CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 4 Deductive and Inductive Fallacies

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 4 Deductive and Inductive Fallacies Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 4 Question Answer Deductive and Inductive Fallacies

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What is the fallacy of illicit major?
Answer:
(i) When the major term is distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the major premise that is calledthe fallacy of illicit major.

(ii) Example :
A = All men are biped
E = No cows are men
E = No cows are biped

Question 2.
What is called the fallacy of illicit minor?
Answer:
(i) When the minor term is distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the minor premise then that is called the fallacy of illicit minor.

(b) Example :
E = No students are hones.
A = All honest being are harmless
∴ E = No harmless being are students

Question 3.
Fallacy of two negative premises.
Answer:
(i) The general syllogistic rule number (5) says that from two negative premises no conclusion follows.
(ii) But if we draw any conclusion out of two negative premises then we commit the fallacy of two negative premises.

Question 4.
Fallacy of two particular premises.
Answer:
(i) When we draw the conclusion out of two particular premises then at that time we commit the fallacy of two particular premises.

(ii) Example;
I = Some M is P
I = Some S is m
I = Some S is P

Question 5.
Fallacy of ambiguous major:
Answer:
(i) When the major term is used more than one sense in an argument that is called the fallacy of ambiguous major.

(ii) Example :
All crickets are insects No players like insect.
No players like cricket.

Question 6.
Fallacy of ambiguous minor :
Answer:
When the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument that is called the fallacy of ambiguous minor.

Question 7.
Fallacy of amphiboly.
Answer:
(i) The fallacy of amphibody arises due to the wrong construction of a sentence.
(ii) He was given twice two and three rupees. It may mean that he was given either seven or ten rupees.

Question 8.
Fallacy of Division.
Answer:
(i) When we pass from the collective use of term to its distributive use, that is called the fallacy of division.

(ii) Example; the students of this college are intelligent Rani is a student of this college.
∴ Rani is intelligent

Question 9.
What is the fallacy of composition ?
Answer:
(i) This fallacy arises, when we pass from the distributive use to a collective use of a term in our argument.

(ii) Example; Nine and one are odd numbers Ten is nine and one
∴ Ten is an odd number

Question 10.
What is a called the fallacy of accent?
Answer:
(i) When the emphasis is given on a particular word in a sentence at that time we commit the fallacy of accent.
(ii) Example : Thou shalt not insult thy parents.

Question 11.
Fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc.
Answer:

1. “Post hoc ergo propter hoc” literally means after this, therefore due to this.
2. It arises when we take any and every antecedent to be the cause.
3. Example; A crow sits on the palm tree and a palm falls down, so it is said that crow is the cause of the falling of the palm.

Question 12.
Fallacy of neglecting the negative condition.
Answer:
(i) When we take only positive conditions to be the cause and neglect the negative conditions then we commit this fallacy.

(ii) Example; Intelligence does not lead to success, as a large number of intelligent students are unemployed.

Question 13.
Fallacy of mistaking the co-effects of a cause and effect.
Answer:
(i) Cause is the antecedent and effect is the consequent. But if we take one of the coeffects of a common cause as the cause of its effect, we commit this fallacy.

(ii) Examples: Day invariably preceded night, so day is the cause of night.

Question 14.
Fallacy of undue assumption.
Answer:
(i) When we unduly assume a premise at that time we commit the fallacy of undue assumption.
(ii) Example; The people of America are wealthy, because they are industrious.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
Fallacy of Equivocation:
Answer:
The fallacy of equivocation arises due to the use of ambiguous terms in an argument. A syllogism has three terms – the middle, the major and the minor. This fallacy arises if either the middle term or the major term or the minor term is used ambiguously or in more than one sense in the same argument.

Question 2.
Fallacy of Ambiguous middle:
Answer:
When the middle term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time the fallacy arises, Which is called the fallacy of Ambiguous middle.
Example: Light is pleasant
(Light = opposite of darkness) His injury is pleasant.

Question 3.
Ambiguous major:
Answer:
When the major term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time we commit the fallacy of ambiguous major.
Example: No courageous creatures fly.
(Fly = run away)
Eagle is a courageous creature.
∴ Eagle does not fly.
(fly = move through air with wings)

Question 4.
Ambiguous Minor :
Answer:
When the minor term is ambiguous, or when the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument at that time the fallacy of Ambiguous minor arises.
Example :
No man in made of paper.
All pages are men.
∴ No pages are made of paper.

Here the minor term ‘pages’ is used in two different senses, in the minor premise ‘pages’ means boy servants’ and in the conclusion its means the leaf of a book.

