Sabha is the popular house and its members are elected directly by the citizen voters for five years. Rajya Sabha is the Upper House and its strength is 250 of which 238 members are elected indirectly from states and Union Territory Legislative Assembles for six years. The rest 12 are nominated by President.

Lok Sabha enjoys a five years tenure but Rajya Sabha is permanent.

Question 34.
What are the required qualifications for a member of the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
A member of the Rajya Sabha is required to possess the following qualifications.

• He must be a citizen of India.
• He must be above 30 years of age.
• He should not be insolvent or of unsound mind,
• He should not hold any office or profit either under the Union of State Gate.

Question 35.
What are the required qualifications for a member of the Lok Sabha?
Answer:
A member of Lok sabha should satisfy the following qualifications.

• He must be a citizen of India.
• He must be above 25 years of age.
• He must not be insolvent or of unsound mind.
• He must not hold any office of profit either under the Union Govt or of slate.

Question 36.
Joint sitting of Parliament.
Answer:
The President summons the joint sitting of parliament under Art. 108 . to resolve the deadlock between the two houses of parliament over the passage of an ordinary bill. The meeting is held in. the central Hall of Parliament with the speaker of Lok Sabha in the chair. The matter is discussed and finally, a vote is taken. The decision of the majority is taken for granted. The Lok Sabha due to its, numerical strength usually wins.

Question 37.
Role of Rajya Sabha in the passage of a money bill.
Answer:
Rajya Sabha is the second chamber of the union parliament and it plays an insignificant role in the passage of a money bill. No money bill can be introduced into the House. A bill after approval of Lok Sabha comes to the house and it is given a period of 14 days to approve the bill. The House can’t amend or reject a money bill, but can suggest amendments. The lower house may consider such a suggestion or not. Under no circumstances it can delay a money bill beyond 14 days.

Question 38.
Write the special powers of RajyaSabha.
Answer:

• Under Art. 249, Rajya Sabha can pass a resolution authorizing the Parliament to enact laws on any item of state list in the national interest.
• The House can initiate a proposal for the removal of the Vice President.
• Under Art. 312, it can pass a resolution authorizing the union Govt, either for the creation of addition of posts belonging to all Indian services.

Question 39.
What is a No-confidence motion?
Answer:
No confidence motion is an instrument in the hands of the Lok Sabha to control the ministry. It is moved by the members of the opposition bench to criticize and remove the government. It is initialed by at least l/4th members of the House and the Speaker gives a 14 days notice to the Govt. On the appointed date, the matter is discussed vividly and a final vote is taken. If the majority of the members are present and the voting vote is in favor of the motion the govt, resigns.

Question 40.
What are the functions of the Speaker of Lok Sabha?
Answer:

• The Speaker is the presiding officer of the Lok Sabha.
• He presides over its meetings and maintains decorum
• He conducts the business of the House.
• He protects the privileges and freedom of the members
• He interprets the rules of business of the House and decides on the admissibility of questions, resolutions and motions.
• In case of a tie, he casts his vote.

Question 41.
Estimate Committee.
Answer:
The estimates committee is a parliamentary committee. It consists of 30 members elected from Parliament. It examines the estimates of various ministries and suggests alternative policies to bring efficiency and economy to administration. The committee also works to bring about improvements in organization and efficiency in administration.

Question 42.
What are the privileges of members of Parliament?
Answer:
The members of parliament enjoy the following privileges. They enjoy freedom of speech, and for that, no legal action can be taken. They are immune from all legal proceedings for any act committed inside the House. No, a member can be arrested or detained by the public authority during – the session without the permission of the speaker.

Question 43.
Appropriation Bill.
Answer:
After a discussion of demands for grants, the Appropriation Bill is prepared by taking the demands passed by Lok Sabha and expenditure charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India. This bill is presented to the Lok Sabha and it has to pass through all the stages as any other bill.

Question 44.
Finance Bill.
Answer:
All the taxation proposals contained in the budget are known as Finance Bill. It is presented to the Lok Sabha after the enactment of the Appropriation Bill. It is passed in the same process as money bills. The passing of finance bills marks the completion of the budget.

Question 45.
What is a Vote on Account?
Answer:
The financial year of the Govt ends on 31 st March and as per the rules, the Budget must be passed by 31st March. If for any reason the budget can’t be passed within the time then the Govt can seek an affirmative vote from the Parliament to make necessary expenditures on Adhoc basic. This is called Vote on Account.

Question 46.
What are the required qualifications for membership of the Legislative Assembly?
Answer:
As per 173 of the constitution, a member of the State Legislative Assembly is required to satisfy the following qualifications He must be a citizen of India. He must be above 25 years of age. He must possess all other qualifications as prescribed by the law of Parliament.

Question 47.
What, are the disqualifications for membership of the State Legislative Assembly?
Answer:
A person shall be disqualified for membership of a State Legislative Assembly if.He/she holds any office of profit either under the State or Union government. He /she is of unsound mind. He/she is an undischarged insolvent. He/she has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign state. He/she is disqualified by any law made by Parliament.

Question 48.
How the membership of an MLA can be terminated?
Answer:
Termination of membership of an MLA is a controversial issue and the final decision in this regard is given by the State Governor. The Governor before disqualifying a member has to obtain the view of the Election Commission and act accordingly. His decision is final and can not be questioned in any court of law. The membership of a disqualified member shall be terminated by the Assembly by passing a resolution to that, effect.

Question 49:
What are the required qualifications of a member of the Legislative Council?
Answer:
A person should possess the following qualifications to become a member of the legislative council. He must be a citizen of India. He/she must be above 30 years of age. He/she must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the law of parliament.

Question 50.
How the Second Chamber of the State Legislature can be abolished?
Answer:
The Second Chamber of a State Legislature can be abolished in accordance with Art. 169 of the Constitution. It can be done if a resolution to that effect is passed by a majority of the total membership of the Assembly and a two-thirds majority of members present and voting of the concerned state legislative assembly. This resolution must be followed by the Act of Parliament after which the President orders for the abolition of the Second Chamber.

Question 51.
Which states in India have bicameral legislature?
Answer:
Five of 25 states in India have a bicameral legislature. These states are

• Uttar Pradesh.
• Bihar.
• Maharastra.
• Jammu and Kashmir.

Question 52.
Legislative Council is a superfluous chamber.
Answer:
Legislative Council is the Second Chamber of a State Legislature. It is a weak chamber that exercises limited and negligible influence over the lower chamber in the legislative sphere. It can neither check the money bills nor ordinary bills against the wish of the Lower House. It has no control over the executive. It does not participate in the amendment of the Constitution and the election of the President. Thus, in comparison to the Lower House, the Legislative Council is weaker in all aspects for which it is criticized as a superfluous chamber.

Question 53.
What are the functions of the Speakers of the Legislative Assembly?
Answer:
Speaker is the Presiding officer of the Legislative Assembly and he performs the following functions. He presides over the sessions of the Assembly. He maintains decorum in the House and interprets the rules of business. He is the final authority to admit questions, motions, and resolutions. He conducts the proceedings and votes within the House He can cast his vote in case of a tic. He safeguards the privileges of the members of the House.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Political Science Solutions Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Long Answer Questions Part-2.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Political Science Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain the functions of the election commission of India.
Answer:
The election commission of India is an independent body that conducts elections to the office of the President, Vice-President members of Parliament, and state legislatures, the functions of the commission can be enumerated below.

The Election/Commission revises electoral rolls before the every-general election. It exercises supervision and control over all matters pertaining to the election of the President, Vice-President, Members of Parliament, and State legislatures. It tenders advice to the President and Governors in matters of disqualification of members of parliament and state legislatures.

The commission gives recognition to political parties and allots election symbols. It makes appointments of election officials to enquire about disputes arising out of election arrangements. It issues notification of the election of schedules indicating the date and time of elections. The commission also regulates the campaigning of political parties through TV. and Radio.

It also requires the necessary states for the conduct of the poll. The commission has to determine the code of conduct of the political parties and candidates during elections. It has to decide about cases of rigging, booth capturing and. countermanding of polls, and also on repoll. The commission undertakes delimitation of constituencies every 10 years or so. The commission has to make all arrangements to conduct the peaceful poll.

Question 2.
Write an essay on the Independence of the Election Commission.
Answer:
Free and fair elections are indispensable for a democratic polity, The founding fathers were well aware of the situation and they tried their best to ensure the independence and integrity of the Election Commission.

Independence of the Election Commission:
The constitution has taken the following steps to ensure independence to the Election Commission.

The members of the Election Commission are appointed by the President as per rules made by the parliament. They hold office during the pleasure of the president. The president can’t remove them unless a resolution to that effect is passed in both houses of parliament by 2/3rds the majority of those present and voting and by a majority membership of each house.

They can only be removed only on grounds of proven misbehavior and in capacity. The members receive a salary as determined by Parliament from time to time and it is charged upon the consolidated fund of India, on which discussion takes place in the parliament During their tenure, their salary and conditions of service can’t be changed to their disadvantage.

The members of the Election Commission enjoy the status of a judge of the Supreme Court and after Retirement, they are not assigned any additional duty. The commission remains politically neutral and above all controversies maintains the dignity of the institution.

Question 3.
Mention the Electoral reforms introduced by the Election Commission of India.
Answer:
During the last sixty years, the history of elections in India indicates that the electoral process is not free from deficiencies. Analysts express doubt about the fairness and impartiality of the Election Commission. To overcome these defects there is a need for electoral reforms.

Reforms Introduced:
The government of India has already introduced certain electoral reforms to bring about the efficiency of the commission. The voting age has been reduced from 21 to 18 in order to encourage young voters. To ensure perfect arrangement for poll staff members now deputed much before by the Election Commission. To avoid the multiplicity of candidates in a constituency number of proposers and seconders has been increased and the amount of the security deposit has been enhanced 20 times.

Electronic voting machines have been used and photo identification cards have been issued to avoid false voting and tender voting and ensure quick counting of votes. If any candidate shows disrespect to the national flag, National Anthem, and to the constitution of India, he shall be disqualified from contesting polls for six years. No candidate can contest from two or more seats simultaneously.

The government prohibits persons from going with arms to polling booths. The sale of liquor during the last 48 hours of the election has been declared illegal. The poll day is declared a paid holiday to enable public servants to cast their votes. The time limit for bye-elections has been reduced to six months. A postal ballot system has been introduced to enable polling officers to cast their votes.

Further, there is a demand for holding simultaneous elections for Parliament and Assemblies. To keep the black money out of elections there is a need for state funding of elections. There is a need for quick disposal of election cases and rotation of reserved seats. To make the election free and fair election expenses must be audited properly.

Question 4.
Explain the powers and functions of the Union Parliament.
Answer:
The Union Legislature in India is called Parliament. It is bicameral in structure. The Upper Upper House is called the Council of States or Rajya Sabha and the Lower House being the popular House it performs most of the functions on behalf of the Parliament and dominates the Upper House.

Powers:
Parliament being the legislative wing, it is responsible for law-making. It also performs other vital functions.

Legislative:
The Union Parliament is a popular body that formulates the laws of the land. It is the Parliament that initiates and approves all legislative proposals. Without the knowledge of the Union Parliament, no law can be enacted.

Executive:
The Union Parliament performs certain executive functions. The ministers sit in the Parliament and remain responsible and answerable to the legislature for all their actions. The Lok Sabha controls the executive by putting various questions to the ministers. It is also the sole authority of the Lok Sabha. To pursue a no-confidence motion against the ministers. There is a responsible, executive in India.

Financial :
The Union Parliament in India enjoys absolute control over financial matters. No single pie will be spent without the knowledge of the Union Parliament. All sorts of financial appropriations are determined and approved by the legislature.

Constitutional :
No Constitution is static. With the development of civilization, and the change in the life of the people the Constitution needs to be
amended. In India, the Union Parliament possesses all powers with regard to the amendment of the Constitution.

Electoral:
The Union Parliament also possesses certain functions with regard to certain elections of the high officials. The Parliament participates in the election of the president and Vice president and another Parliamentary committee.

Judicial :
The Union legislature also possesses some sort of judicial power. The Lok Sabha acts as a judiciary to decide certain cases tike, like the impeachment of the Supreme Court.& High Court Judges, the President, the Vice-President and the no-confidence motion against the Council of Ministers are some of the illustrations of the judicial power of the union legislative

Administrative-Power :
The Union Parliament also possesses some administrative powers. The Parliament has control over the various administrative heads of various departments, The Lok Sabha possesses the power to question to the concerned minister for any administrative commission or commissions.

Miscellaneous Power :
The Union Parliament also enjoys certain miscellaneous powers which include controlling the emergency provisions and issuing ordinances by the President, of India.

Question 5.
Discuss the Legislative Procedure of the Union Parliament.
Answer:
In every constitutional setup, there is a legislature, whose primary responsibility is to formulate the two. There is a fixed procedure principle on the basis of which-the legislative procedure, is being carried out. Similarly, in India, there is a fixed procedure or principle on the basis of which the laws are made. There are two kinds of bills ordinary bill and a money bill. An ordinary bill may be introduced into either House of the Parliament but money bills can only be introduced into the Lok Sabha.

The Procedure of Legislation :
For the passing up of any bill, the legislature in India involves three stages of reading i.e. the first reading, the second reading, and the third reading.

Introduction of the bill:
For legislation, the first step is the introduction of the bill in the House for which a notice will be given one month. The date for the introduction of the bill is fixed by the Speaker or the Chairman of the House concerned and on the due date, the member is asked to present the bill If the majority of members of the House support the introduction of the bill is introduced and is published in the gazette.

First Reading:
After the introduction of the bill, the Chair of the House fixes, the date of its first reading. On the appointed day the member moves the bill. In this stage

• The title of the bill is read.
• The vote is taken

Second Reading:
After the committee has sent the report the bill may be referred for second reading on the fixed date. In the stage of second reading.

• The examination of the Select Committee may be taken into consideration.
• The member may move the bill which will be sent to Select Committee.
• Thirdly the member may move the bill for eliciting public opinion.

Select Committee Stage:
After the second reading, the bill is referred to a select committee. The committee examines the bill thoroughly. There is a detailed discussion of the bill
in this stage. The Select Committee may propose any changes in the bill on the basis of all kinds of information collected.

Report Stage:
After the bill is examined and discussed thoroughly, the Select Committee prepares its report. The suggestions recommended by the Select Committee is taken into account. If the majority of members arrived at a decision, the Chairman of the committee presents the report to the House. If the house agrees to consider the bill as reported by the Select Committee it enters into the second stage of the second reading when the bill is discussed clause by clause and the members are allowed to move their amendments. And the vote is taken.