Question 5.
Fallacy of composition:
Answer:
This fallacy arises when we pass from the distributive use to a collective use of a term. It means what is true of a member may not be true of a class.
Example:
Nine and one are odd numbers Ten is nine and ten.
∴ Ten is an odd numbers.

Question 6.
Fallacy of Division :
Answer:
When the we pass from the collective use of a term to its distributive us, we commit the fallacy of division. It means what is true of a class may not be true of its individual members.
Example :
The students of this college are intelligent. Mira is a student of this college. Mira is intelligent.

Question 7.
Fallacy of Accent :
Answer:
This fallacy arises que to the misplaced accent or emphasis on any expression in a sentence.
Example :
“Thou shaft not bear false witness against the neighbour”. One may be emphasis on against and interpret the sentence as meaning that if is of wrong to bear false witness in favour of a neighbour.

Question 8.
Fallacy of Accident :
Answer:
This fallacy arises due to the application of what is true under one circumstance in a case under different circumstances, so use commit this fallacy when we argue from a general rule to a special case.

Question 9.
Fallacy of Ambiboly or Amphibology.
Answer:
This is a kind of semilogical deductive fallacy, which arises due to the ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its wrong construction. Such a sentence is capable of being interpreted in at least different ways. He was given me twice two and three rupees.

Question 10.
Fallacy of figure of speech :
Answer:
This fallacy arises from the supposition that words similar in form are also similar in meaning.
Example:
Whatever people desire is desirable.
Happiness in desired by people.
∴ Happiness in desirable.
This fallacy is other wise called as the fallacy of paronymous term.

Question 11.
What is called False Analogy ?
Answer:
A false analogy in one where the points of similarity are less and unimportant, the points of difference are more and important, and the sphere of known points is narrow. Here the probability is of a very low degree.

Question 12.
Write the different classification of ignoratio elenchi.
Answer:
There are five different classifications of ignoratio ejenchi these are;

1. Argumentum ad hominem
2. Argumentum ad populum
3. Argumentum ad ignoratium
4. Argumentum ad vereeundium
5. Argumentum ad baculum

Question 13.
What is called the fallacy of Relevance?
Answer:
The fallacy of Relevance arises when one attempts to prove a conclusion by the premise that does not bear its truth to the conclusion. In this fallacy to tine exclusion. In this fallacy the premises are irrelevant to the conclusion.

Question 14.
What is the fallacy of Argumentum ad ignoratium?
Answer:
This is a fallaious ‘argument where we take the advantage of the opponent fails to disprove what we Rave said, we hold that our doctrine is correct. Here an attempt in made to silence an opponent by appealing to his ignorance and making him agree to what we say without convincing him.
Example : The existence of God is established as the opponent cannot disporve it.

Question 15.
State with example the fallacy of Argumentum ad hominem.
Answer:
When we direct our arguments to the opponent and not to the point at issue at that time we commit the fallacy of Argumentum ad hominem. For example; if some one asks us not to smoke be say that the speaker himself is a great smoker and he has no right to correct others.

Question 16.
State with example the fallacy of Argumentum ad baculum.
Answer:
When we cannot defeat the opponent by means of argument but put him the fallacy of argumentum ad baculum.
Example :
Whatever I say you admit that if is true and give me in working to the effect, otherwise I shall kill you by plunging this knife into your heart.

Question 17.
When we commit the fallacy of Argumentum ad verecundiam?
Answer:
When we take a statement to be proved or disproved by quoting the scriptures, or opinion of greatman or teacher without any reason then we commit the fallacy of argumentum ad vereeundium.
Example :
Non-violence in the best code of life because both lord Buddha ad Mahatma Gandhi have said so.

Question 18.
State with example the fallacy of Argumentum ad populaum.
Answer:
When an appeal to the passion and prejudice of the audience and not to their reason, we commit the fallacy of argumentum ad populaum.
Example:
You are a brahmin and so I am, therefore I have confident that you will realise my views to be correct.

Question 19.
Explain the fallacy of Non-Sequitur.
Answer:
Non-sequitur literally means it does not follow. If we inter the truth of the antecedent from the truth of the consequent or the falsity of the consequent from the falsity of the antecedent of a hypothetical proposition, we commit this fallacy.

Example :
It somebody is honest, he does not fear anybody.
He does not fear anybody.
∴ Therefore, he is honest.

Question 20.
Give with example the fallacy of Plaures interrogations.
Answer:
Plures interrogation literally means many questions. By this atleast two questions are combined and a plain answer – Yes or No is demanded.
Example:
Have you left thieving ? If you say ‘yes’ you were a their and if you say ‘No’ you are a their.