Third Reading:
In this reading, the discussion is confined to either in support of the bill or rejection of the bill. If the bill is passed by the majority members of the present and voting the bill is passed by the legislature. And the bill is referred to the other House of Parliament. If the bill is passed by the other House then it is referred to the President for his assent. The President may give his assent or return it for reconsideration to the Parliament.

In case of Jhe disagreement of the other House with Regard to the bill, the President may summon a joint sitting of both the Houses of Parliament. If the bill is passed by the majority members in the joint sitting, it will presume that both the Houses of Parliament have passed the bill. After passing by both the Houses of Parliament have passed the bill. After passing by both the Houses of Parliament President gives his assent and the bill becomes an Act.

Question 6.
Analyze the organization and functions of the Lok Sabha.
Answer:
Indian Parliament is bicameral it Council States or Rajya Sabha and the Lower. House is known as the House of People or Lok Sabha, The House of the People-of the Lok Sabha is the direct representatives of the people Ordinarily there are 54 members of the Lok Sabha which consists of two categories of members, 545 members are elected directly by the people and two members are nominated by the President of India from among the Anglo- Indian community. The number of members to be elected to the House is determined on the basis of the ratio of the population of the states.

Term of Office:
The House of People is a temporary House that is ordinarily elected for a period of five years. But before the completion of the term the House may be dissolved and a fresh election may be, ordered. Similarly, the term of the House may also be extended up to a maximum of one year during the time of emergency.
The House meets twice in a year. There shall not be more than six months gap between each interval of the session.

Qualifications of the Members:
The Constitution of India provides tile following qualifications for the members of the House of the People. These are:

• He must be a citizen of India.
• He must have completed 25 years of age
• He must also possess other qualifications prescribed by-the Parliament from time to time.
• The President of India summons prorogues and dissolves the House of People. He also addresses the first session of the House.

Powers and functions of the House of People:
Generally, the Lower House in all Parliamentary forms of Government constitutes the elected representatives of the people. So the House of People in the context of the Indian Parliamentary form of Government occupies the highest position in the administration of the state. The House of People in the context-of-Indian Parliamentary form of Government is the highest authority where the conception of popular sovereignty is reflected. The House of People remains answerable to the people of India.  The various powers and functions of the House of People are discussed below.

Legislative Power:
The House of People or the Lok Sabha enjoys a very dominant position with regard to the legislative power. No bill would be an Act without the knowledge of the House of Parliament but money bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha. People Ordinary bills may be introduced in either. House of the Parliament but money bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha. But in the case of any other bills, they must be passed by Lok Sabha in order to become an Act.

Administrative Power:
In all types of Parliamentary forms of Government, the Lok Sabha is answerable to the legislature. So there is a responsible executive in all Parliamentary forms of Government. In India, the House of the People is the direct representative of the people, and the Council of ministers of the legislature remains answerable to Lok Sabha for all their actions. The Lok Sabha can control ministers who head various departments through various questions. If the council of ministers does not remain answerable for their actions the legislature may move a no-confidence motion against the ministers.

Financial Power:
The Lok Sabha possesses absolute control over public finance. No single pie can be expended without the sanction of the Lok Sabha. It is in the Lower House of Parliament the money bill can be introduced in regard to which Rajya Sabha possesses little or no option. The Rajya Sabha can not initiate any financial legislation and it is the financial supremacy of the Lok Sabha to grant finance for the state administration.

Constituent Power:
The union legislature possesses the power to amend the Constitution of India. Though with regard to the amendment of certain provisions of the Constitution the state government’s participation is required yet it is the Union Parliament that possesses more power for a constitutional amendment. The Parliament can initiate all those amendments for which the Lok Sabha plays a decisive role:

Electoral Power:
The Lok Sabha has certain electoral power. Lok Sabha participates in the election of the President of India, and Vice-President of India. Only elected members of the Lok Sabha alone possess the to participate in the election of President and Vice-President.

Judicial:
Lok Sabha also acts as a judiciary to decide certain cases like the impeachment of the President of India. The Vice-President, the Judges of the Supreme Court and High Court, etc. Lok Sabha alone can move and pass a no-confidence motion against the Council Ministers in the Parliament.

Question 7.
Discuss the role and functions of the Speaker of Lok Sabha.
Answer:
The Constitution provides that there shall be a Speaker for Lok Sabha who shall preside over the business of the House. The Speaker is the President of the House who is responsible to ensure the smooth functioning of the Lok Sabha.

Appointment of Speaker:
The Constitution provides that the Speaker should be elected from among the legislatures elected to Lok Sabha. The constitutional status is purely impartial so for which before entering into the office of Speaker he must vacate his membership to ensure impartiality. He may resign from his office for which at least a notice should be given to the House with 15 days in hand.

Functions of the Speaker:
The primary function of the Speaker is to ensure the smooth functioning of the Lok Sabha. It is the Speaker who happens to be responsible for all legislative procedures within Lok- Sabha. He controls the business of the 1 louse. It is the Speaker whose will and wishes prevail over the will and wishes of all other members. There are a lot of functions performed by the Speaker which is discussed below.

The Speaker is the chief authority within Lok Sabha who presides over all legislative proceedings within the Lok Sabha. He conducts the business of the House and every member of the House must address to the dignity of the Speaker in their speech. The Speaker protects the rights of the ruling as well as the opposition members, The Speaker must ensure that the opinions of the opposition members are adequately published.

Every member must be permitted by Speaker before telling anything. The Speaker administers various rules and regulations of the legislative proceeding in Lok Sabha and the ruling of the Speaker is final in this regard. It is the Speaker-who decides the nature and features of various bills introduced in Lok Sabha. Ordinarily, the Speaker does not enjoy the fight to vote but he can cast a vote in case there is a tie-in the vote.

Role and Position of Speaker:
In all Parliamentary forms of government, the Speaker or the Chair Person of the representative House Occupies a very dignitary position. Similarly, in the context of
Indian Parliamentary form of Government the Speaker of Lok Sabha occupies a very dignified position. Since more or less we have inherited the British pattern of office of Speaker where the Speaker does not belong to any political party only to ensure the impartiality of the procedure of the House.

It is the same position with regard to the constitutional status of the office, of Speaker. Though we have not observed the British pattern of practice yet, maximum steps have been taken to ensure the impartiality of the Speaker. In India, the Speaker may be a member of a political party but he ads as a nonparty man after entering into office. The Constitution of India and the convention have assigned dignity to a great extent during the tenure of his office.

So he does not take part in any party affairs during the lifetime of his office. Since he presides over the meetings of the House it is the responsibility of the Speaker to provide adequate opportunity to all members irrespective of party affiliation which will enhance the dignity and the status of the Speaker. The Speaker must not act on the basis of his personal ideology which will strike at the very impartial tradition of the office of the Speaker.

Question 8.
Discuss the composition and powers of the Rajya Sabha and examine its utility in the Indian constitutional setup.
(Or)
Examine the powers and utility of the Council of States in India.
Answer:
Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the second chamber of the Union Parliament. It gives representation to the states and Union Territories on the basis of population. It is a weaker chamber, in comparison to the Lower House, but it plays a vital role in the constitutional setup.

Composition:
The Council of States is the permanent chamber. Its maximum strength is 250-238  members representing the States and Union Territories rest of the 12 members are nominated by the President from persons having excellence either in Arts, Science, Literature, or Social Service. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly by the members of respective states and Union Territories through, proportional representation and a single transferable vote system.

Any citizen of India above 30 years of age and possessing all other qualifications can become a member of the House. The term of each member is six years and one-third of them retire every two years. The Vice-President acts as the ex-officio chairman of the House.

Powers and Functions :
The Council of States performs the following functions:

Legislative Functions :
The Rajya Sabha shares equal legislative powers with the Lok Sabha. No ordinary bill can become an Act without its approval, in case of disagreement between the two House on an ordinary, bill, the President can summon a joint sitting and decide the fate of the bill.

Financial Functions:
The House remains subordinate to the Lok Sabha in matters of money bills. No money bill can be introduced into Rajya Sabha. When a bill after approval in the Lok Sabha is sent to the Upper House for approval within a period of 14 days. The House can’t amend the money bills. It merely records its affirmation and the bill is presumed to be passed.

Executive Functions:
The Rajya Sabha cannot exercise effective control over the union government. It can’t pass a no-confidence motion against the ministry nor it can compel the ministry to resign. The ministers remain collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. It can only raise questions and introduce motions putting the Govt, into trouble.

Amendment of the Constitution:
The Council of States participates in the amendment of the constitution. It can initiate proposals of amendment and without its approval, no portion of the constitution can be amended.

Electoral Power:
The members of the Rajya Sabha do participate in the election of the President & Vice-President of India. They also elect the Deputy Chair Person of the House and Parliamentary committees.

Judicial Powers:
The House shares equal authority with the Lok Sabha in the impeachment of the President. It also approves proposals relating to the removal of Judges of the Supreme Court and High Court.

Special Powers and Utility:
Rajya Sabha is a weaker chamber but It is not powerless. It enjoys certain special powers like;

• Approval of emergency proclamations.
• Initiating proposals for the removal of Vice-President.
• Requesting Parliament under Art-249 to make law on items of state list in the national interest and
• Initiating a proposal for the increase or decrease of posts under the cadre of All India Services.

Utility:
Rajya Sabha is a permanent chamber and it renders useful service to Parliament when Lok Sabha is dissolved. It is a House of elderly statesmen and administrators who contribute their experience toward the promotion of national interests. It relieves the burden of Lok Sabha. It defends the interests of federal units. It represents the diverse interests of the nation.  It plays a vital role as a revisory chamber. It organizes public opinion on important issues interposing delay. Therefore it can’t be considered a superfluous chamber.

Question 9.
Discuss how the Union budget is passed in the Parliament of India.
Answer:
A budget is the annual financial statement of the estimated income and expenditure of a nation. Before, the end of financial year it is the responsibility of the Union Govt. to pass the budget. The Union Finance Ministry prepares the budget and after approval of the ministry, it is introduced into the Lok Sabha with the prior permission of the President.

The Annual Budget is divided into two parts,

• Railway Budget.
• General Budget.

The Railway Minister introduces the railway budget and after 2 to 3 days the Finance Minister presents the General Budget to the Lok Sabha.

Introduction of Budget:
The Finance Minister presents the budget in the last week of February on a fixed date. While introducing the budget, he. makes a budget speech outlining die financial plans and programs of the Govt, for the ensuing year.

Budget Reactions:
After the introduction, each member is given a copy of the budget to go through the details.

General Discussion:
After 3 to 4 days after the introduction, a general1 discussion takes place. The Govt, deferred’s fiscal policies against the criticism of the opposition.

Consideration by Standing Committees:
There are 17 standing committees to review add analyze the details of the general budget. These committees play an active role in the approval of the budget. The recommendation of these committees is put into discussion in the Lok Sabha.

Voting on Demand for Grants:
Just after the general discussion voting on Demand for Grants takes place. The departmental expenditure of different departments is discussed and then put to vote. The Speaker fixes the date and time of such discussion- for each department. If any of the demand is rejected in the House then Govt has to resign.

Passing of Appropriation Bill:
After voting, on Demand for Grants the Appropriation Bill is prepared to assemble the demands passed by the House along with the expenditure charged” upon the Consolidated Fund of India. This Appropriation Bill is presented to the Lok Sabha and it passes the same stages as any other money bill. With the passage of the Appropriation Bill, the demands of expenditure of different departments are sanctioned.

Passing of Finance Bill:
The Finance Bill contains all proposals for taxation and it is presented to the House after the enactment of the Appropriation Bill. It also goes through the same procedure as in the case of a money bill. The Rajya Sabha is given a period of 14 days to approve it. After the passage of the Finance Bill, it is put to the President for signature. It marks the approval of the budget.

Vote on Account:
If for any reason the budget can’t be passed by 31st March the Govt has to seek a Favourable vote from the Parliament to incur necessary expenditures. This adhoc permission is called Vote on Account. The entire budgetary process takes a period of 75 days.

Question 10.
Discuss the organization and functions of the Odisha Legislative Assembly.
Answer:
The State Legislature in Odisha is unicameral and the Lower House is called Legislative Assembly or Vidhan Sabha. It is a representative assembly whose members are elected directly by the citizen voters of the state.

Composition:
The Odisha Legislative Assembly is composed of 147 members elected directly by the citizens on the basis of the universal adult franchise. The Constitution provides that out of seats of the State Legislative Assembly. 34 have been reserved for ST and 22 for SC candidates.

Qualification of the Members:
There are certain qualifications of the members of the State Legislative Assembly, which are as follows:

• He must be a citizen of India.
• He must have completed at least 25 years of age.
• He must not have occupied any other office of profit either under the State Government or the Central Government.

Term:
The term of the Legislative Assembly is five years. But before the completion of the term the House may also be. dissolved by the Governor on account of the failure of the political machinery of the state. Again the term of the House may also be extended another year in the time of emergency.

Functions: The various, functions of the State Legislative Assembly are discussed below.

Legislative Functions:
Formulation of laws is the primary responsibility of the legislature and the legislative assembly is the lower representative House of the citizens exercises relatively greater power in the formulation of laws. No law would be there without the knowledge of the State Legislative Assembly. All the laws relating the finances should alone be introduced in the state Legislative Assembly.

With regard to non-financial matters, the state Legislative Assembly enjoys comparatively a comfortable position. The State Legislature is entitled to formulate laws on the State list concurrent list So the legislative assembly possesses a greater role in the enactment of the laws.

Executive Functions:
The State Legislative Assembly controls the ministry. The executive collectively remains responsible and answerable to the state legislature. The ministers are selected out of the legislature. The Legislative Assembly can put the question to the ministers for their actions and if the legislature loses its faith in the executive it may initiate a no-confidence motion against the Council of Ministers by which the Council of Ministers goes out of office.

Judicial Functions:
The state Legislative Assembly also performs certain judicial functions. Particularly it acts as a judge with regard to the consideration of no-confidence motions and impeachment motions.

Financial Functions:
The Legislative Assembly being the House of popular representatives exercise absolute power over the state treasury. No single paise can be spent without the knowledge of the State Legislative Assembly. The Assembly finalizes the budget, i.e, the annual income and expenditure statement of the revenue administration of the state.

It may pass, reduce, or reject the demands for grants made in the budget. Any legislative proposal for finance must be approved by the state. The State Legislative Assembly must acknowledge all the items of expenditure other than the expenditure raised from the Consolidated Fund of India.