Question 21.
State with example the fallacy of Falsity of premise.
Answer:
When we argue from a premise which is itself false.
Example :
He must be suffering from a disease, since he went to the hospital. Here, we have assumed a premise; All who go to the hospital must be suffering from some disease.

Question 22.
State the fallacy of “petitio principii”.
Answer:
Literally the fallacy of “Petitio Principii” means assuming the same point which we want to prove. Mill commits this fallacy when he tries to prove induction with the help of the law of uniformity of Nature and also proves the law of uniformity of nature by induction.
Example:
India cannot prefer one religion to another, because if is a secular country, Meera is a matriculate because all her classmates are matriculates.

Question 23.
State the fallacy of presumption.
Answer:
The fallacy of presumption is the error which arises due to some false assumptions and hence fail to establish the truth of their conclusions. Overlooking of facts is one of the fallacy of presumption.

Question 24.
State the fallacy of distortion of facts.
Answer:
The fallacies of presumption that are due to the distortion of facts of the following kinds.

1. False analogy
2. False cause
3. Slippery slope
4. Irrelevant thetis

Question 25.
What is the fallacy of Red Herring?
Answer:
This fallacy arises when one brings irrelevant ideas into discussion as if they can add to the discussion and help it is arriving at the required result. For example, by bringing various theological ideas into a scientific discussion, one commits this fallacy.

Question 26.
What the fallacy of Strawman?
Answer:
The fallacy of strawman arises when one attacks an argument by taking its weaker form and then shows where it fails, assuming that the original argument is also defeated in the process.
Example :
We respect our teachers since we are told to respect them in the similar may our teachers respect their teachers. This is a long drawn process.

Question 27.
What is the fallacy of Argumentum ad misericordiam?
Answer:
Argumentum ad misericordiam means the argument that appeals to pity and in this argument, altruism and merry of the audience are the special emotions that are appealed to for getting a certain conclusion of accepted.
Example:
Madhu did not murder his children, please do not say that he is guilty since he is suffering for being childless.

Question 28.
State with example the fallacy of “Post hoc propter hoc”
Answer:
Literally the fallacy of “Post hoc ergo propter hoc” means “after this, therefore, due to this”. It arises when we take any and every antecedent to be the cause and it is otherwise called as crow-palm argument.

Example : A newly married bride came to her husbands house and her mother-in-law died, if we say that arrival of new married bride in the cause of the death of mother-in-law then we commit this fallacy.

Question 29.
Explain the fallacy of mistaking one condition for the whole cause.
Answer:
We know that cause is the sum total of all conditions, positive and negative taken together. If we take only one condition as the cause neglecting the other conditions, we commit this fallacy. Example; Madhu failed in the examination because his father was seriously ill prior to the examination.

Question 30.
Explain the fallacy of neglecting the negative condition.
Answer:
This fallacy arises when we take only positive conditions to be the cause and neglect the negative conditions.
Example:
Intelligence does not lead to success as a large number of intelligent students are unemployed.

Question 31.
Explain the fallacy of mistaking the coeffects of a causes as cause and effect.
Answer:
Cause is the antecedent and effect is the consequent. If we take one of the co-effects of a common cause as the cause of its effect, we commit this fallacy.

Example:
Day invariable precedes night. So day is the cause of night. In facts, day and Night are the Co-effects of the movement of the earth around its axis facing the Sun.

Question 32.
State and explain the fallacy of mistaking a remote condition to be the cause.
Answer:
A cause is an immediate antecedent of the effect. A remote condition is not unconditions and cannot be the cause of the recent event.
For example:
A habitual drunkard who worked hard in his young time has ill health now. Therefore, the cause of his ill health is hard Labour.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
State and explain different kinds of semilogical fallacies with examples.
Answer:
Semilogical fallacies arise due to the ambiguity in the meaning and use of term and proposition. There are seven types of semiological fallacies. Such as
(1) Fallacy of equivocation : A term cannot be used in more than one sense in the argument. But if it is so used then it in called an ambiguous term. This fallacy is divided into three way.

(i) Ambigous major : When the major term is used more than one sense in the same argument then at that time we commit the fallacy of ambiguous major.
Example:
All idtional animal, are men (human being)
All women are rational animal.
∴ All women are men (male human being)

(ii) Ambiguous minor : When the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument the we commit the fallacy of ambiguous minor.
Example:
No man is made of paper.
All page are men (boy servant)
∴ No pages are made of Paper cleaves of the book

(iii) Ambiguous middle : When the middle term is used more than one sense in an argument then we commit the above fallacy.
Example:
Well is a source of water.
His progress is well.
∴ His progress is a source of water.