Electoral Function:
The Legislative Assembly also performs certain electoral functions. It participates in the election of the Speaker of the House and elects the representatives to the Council of States. The members of the State Legislative Assembly are also the members of the electoral college which participate in the election of the President of India. So the Legislative Assembly participates in the election of the President of India.

Constituent Function:
Normally the State Legislative Assembly possesses no or little power with regard to the amendment of the Constitution of India. All policy initiatives arc initiated by the Union Parliament and approved by it. But the amendments related to the election of the President of India, High Courts the representation of the States in the Parliament, and Article-368 of the Constitution, all require the ratification of at least one-half of the State, Legislatures.

Question 11.
Discuss the Composition and Functions of the State Legislative Council.
Answer:
In those states where the Legislature is bi-cameral in nature, the Upper House is called the State Legislative council or the Vidhan Parishad the lower house is the Legislative Assembly or the Vidhan Sabha. The State Legislative Council is a permanent House. Unlike the State Legislative Assembly, the members of the State Legislative Council are not directly elected by the people.

Composition:
The members of the State Legislative Council are not directly elected by the people rather its members are elected variously. The Constitution provides that the members of the State Legislative Council should not exceed the l/3rd strength of the legislative assembly. So the maximum strength of the Legislative Council should hot exceed 160 and it must not be less than 40.

There are elected as well as nominated members of the State Legislative Council. There are the following kinds of members in the State Legislative Council what the Constitution provides. One-third of its members shall be elected by the members of various local bodies i.e., Municipalities, District Boards, and other Local Bodies. One-twelfth of its members shall be elected by university graduates of not less than three years standing.

One-twelfth of its members shall be elected by the teachers not less than the standard of secondary schools. One-third of its members shall be elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly. And finally, one-sixth of its members shall be nominated by the Governor from among the persons having knowledge in the field of literature, art, or any other specialized field.

Qualification of the Members:
The Constitution provides that the members of the State Legislative Council should possess the following qualifications. ,

• He must be a citizen of India.
• He must have completed 30 years of age.
• Thirdly, the members should not hold any office of profit either under the State Government or the Central Government. If he holds such an office he must vacate at the time of election.

Tenure:
Ordinarily, the members of the State Legislative Council are elected for a period of six years. But the State Legislative Council is a permanent House and it is not subject to any dissolution. One-third of its members retire in every two years.

Powers and Functions of the Legislative Council:
The legislative Assembly which is the popular House enjoys comparatively more power than the State Legislative Council. However, it would not be assumed that the State Legislative Council doesn’t possess any power.

The following are the various powers and functions of the State Legislative Council.

Legislative Functions:
The State Legislature consists of the Legislative Assembly, the Legislative Council, and the Governor. So the Legislative Council of each and every state, where there is a bicameral legislature, participates in the affairs of formulation of laws. All kinds of bills, except money bill, may be introduced into the State Legislative Council. Again all bills which are introduced and passed by the Legislative Assembly must be sent to the Legislative Council for its assent.

The Legislative Council may or may not give its assent or may return the bill for reconsideration of the bill. But after reconsideration, the council must give its assent. But in case of any bill is rejected by the council for the second time and one month has been completed it would be presumed that the bill has been passed by the Legislative Council.

Executive Functions:
The State Legislative Council also possesses some executive or administrative functions. Unlike the Legislative Assembly, the Legislative Council cannot pursue a no-confidence motion against the Council of Ministry but it can ask questions to the minister regarding the administration of the state. It can pass also resolutions concerning the administration of the state.

Financial Functions:
The State Legislative Council enjoys comparatively less financial power than the Legislative Assembly. The Constitution provides that no financial bill can be introduced in the Legislative Council. All sorts of money bills are first introduced in the State Legislative Assembly and it can be sent to the Council for its assent. The Legislative Council may suggest change but that may or may not be accepted by the legislative assembly. The council may delay the passing of money bills up to maximum 14 days.

From the above discussions, it has become clear that the State Legislative Council enjoys less power in comparison to the State Legislative Assembly: The State Legislative Council is not only the second chamber but also the secondary chamber of the state legislature. It can be termed as the House of elders and its function is to advise and suggestions to the younger who are, strong, active and efficient. The Legislative Assembly can make or unmake everything by taking into confidence the council.

The state Legislative Council is a chamber that has been there with a view to ensuring checks The significance of the State Legislative Assembly is that it is a body of professionals having technical knowledge which represents various functional interests. Its debates are marked by higher intensity, in-depth knowledge and broad political insight. Although it has it’s technical side yet, its hand had been tied with regard to powers in comparison to State Legislative Assembly.

Question 12.
Examine the relationship between the two Houses of the State Legislature.
(Or)
Discuss the relationship between the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council of State.
Answer:
The Constitution of India has provided for bicameralism at the state level, though there is bicameralism only in five states. The lower chamber is called the Legislative Assembly of Vidhan Sabha while the upper chamber is known as the Legislative Councilor Vidhan Parishad. The Assembly is the popular chamber that exercises supremacy over the upper chamber.

Organization:
The Assembly has a- membership which is three times that of the membership of the Legislative Council. The Assembly is the Lower House whose members are elected directly for a term of five years. The Legislature Council is a secondary chamber whose members are elected indirectly for a term of six years.

Functions:
Not only in the organization but also in powers and functions the Lower House enjoys a place of primacy.

As regards ordinary bills:
Ordinary bills can be introduced into either House of the. The legislature and unless passed in both of them cannot become an Act. An ordinary bill passed by the Assembly when submitted to the Legislative Council. The latter can reject or approve it within three months. If the period is over even without the approval of the council the bill is supposed to have been passed in the Upper House.

‘If returned it must be’ approved within one month, Thus the Upper House can delay an ordinary bill at best for four months. It cannot prevent any bill from passing in the Assembly. But, if a bill initiated in the upper chamber is opposed by the tower one then the future of the bill is killed.

As regards money bills:
No money bill can be introduced into the Legislative Council. Only when a money bill is passed in the Lower House is submitted to the upper one, the House is given a time of 14 days to give its opinion on the bill. If the period elapses then the bill is supposed to have been passed. The Council can not amend money bills or proposals of taxation.

Control over executive:
The Lower House of the legislature exercises controls over the state council of ministers. The ministers remain accountable to the Assembly and if necessary it can pass a vote of no-confidence and force the ministry to resign, But the Legislative Council has no such control over the executive. It cannot drive the ministers out.