(2) Fallacy of Division : When we proceed from the collective use of the term to its distributive use that is called the falacy of division.
Example:
The M.L.A. As of Odisha have passed this bill.
My uncle is an M.L.A. of Odisha.
∴ My uncle is passed this bill.

(3) Fallacy of composition : When we proceed from the distributive use of the term to its collective use then we commit the above fallacy.
Example:
Two and three are two number. Five is two and three. Five is two number.

(4) Fallacy of figure of speech : Paronymous terms : Two words may be derived from the same root, but may have very different meaning. But if we suppose that words similar in form have also similar cleaning the at that time we commit the above fallacy.
Example :
The stick on broken.
∴ The stick is broken.

Hari writes.
∴ Hari is a writer.

(5) Fallacy of accident : What is true under one circumstance may not be true under different circumstance. We commit the fallacy. When what is true under a specified circumstance is taken to be true under different circumstance. Then fallacy assumes two forms.

(i) Direct fallacy of accident: This fallacy arises when we agree from a general rule to a special case.
Example:
Water is liquid.
Ice is water.
∴ Ice is liquid.

(ii) The converse fallacy of accident: This fallacy arises when we agree from a special case to a general rule.
Example:
To plunge a knife into a man’s body is punishable.
The Surgeon while operating Plunges a knife into a man’s body.
∴ The surgeon does a punishable offence.

(6) Fallacy of Accent: This kind of fallacy arises when an emphasis is given on a particular word in a sentence, the meaning of the sentence changes.
Example:
Do not bear false witness against your neighbour. If you give emphasis on the neghbour, the expression means that you can bear false witness against others.

(7) Fallacy of Amphiboloy or Amphibology : This fallacy arises because of wrong construction of sentences. Suppose a sentence is used is one sense. But if we take it in a different sense then we commit the fallacy of Amphiboly or Amphibology.
Example:
He has given me twice five & three.
It means either he has given met thirteen or sixteen.

Question 2.
State and explain different fallacies of Ignoratio elenchi.
Answer:
(i) Argumentumad populam : It consists in appealing to the sentiment of the people & persuading them to accept the view of the speaker rather then giving an argument in support of this view.
Example:
You are a brahmin & So lam. Therefore, I am confident that you will realise my views to be correct.

(ii) Argumentumad baculum : It consists in forcing the opponent to accept a view when the cannot to be defeated by argument. Obviously this is not argument at all.
Example:
Whatever I say you admit that it is true & give me in writing to that effect, otherwise I shall kill you by plunging this knife into your heart.

(iii) Argumentum ad ignoratiam : It consist taking advantage of the ignorance of the opponent & since he cannot be disprpve our view, we make him admit that.it is proved.
Example:
We tell so embody that in his previous life, he’was a tiger. If grateman or scriptures in support of one’s view & this to take that the view is logically correct.

(iv) Argumentumad verecundiam : When we take a statement to be proved or disproved by quoting the scriptures or opinion of greatman without any reason then we commit the fallacy of Argumentum ad verecundiam.
Example:
Non-violence is the best code of life because both Lord Buddha and Mahatma Gandhi have said so.

(v) Argumentum ad hominem: It consists in criticising the conduct of the opponent rather than his view & concluding that the view is wrong.
Example:
If some one asks us not to smoke, because it is injurious no health. We just smile & say that the speaker himself is a great smoker & he has no right to correct others.

Question 3.
Test the following arguments :
(a) (i) Day is the cause of Night.
(ii) Ram is the Son of Dasaratha
Laba is the son of Ram.
∴ Laba is the son of Dasaratha.

(b) Explain, the fallacy of “Post hoc ergo Propter hoc”.
Answer:
(a) (i) Day in the cause of Night: We have known that cause is the antecedent and effect is the consequent. But if we take one of the co-effects of a common cause as the cause of its effect, then we commit the fallacy of mistaking the co-effects of a cause as cause and effect. It is true that Day invariably precedes night. But we cannot say that day in the cause of night. Day and night are only the two effects of the movement of the earth around its axis facing the sun.

(ii) Ram is the son of Dasaratha :
∴ Laba is the son of Ram.
∴ Laba is the son of Dasaratha.

This argument in a syllogism. It has four terms such as, (1) Ram, (2) The Son of Dasaratha, (3) Laba, (4) The Son of Ram. But according to Rule, a syllogism must have three and only three terms. So the above syllogism violates this rule and commits. The fallacy of four terms.