Other Spheres:

• The Assembly participates in the election of the President of India, but the council does not.
• The Assembly can participate in constitutional amendments, but the council can’t.
• The debates and deliberations of the Lower House attract public attention, but no such attention is given to the discussions of the Lower House.
• Therefore, the Legislative Council is considered not only a second chamber but also a secondary one. It does not obstruct the Assembly in its business.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 11 Political Science Solutions Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Objective Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 11th Class Political Science Unit 4 Constitution at Work-I Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
How many members are there in the election commission of India?
(a) one
(b) Two
(c) Three
(d) Five
Answer:
(c) Three

Question 2.
Which article of the constitutions of India deals with Election Commission?
(a) Art. 248
(b) Art. 268
(c) Art. 348
(d) Art. 324
Answer:
(d) Art. 324

Question 3.
How many members were there in the Election Commission of India where the Indian Constitution came into force?
(a) one
(b) two
(c) three
(d) four
Answer:
(a) one

Question 4.
In which year did membership of the election commission increase?
(a) 1977
(b) 1981
(c) 1985
(d) 1989
Answer:
(d) 1989

Question 5.
Who appoints the members of the Election commission?
(a) President of India
(b) Prime minister of India
(c) Parliament of India
(d) Council ministers
Answer:
(a) President of India

Question 6.
When the members of the election commission retire from service?
(a) At the age of 60 years
(b) At the age of 65 years
(c) At the age of 62 years
(d) At the age of 70 years
Answer:
(b) At the age of 65 years

Question 7.
Which type of representation is never seen in a democracy?
(a) Propositional Representation
(b) Universal suffrage
(c) Minority representation
(d) Communal representation
Answer:
(d) Communal representation

Question 8.
To which of the following offices the Election Commission does not conduct polls?
(a) President & Vice President
(b) Loksabha & Rajya Sabha
(c) Legislative Assembly Members
(d) Members of Municipality
Answer:
(d) Members of Municipality

Question 9.
From which year electronic voting. machine (EVM) was introduced in General Election?
(a) January 15, 1990
(b) March 15, 1989
(c) April 15, 1996
(d) February 15, 1998
Answer:
(b) March 15, 1989

Question 10.
When the campaigning for election ends?
(a) 24 hours before the poll
(b) 48 hours before the poll
(c) 24 hours before the end of the poll
(d) 48 hours before the end of the poll
Answer:
(d) 48 hours before the end of the poll

Question 11.
What percentage of vote does a candidate need to secure so that his security deposit will not be forfeited?
(a) One third
(b) One fourth
(c) One fifth
(d) One-sixth of the valid votes.
Answer:
(d) One-sixth of the valid votes.

Question 12.
Who among the following is a supporter of universal suffrage?
(a) J.S. Mill
(b) II.J. Laski
(c) Sir Henry Maine
(d) Blantschli
Ans.
(b) II.J. Laski

Question 13.
Electoral reforms have been introduced on the recommendation of which commission?
(a) Savalwal Committee
(b) Sindhi Committee
(c) Dinesh Goswamy Committee
(d) Virappa moilee Committee
Answer:
(c) Dinesh Goswamy Committee

Question 14.
On whose name the bills are introduced into the Parliament?
(a) President of India
(b) Prime Minister
(c) Speaker
(d) Departmental Minister
Ans.
(a) President of India

Question 15.
What is the tenure of Lok Sabha?
(a) five years
(b) four years
(c) six years
(d) none of these
Answer:
(a) five years

Question 16.
Who nominates the 12 members of Rajyasabha
(a) President of India
(b) Chairman of Rajya Sabha
(c) Members of Rajya Sabha
(d) Prime Minister
Answer:
(a) President of India

Question 17.
Who initiates money bill in the Lok Sabha?
(a) President of India
(b) Prime Minister
(c) Finance Minister of India
(d) Speaker of Lok Sabha
Answer:
(c) Finance Minister of India

Question 18.
How many seats are reserved for SC and ST in the Lok Sabha?
(a) 79 and 40
(b) 75 and 51
(c) 34 and 22
(d) 85 and 47
Answer:
(a) 79 and 40

Question 19.
What is the term of office of a Member of the Rajya Sabha?
(a) 5 years
(b) 6 years
(c) 4 years
(d) permanent
Answer:
(b) 6 years

Question 20.
Through which motion the President can be removed from office?
(a) No – confidence motion
(b) Censure motion
(c) Impeachment
(d) Exit motion
Answer:
(c) Impeachment

Question 21.
What is the minimum age qualification for membership of LokSabha?
(a) 25 years
(b) 30 years
(c) 35 years
(d) 21 years
Answer:
(a) 25 years

Question 22.
How many states of India have bicameral legislature?
(a) five
(b) six
(c) ten
(d) seven
Answer:
(a) five

Question 23.
Which one is not a function of the legislature?
(a) Enactment of Law
(b) Amendment of the Constitution
(c) Preparation of budget
(d) Ventilation of public grievances
Answer:
(c) Preparation of budget

Question 24.
How the Legislature controls the executive?
(a) By passing a no-confidence motion
(b) By putting questions to the ministers
(c) By initiation cut motion
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 25:
Which is the most powerful organ of Govt, in India?
(a) Executive
(b) Parliament
(c) Supreme Court
(d) Bureaucracy
Answer:
(b) Parliament

Question 26.
Which is the exclusive power of Rajya Sabha?
(a) To initiate money bills
(b) To initiate proposals for the removal of the President
(c) To initiate proposals for the removal of the Vice President
(d) To initiate proposals for the removal of the comptroller Auditor-General
Answer:
(c) To initiate proposals for the removal of the Vice President

Question 27.
On whose recommendation posts under All India Services can be increased or decreased?
(a) Lok Sabha
(b) Rajya Sabha
(c) Supreme Court
(d) Cabinet Sub-Committee
Answer:
(b) Rajya Sabha

Question 28.
What constitutes the Quorum of the LokSabha?
(a) l/5th of the total membership
(b) l/6th of the total membership
(c) l/10thof-total membership
(d) l/20th of the total membership
Answer:
(c) l/10thof-total membership

Question 29.
Who presides over the joint sitting of the Parliament?
(a) President of India
(b) Prime Minister of India
(c) Vice President
(d) Speaker of Lok Sabha
Answer:
(d) Speaker of Lok Sabha

Question 30.
What is the maximum strength of a Legislative Assembly?
(a) 485
(b) 450
(c) 500
(d) 600
Answer:
(c) 500

Question 31.
The Union Council of Ministers is responsible to
(a) Lok Sabha
(b) Rajya Sabha
(c) Union Parliament .
(d) President of India
Answer:
(a) Lok Sabha

Question 32.
Who prorogues the session of Parliament?
(a) Speaker of Lok Sabhas
(b) Prime Minister
(c) President
(d) Vice President
Answer:
(c) President

Question 33.
A money bill is introduced into?
(a) The Lok Sabha
(b) The Rajya Sabha
(c) Into either House of Parliament
(d) Union Cabinet
Answer:
(a) The Lok Sabha

Question 34.
Which House can initiate proposals of amendment?
(a) Lok Sabha
(b) Rajya Sabha
(c) Either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha
(d) State Legislative Assembly
Answer:
(c) Either Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha

Question 35.
The Rajya Sabha is
(a) The Second Chamber of Parliament
(b) The Upper House of Parliament
(c) A Permanent Chamber
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 36.
Who acts as a link between the President and Union Parliament?
(a) Prime Minister
(b) Vice President
(c) Home Minister
(d) Speaker of Lok Sabha
Answer:
(d) Speaker of Lok Sabha

Question 37.
Who protects the privileges of members of Parliament?
(a) President
(b) Vice President
(c) Prime Minister
(d) Speaker
Answer:
(d) Speaker

Question 38.
Which is not a duty of the Speaker of Lok Sabha?
(a) To maintain discipline
(b) To interpret the rules of business of the House.
(c) To introduce bills
(d) To certify the money bills
Answer:
(c) To introduce bills

Question 39.
On whose recommendation the Governor dissolves the State Legislative Assembly?
(a) Prime Minister
(b) chief minister
(c) President
(d) State Council of Minister
Answer:
(c) President