(b) Post hoc ergo propter hoc : The literal meaning of “Post hoc ergo Propter hoc’ is after this, therefore, due to this”. We commit this fallacy when we take an irrelevant antecedent phenomenon of the effect to be its cause. But cause must be the invariable unconditional immediate antecedent of the effect. For example, while starting a work somebody sneezed and the work could not be completed. So sneezing is the cause of incompletion of the work.

Question 4.
Find out the fallacies and the method of the argument in the following.
(a) So many people eat bread and all are in good health. Therefore bread must be a
healthy food.
(b) Explain the fallacy Argumentum ad baculum.
Answer:
(a) So many people eat bread and all are in good health. Therefore bread must be a healthy good. This argument in a fallacious argument and it in coming under fallacy of Non-observation. In this argument the fallacy of Non-observation arises because here we have drawn the conclusion by observing some cases. Here we take some particular cases and arrive at a hasty generalisation. It may be true that many people eat bread and all are in good health. But that does not mean bread must be a healthy good. Here we neglect other foods for the good health. Thus fallacy arises in case of the method of Agreement.

(b) Argumentum ad baculum : It consists in forcing the opponent to accept a view when he cannot be defeated by argument. Obviously this is no argument at all.
Example:
Whatever I say you admit that it is true and give me in writing to that effect, otherwise I shall kill you by plunging this knife into your heart”. The Leader of the Terrorist movement introduced himself and pointing a pistol at the of head of the rich man asked, ‘Don’t you think our movement in justified ? The reply was ‘yes’. Then let’s have a donation of one lakh from you well justified cause.

Question 5.
Explain and illustrate the distinction between fallacies of composition and division.
Answer:
Fallacies of composition and division are two types of logical errors that arise from making unwarranted assumptions about the relationship between parts and wholes. Understanding these fallacies is crucial for critical thinking and sound reasoning. Let’s delve into the distinction between fallacies of composition and division, along with illustrations to clarify each concept.

Fallacy of Composition : The fallacy of composition occurs when someone erroneously assumes that what is true for the parts of a whole must also be true for the whole itself. In other words, it involves incorrectly generalizing from properties of individual elements to properties of the entire group or system.,

Illustration : Consider a sports stadium with thousands of spectators. Each individual spectator has an unobstructed view of the game. A person commits the fallacy of composition if they assume that, because each spectator has an unobstructed view, the entire stadium must have an unobstructed view. In reality, the whole (stadium) might have structural elements like pillars or barriers that obstruct the view for some spectators.

Explanation : The fallacy of composition arises when one mistakenly infers a property of the whole based on the properties of its parts without considering the interactions or relationships among those parts. It is essential to recognize that the properties of individual components may not scale up to the entire system.

Fallacy of Division : Conversely, the fallacy of division occurs when someone wrongly assumes that what is true for the whole must also be true for its individual parts. This fallacy involves incorrectly attributing characteristics of the whole to its constituent elements.

Illustration : Consider an affluent country with a high average income. Committing the fallacy of division would involve assuming that*every individual in that country must have a high income, in reality, there could be significant income disparities among the population.

Explanation : The fallacy .of division arises when one incorrectly infers a property of the parts based on the properties of the whole. It disregards the diversity or differences among individual elements within the larger system.

Distinction between Fallacies of Composition and Division :

1. Direction of Inference :
   • Composition : Involves inferring from the parts to the whole.
   • Division : Involves inferring from the whole to the parts.
2. Assumption about Attributes :
   • Composition : Assumes that characteristics of the parts apply to the whole.
   • Division : Assumes that characteristics of the whole apply to the parts.
3. Example Focus :
   • Composition: Focuses on situations where properties of individual elements are incorrectly extended to the entire group or system.
   • Division; Focuses on situations where properties of the entire group or system are incorrectly attributed to its individual elements.

Further Illustrations :

1. Fallacy of Composition : Suppose a person observes that each member of a winning sports team is skilled and concludes that the entire team must be the best. This overlooks the fact that individual skill does not guarantee collective success, and other factors like teamwork and strategy contribute to overall team performance.
2. Fallacy of Division : Consider a company that is highly profitable as a whole. Assuming that each employee in the company must be Highly paid would be committing the fallacy of division. In reality, individual salaries may vary based on roles and responsibilities.

Real-world Applications :

1. Economics :
   • Composition : Assuming that if individuals save more money, the entire economy will experience economic growth.
   • Division : Assuming that if a country has a strong economy, every individual in that country must be economically prosperous.
2. Statistics:
   • Composition : Believing that if each student in a class studies hard, the entire class will perform well in exams.
   • Division : Assuming that if the overall performance of a school is excellent, every teacher in that school must be exceptional.
3. Environmental Science:
   • Composition: Believing that if each person reduces their carbon footprint, the overall environmental impact will decrease.
   • Division : Assuming that if a country has a high carbon footprint, every citizen in that country must contribute significantly to environmental degradation.

Mitigation Strategies :

1. Critical Thinking : Encourage individuals to critically evaluate assumptions and not make unwarranted generalizations about parts and wholes.
2. Consider Context : Emphasize the importance of considering the context and specific relationships among elements when making inferences about the whole or its parts.
3. Avoid Oversimplification: Caution against oversimplifying complex systems and highlight the need to acknowledge the diversity and interactions within those systems.

In conclusion, fallacies of composition and division involve making erroneous assumptions about the relationships between parts and wholes. While the fallacy of composition incorrectly extends properties of individual elements to the entire system, the fallacy of division wrongly attributes characteristics of the whole to its constituent parts. Recognizing and avoiding these fallacies is essential for sound reasoning and critical thinking in various domains.

Question 6.
Explain the different forms of the fallacy of presumption.
Answer:
The fallacy of presumption refers to a category of logical errors where an argument relies on unwarranted or false assumptions. Presumptive fallacies occur when an argument includes an assumption that is not adequately supported or justified. These fallacies Can manifest in various forms, each with its own characteristics and pitfalls. Let’s explore some different forms c the fallacy of presumption:

1. Begging the Question (Petitio Principii) : This form of presumption occurs when an argument assumes the truth of what it is supposed to prove, essentially circular reasoning. The proposition being argued for is already embedded within the premises.
Example:
“The Bible is the infallible word of God because God says so in the Bible.” In this case, the conclusion (the Bible is the infallible word of God) is restated in the premise (God says so in the Bible).

2. Complex Question (Loaded Question) : This fallacy arises when a question is framed in a way that presupposes a particular answer. It often involves multiple claims or assumptions within a single question.
Example:
“Have you stopped cheating on exams ?” This question assumes that the person being asked has cheated on exams without providing any evidence or justification.

3. False Dichotomy (False Dilemma) : This form of presumption occurs when an argument presents only two options, implying that one must be true if the other is false, without considering alternative possibilities.
Example:
“Either you support this policy or you are against progress.”
This statement creates a false dichotomy by suggesting that there are only two options when, in reality, there could be a range of positions between support and opposition.

4. Suppressed Evidence (Omission) : This fallacy occurs when relevant information that might weaken an argument is omitted or not disclosed. The argument relies on a selective presentation of evidence, leading to a misleading conclusion.
Example:
“The new drug is 90% effective in treating the disease!” If information about potential side effects or the size of the study population is omitted, the overall effectiveness of the drug may be misrepresented.

5. Presumption of Guilt (Ad Hominem Circumstantial) : This fallacy involves attacking the circumstances or background of a person rather than addressing the argument itself. It presumes that a person’s circumstances automatically invalidate their argument.
Example:
“You can’t trust their economic policy recommendations because they are wealthy and out of touch with common people.”
This argument attacks the person’s wealth instead of addressing the economic policy recommendations directly.

6. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum Ad Ignorantiam) : This fallacy occurs when an argument assumes that a claim is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa. Lack of evidence is misconstrued as evidence of the claim’s truth or falsity.
Example:
“There is no evidence that aliens exist, so they must not exist.”
This argument erroneously assumes that the absence of evidence equates to evidence of non-existence.

7. Circular Cause and Consequence (Circulus in Demonstrando): This fallacy involves asserting a cause-and-effect relationship where the cause is also a consequence of the effect.
Example:
“He failed the exam because he didn’t study, and he didn’t study because he knew he would fail.” This argument creates a circular reasoning loop by attributing the failure to the lack of studying, which, in turn, is attributed to the expectation of failure.

8. Hasty Generalization : Hasty generalization occurs when a conclusion is drawn from insufficient or biased evidence. It involves making broad generalizations based on a small or unrepresentative sample.
Example:
“I met two people from that city, and they were both rude. Therefore, people from that city must be rude.” This argument presumes the general behavior of an entire group based on a limited and unrepresentative sample.

9. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause): This fallacy asserts that because one event precedes another, it must be the cause of the second event. It confuses correlation with causation.
Example:
“I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game. Therefore, my lucky socks are the reason we won.” This argument presumesthat the wearing of lucky socks caused the team’s victory based solely on the temporal sequence.

10. Composition and Division : These fallacies involve assuming that what is true for the parts is also true for the whole (composition) or vice versa (division).

Example (Composition): “Each individual player is skilled, so the entire team must be unbeatable.”
Example (Division) : “The team won the championship, so every player on the team must be exceptionally talented.”