Question 40.
On which items the State Legislature can make law?
(a) State List
(b) State List & Concurrent List
(c) Union List and State List
(d) State List and residuary matters
Answer:
(d) State List and residuary matters

Question 41.
How many S.C. and S.T. members are there in the Odisha Legislative Assembly?
(a) 22 and 34
(b) 34 and 22
(c) 32 and 24
(d) 24 and 32
Answer:
(a) 22 and 34

Question 42.
What is the strength of Odisha Vidhan Sabha?
(a) 155
(b) 165
(c) 149
(d) 147
Answer:
(d) 147

Question 43.
How many members represent Odisha in the Lok Sabha?
(a) Ten
(b) Twenty
(c) Twenty one
(d) Twenty-five
Answer:
(c) Twenty one

Question 44.
What is the term of the Legislative Assembly?
(a) five years
(b) six years
(c) one year
(d) four years
Answer:
(a) five years

Question 45.
Out of the 21 seats how many seats are reserved for SC and ST candidates representing Odisha in the Lok Sabha?
(a) 3 and 4
(b) 3 and 5
(c) 4 and 5
(d) 5 and 7
Answer:
(b) 3 and 5

Question 46.
When does the question hour start?
(a) 10 AM to 11 AM
(b) 11 AM to 12 Noon
(c) 12 Noon to 1 PM
(d) 4 PM to 5 PM
Answer:
(d) 4 PM to 5 PM

Question 47.
When the zero-hour starts?
(a) 9AMto 10 AM
(b) 10 AM to 11 AM
(c) 11 AM to 12 Noon
(d) 12 Noon to 1 PM
Answer:
(d) 12 Noon to 1 PM

Question 48.
Out of 147 members in Odisha Vidhan Sabha how many seats are reserved for SC and ST candidates?
(a) 23 and 27
(b) 21 and 25
(c) 23 and 34
(d) 27 and 39
Answer:
(c) 23 and 34

Question 49.
Who presides over the meeting of the Rajya Sabha?
(a) President of India
(b) Vice President
(c) Speaker
(d) Home Minister
Answer:
(b) Vice President

Question 50.
What is the maximum strength of Lok Sabha?
(a) 547
(b) 545
(c) 550
(d) 552
Answer:
(d) 552

Question 51.
When does the financial year start?
(a) January 1st
(b) March 1st
(c) April 1st
(d) June 1st
Answer:
(c) April 1st

Question 52.
Who certifies whether a bill is a money bill or not?
(a) President of India
(b) Speaker of Loksabha
(c) Finance Minister
(d) Prime Minister
Answer:
(b) Speaker of Loksabha

Question 53.
Who convinces the sessions of Parliament?
(a) President of India
(b) Prime Minister
(c) Speaker
(d) Secretary of Loksabha
Answer:
(a) President of India

Question 54.
In which part of the constitution there is mention of the election commission?
(a) Part-VIII
(b) Part – XI
(c) Part – XIV
(d) Part-XV
Answer:
(d) Part-XV

Question 55.
By which amendment Act the voting age of voters is reduced from 21 to 18 years?
(a) 59th
(b) 60th
(c) 61st
(d) 62nd
Answer:
(c) 61st

Answer the following questions in one word or digit

Question 1.
Who was the first Chief Election Commissioner of India?
Answer:
Sukumar Sen

Question 2.
Who is responsible for conducting a free and fair pool in India?
Answer:
Election Commission of India.

Question 3.
From which year EVMs are being used in Elections?
Answer:
14th March 1989

Question 4.
How many proposers and seconders sign the presidential nomination?
Answer:
50 and 50

Question 5.
For which posts direct election is held in India?
Answer:
Membership of Loksabha and Vidhansabha

Question 6.
For which posts indirect election is held?
Answer:
President, Vice-President’ & Rajya Sabha members.

Question 7.
From which date the voting age of voters is reduced from 21 to 18 years?
Answer:
21st March 1989.

Question 8.
What is the tenure of office of the members of the Election Commission?
Answer:
6 yrs or attaining 65 yrs which is earlier.

Question 9.
Which chamber of the legislature safeguards the interests of a federation?
Answer:
Upper Chamber

Question 10.
Which one is the primary organ of government?
Answer:
Legislature

Question 11.
The council Ministers in a parliamentary system remain answerable to which house of the legislature?
Answer:
Lower

Question 12.
From which word has the term Parliament has been derived?
Answer:
Latin word ‘Parle’

Question 13.
How many nominated members are there in the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
12

Question 14.
How many members of Loksabha represent the Union Territories?
Answer:
13

Question 15.
Besides the Union List on which list can, the Parliament make law during normalcy?
Answer:
Concurrent List

Question 16.
By which power, the President can return an ordinary bill back to the Parliament for reconsideration?
Answer:
Suspensive Veto

Question 17.
Who gives the certificate to a money bill?
Answer:
Speaker

Question 18.
Who presides over the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
Vice President

Question 19.
Who elects the members of the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
Members of Vidhan Sabha

Question 20.
When was the first election to the Parliament in India held?
Answer:
1952

Question 21.
Who reads out the Oath of office and secrecy to the members of the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
Chairman or Vice Chairman of the house

Question 22.
Which house of parliament can initiate proposals for the removal of the Vice President?
Answer:
Upper House

Question 23.
Which house of parliament initiates A confidence motion against the union council ministers
Answer:
LokSabha

Question 24:
For how many days can the Rajya Sabha detain a money bill?
Answer:
14 days.

Question 25.
Who acts is the leader of Lok Sabha?
Answer:
Prime Minister

Question 26.
Who acts as a link between the Parliament and President?
Answer:
Speaker

Question 27.
Who introduces the Annual Budget into the Lok Sabha?
Answer:
Finance Minister of India

Question 28.
For how many days the Rajya Sabha can delay an ordinary bill?
Answer:
Six Months

Question 29.
What is the hour just after the question hour is called?
Answer:
Zero hour

Question 30.
Who exercises casting vote in case of a tie?
Answer:
Speaker

Question 31.
Can there be a joint sitting for a constitutional amendment bill?
Answer:
No

Question 32.
Which constitutional authority can enhance the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?
Answer:
Parliament

Question 33.
When the Lok Sabha is dissolved who approves the emergency proclamations?
Answer:
Rajya Sabha

Question 34.
Who Presides over the Lok Sabha during the absence of the Speaker?
Answer:
Deputy Speaker

Question 35.
What is the maximum limit of expenditure of a member of Lok Sabha during elections?
Answer:
25 lakhs

Question 36.
What is the maximum election expenditure limit of a member of Vidhan Sabha?
Answer:
15 lakhs

Question 37.
In which court of law the electoral disputes between the President and Vice President are settled?
Answer:
Supreme Court of India

Question 38.
In which court of law the electoral disputes of MPs and MLAs are settled?
Answer:
High Court

Question 39.
What is the amount of security deposit a presidential candidate must pledge?
Answer:
Rs. 15,000/

Question 40.
Who reads the oath of office of the member of parliament?
Answer:
President of India or his representative

Question 41.
What is the amount of the MP LAD fund?
Answer:
Rs.5 crores

Question 42.
What is the amount of the MLA LAD fund?
Answer:
One crore

Question 43.
How many members are there in the Rajya Sabha?
Answer:
233+12 = 245

Question 44.
When does the financial year start?
Answer:
April 1st

Question 45.
By which motion, the Union Council of ministry can be removed?
Answer:
No confidence motion.