In composition, characteristics of individual elements are incorrectly extended to the whole, while in division, characteristics of the whole are incorrectly attributed to the individual elements.

Mitigation Strategies :

1. Critical Thinking: Encourage individuals to critically assess assumptions, question premises, and avoid accepting claims without sufficient evidence.
2. Consider Alternative Possibilities : Remind people to consider a range of possibilities and avoid framing arguments in overly simplistic terms or dichotomies.
3. Examine Evidence : Emphasize the importance of examining evidence thoroughly, considering all relevant information, and being aware of selective or biased presentations of data.
4. Awareness of Fallacies: Educate individuals about common fallacies, including presumptive fallacies, to enhance their ability to recognize and avoid them.

Understanding the various forms of the fallacy of presumption is essential for cultivating effective reasoning skills and avoiding logical pitfalls in arguments. By recognizing these patterns of flawed reasoning, individuals can engage in more robust and informed discussions, fostering a culture of critical thinking and logical rigor.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
“All flying animals are birds. Bats are flying animals. Therefore bats are birds.” It is a fallacy of:
(i) Falasity of premise
(ii) Argumentum ad populam
(iii) Petito Principii
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Falasity of premise

Question 2.
The end of life is perfection. Death is the end of life. Therefore Death is the prefection of life. It is fallacy of:
(i) Fallacy of Ambiguous major
(ii) Fallacy of Ambiguous minor
(iii) Fallacy of Ambiguous middle.
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Fallacy of Ambiguous middle.

Question 3.
The university is a temple of learning and therefore politics has no place in it. It is a fallacy of: university is a temple of learning and therefore politics has no place in it. It is a fallacy of:
(i) Fallacy of undue Assumption
(ii) Fallacy of petitioprincipli
(iii) Fallacy of Bad Analogy
(iv) Fallacy of Falsity of premise
Answer:
(iii) Fallacy of Bad Analogy

Question 4.
Lying is wrong because it is vicious in the fallacy of:
(i) Petitioprincipli
(ii) Fallacy of Bad Analogy
(iii) Fallacy of Falsity of premise
(iv) Fallacy of post he ergo propter hoc.
Answer:
(i) Petitioprincipii

Question 5.
How many fallacies are there in mixed hypothetical syllogism?
(i) Two
(ii) Three
(iii) Four
(iv) Five
Answer:
(i) Two

Question 6.
Fallacy is a / an :
(i) Erroneous argument
(ii) Error of thought
(iii) Wrong assumption
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Erroneous argument

Question 7.
Fallacies are:
(i) Formal in nature
(ii) Informal in nature
(iii) Either formal or informal
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Either formal or informal

Question 8.
Which of the following does not commit the fallacy of immediate inference?
(i) Simple conversion of A – type of proposition
(ii) Conversion of O-type of proposition.
(iii) Conversion of I-type of proposition.
(iv) Contraposition of I-type of proposition.
Answer:
(iii) Conversion of I-type of proposition.

Question 9.
Which of the following is not a fallacy of inference by opposition?
(i) Fallacy of sub-alternation
(ii) Fallacy of super-alternation
(iii) Fallacy of contrary opposition
(iv) Fallacy of subcontrary opposition
Answer:
(ii) Fallacy of super-alternation

Question 10.
Which of the following is not an informal fallacy?
(i) Fallacy of Relevance
(ii) Fallacy of presumption
(iii) Fallacy of ambiguity
(iv) Fallacy of undistributed middle
Answer:
(iv) Fallacy of undistributed middle

Question 11.
Which of the following is not a fallacy ambiguity?
(i) Fallacy of Equivocation
(ii) Fallacy of accident
(iii) Fallacy of accent
(iv) Fallacy of Amphiboly
Answer:
(ii) Fallacy of accident

Question 12.
The use of a term in two different senses a syllogism commits the fallacy of:
(i) Equivocation
(ii) Composition
(iii) Figure of speech
(iv) Accent
Answer:
(i) Equivocation

Question 13.
The fallacies of presumption arise due to
(i) Overlooking of facts
(ii) Evasion of facts
(iii) Distortion of facts
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 14.
Which of the following is not a fallacy presumption that arises due to the overlooking of facts?
(i) Petitio principii
(ii) Fallacy of accident
(iii) Fallacy of converse accident
(iv) Fallacy of false dilemman
Answer:
(i) Petitio principii

Question 15.
The fallacy that arises when one attacks and argument by taking its weaker form is called,
(i) Fallacy of slippery slope
(ii) Fallacy of false dilemma.
(iii) Fallacy of red herring
(iv) Fallacy of strawman
Answer:
(iv) Fallacy of strawman