Question 46.
Who casts the casting vote in case of a tie in the Loksabha?
Answer:
Speaker of Loksabha

Question 47.
What is the monthly salary of the Vice President?
Answer:
Rs. 1,25,000

Question 48.
What is the constitutional name of the budget?
Answer:
Annual Financial Statement

Fill in the blanks

1. Free and fair elections are indispensable for a ____ state.
Answer: Democracy.

2.The Indian constitution under Art._____ provides for an election commission.
Answer: Art. 324.

3. The membership of the election commission has increased to three from _____ general election.
Answer: Xth.

4. The tenure of office of the election commission is ____ years.
Answer: Six.

5. The members of the election commission retire at the age of ______ years.
Answer: 65.

6. The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office on the ground of _____.
Answer: Proved misbehavior and incapacity.

7._____ removes the members of the Election Commission?
Answer: President.

8. Seats have been reserved for the SC and STs in the Loksabha under Art. ______
Answer: Art. 330.

9. Under Art. _____ spats have been reserved for SC and ST candidates in the Vidhansabha.
Answer: Art. 332.

10. The president nominates two members from Anglo Indian Community to the Loksabha under Art._______
Answer: Art. 331.

11.______ Allots symbols to different political parties.
Answer: Election Commission.

12. Art. _____ provides for a joint sitting of the parliament.
Answer: Art. 108.

13. The Legislative Council can be created or abolished under Art. ______ of the constitution?
Answer: Art. 169.

14.Art._____ provides for consolidated fund of India.
Answer: Art. 266.

15. The constitution under Art. ______ provides for the emergency funds of India.
Answer: Art. 267.

16.______ sanctions fund out of the contingency fund of India.
Answer: President of India.

17. The parliament consists of the Loksabha. The Rajyasabha and the _____.
Answer: President of India.

18. Odisha sends ____ members to Rajyasabha.
Answer: 10.

19. The maximum strength, of Loksabha, is ____.
Answer: 552.

20. The maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha is _____.
Answer: 250.

21._____ members from Odisha represent the Parliament.
Answer: 31.

22. The members of Rajya Sabha are ____ elected.
Answer: Indirectly.

23. The minimum age of a member of Lok Sabha is _____ years.
Answer: 25 years.

24. A member of the Rajya Sabha must be above _____ years of age.
Answer: 30.

25. One-third members of the Rajya Sabha retire every ____ years
Answer: Two.

26. Rajya Sabha can detain an ordinary bill for not more than ______.
Answer: Six months.

27. Money bills are introduced into the ______.
Answer: Lok Sabha.

28.No Money Bill can be introduced into the Parliament without ______.
Answer: Prior permission of the President.

29.The Lok Sabha represents ___SC and ___ST candidates.
Answer: 79 & 40.

30. ______ is the Presiding Officer of the Lok Sabha.
Answer: Speaker.

31. The Lok Sabha is summoned for at least a ____ year.
Answer: Twice.

32. The ______ casts his vote in case of a tie.
Answer: Speaker.

33. So far National Emergency has been declared in India for _____ times.
Answer: Three.

34. The Lok Sabha can be dissolved by the _____ on the advice, of the-Prime Minister.
Answer: President.

35. The _____ can initiate proposals for the removal of the Vice-President.
Answer: Rajya Sabha.

36.No confidence motion is introduced only in the ______ house of parliament.
Answer: Lower.

37. Indian Parliament is ______.
Answer: Bicameral.

38._____ is the federal chamber of the Union Parliament.
Answer: Rajya Sabha.

39. The last National Emergency in India is declared on the ground of ______.
Answer: Internal disturbance.

40.______ is the final authority to decide on the disqualification of a member.
Answer: Speaker.

41. The President nominates ______ members from the Anglo-Indian Community to the Lok Sabha if the said community has not been adequately represented in the House.
Answer: Two.

42. The Indian President exercises only _____ veto power.
Answer: Suspensive.

43. The Quorum of the Lok Sabha is ______ of the total membership.
Answer: One-tenth.

44._____ was the only Prime Minister of India who never faced the Parliament.
Answer: Charan Singh.

45._____ members of the Rajya Sabha are elected.
Answer: 238.

46. The Union Territories represent ______ members to the Upper House.
Answer: Six.

47. Proposals of the constitutional amendment are initiated by _______ house of parliament.
Answer:
Either.

48. Under Art _____the Rajya Sabha can pass a resolution and empower the Parliament to create or abolish All India Services.
Answer: 249.

49. A legislative proposal before final approval is known as _______.
Answer: Bill.

50. All money bills are _______ bills.
Answer: Public.

51. The President of India can not withhold assent to a ______bill.
Answer: Money.

52. There is a bicameral legislature in ______ states of India.
Answer: Five.

53. The state legislature in Orissa is ______.
Answer: Unicameral.

54. The second chamber of the State Legislature in India is known as _____.
Answer: Vidhan Parishad.

55. The Presiding officer of the state legislative council is known as ______.
Answer: Chairman.

56. A member of the Legislative Council must be above years of age.
Answer: 30.

57. The legislative Council can delay an ordinary bill for a maximum period of ______.
Answer: Four months.

58. A member of the State Legislative Assembly must be not less than _____ years of age.
Answer: 25.

59. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly determines the agenda in consultation with the ______.
Answer: Chief Minister.

60. The maximum strength of the Odisha Legislative Assembly is ______.
Answer:147.

61.Out of 147 members _____ seats have been reserved for the SC and ______seats for ST candidates.
Answer:23 and 34.

62. Provision for the creation of abolition of the Legislative Council has been mentioned under Art. ______ of the Constitution.
Answer:169.

63. The members of the State Legislative Council are ______ elected.
Answer: Indirectly.

64. The second chamber of the state legislature can retain money bills for ______ days.
Answer:14 days.

65._____ legislature is suitable for a small & poor country.
Answer: Unicameral.

66. The term of the Indian Parliament is ______.
Answer:5 years.

67. There are ______ Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe members in the Lok Sabha from Odisha.
Answer:3 and 5.

68. There ____ SC and _____ ST members in the Lok Sabha.
Answer:79 and 40.

69. The Speaker of Lok sabha gets a monthly salary of _____ rupees.
Answer:55,000.

70. Odisha Vidhansabha is _____ in structure.
Answer: Unicameral.

71. The second chamber of the state legislature is called ______.
Answer: Vidhan Parishad

72. A _______ legislature is useful for a federal state.
Answer: Bicameral.

73. Under Art. ______ the Rajya Sabha can recommend the creation of posts for All India Services.
Answer:312.

74. The Legislative Council should not have less than _____ members.
Answer:40.

75. Money bills are introduced into the Lok Sabha as per Art. ______.
Answer:109 .

76. Railway budget is being introduced separately from the year_______.
Answer:1925.

77. Art. ______ provides for a vote on Account.
Answer:116.

78.Art._____ of the constitution deals with state legislature.
Answer:168.

79. The minimum age required for membership in Vidhansabha is _____.
Answer:25 yrs.

80. Universal franchise is extended under Art. ______.
Answer: Art. 326.

81. Anybody contesting for membership in Lok Sabha has to deposit _______ rupees as a security deposit.
Answer:10,000.

82. Anybody contesting for a seat in the Vidhan Sabha has to deposit Rs. _______ as security.
Answer:5000.