Question 16.
Which of the following is not an inferential inductive fallacy?
(i) Fallacy of causation
(ii) Fallacy of illicit generalisation
(iii) Fallacy of false analogy
(iv) Fallacy of Hypothesis
Answer:
(iv) Fallacy of Hypothesis

Question 17.
The various fallacies of causation are the forms of:
(i) Post hoc ergo propter hoc
(ii) Non causa procausa
(iii) Both of these
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Non causa pro causa

Question 18.
Extralogical fallacies are also called as :
(i) Semilogical fallacies
(ii) Non-logical fallacies
(iii) Formal fallacies
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Non-logical fallacies

Question 19.
Who among the following has put forth that the fallacy of petitio porincipii may occur in five different forms?
(i) J.S.Mill
(ii) Jevons
(iii) Aristotle
(iv) Carveth Read
Answer:
(iii) Aristotle

Question 20.
The fallacy that arises due to ambiguity in framing a sentence is known as;
(i) Fallacy of equivocation
(ii) Fallacy of Amphiboly
(iii) Fallacy of Accent
(iv) Fallacy of figure of speech
Answer:
(ii) Fallacy of Amphiboly

Question 21.
The fallacy that arises when an argument is made besides the point is
(i) Petitio prineipii
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi
(iii) Non-sequitur
(iv) Plures interrogationes
Answer:
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi

Question 22.
The fallacy that arises when one makes the use of force to prove his point right is :
(i) Argumentum ad hominem
(ii) Argumentum ad populum
(iii) Argumentum ad verecundiam
(iv) Argumentum ad baculum.
Answer:
(iv) Argumentum ad baculum.

Question 23.
The fallacy that arises on assuming the same preposition that needs to be proved is :
(i) Ignoratio elenchi
(ii) Petitioprincipii
(iii) Plures interrogations
(iv) Non-sequitur
Answer:
(ii) Petitio principii

Question 24.
The question ‘Did you leave stealing’ ? Commits the fallacy of:
(i) Ignoratio elenchi
(ii) Non-sequitor
(iii) Plures interrogations
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Plures interrogations

Question 25.
Explanations by superstitions, blind, beliefs, etc commit the fallacy of:
(i) Argumentum ad poopulum
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi
(iii) Non-causa procausa
(iv) Illicit generalisation
Answer:
(iii) Non-causa procausa

Question 26.
Which of the following is not an Entralogical fallacy?
(i) Fallacy of converse accident
(ii) Ignoratio elenchi
(iii) Fallacy of false analogy
(iv) Non-causa procausa.
Answer:
(iii) Fallacy of false analogy

Question 27.
“We must have descended from Adam and Eve because Bible say so “is a fallacy of what?
(i) Argumentum ad balulum
(ii) Argumentum ad hominem
(iii) Petifioprincipii
(iv) Argumentum ad verecundiam
Answer:
(iv) Argumentum ad verecundiam

Question 28.
Water is liquid.
Ice is Water
Ice is Liquid
This argument commits the fallacy of what?
(i) Accident
(ii) Accent
(iii) PetitioPrincipii
(iv) Amphiboly
Answer:
(i) Accident

Question 29.
When from a collective use of a term we proceed to its distributive use, it is called the fallacy of what?
(i) Composition
(ii) Division
(iii) Accent
(iv) Accident
Answer:
(ii) Division

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
When facts or particulars which ought to have been observed are neglected the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Non-observation

Question 2.
The term fallacy comes from the Latin word _____.
Answer:
Fallacia

Question 3.
Deductive fallacies are of two kinds such as _____ and _____.
Answer:
Non-inferential, inferential

Question 4.
Inferential fallacies are of two types such as _____ and _____.
Answer:
Fallacy of immediate, fallacy of mediate

Question 5.
_____ fallacies are the errors which arise because of the ambigiuty of language.
Answer:
Semilogical

Question 6.
Semilogical fallacies are mainly divided into _____ types.
Answer:
Six

Question 7.
The fallacy of _____ arises due to the use of equivocal terms in argument.
Answer:
Equivocation

Question 8.
When the major term is used more than one senses in an argument then at that time _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Ambiguous major

Question 9.
When the minor term is used more than one senses in an argument then the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Ambiguous minor

Question 10.
When the middle term is used more than one senses in an argument then the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
ambiguous middle

Question 11.
When we proceed from the distributive use of a term to its collective use at that time we commit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Composition

Question 12.
When we proceed from the collective use of a term to its distributive use at that time the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Division

Question 13.
The fallacy of _____ arises from the supposition that words similar in form are also similar in meaning.
Answer:
Figure of speech

Question 14.
The fallacy of _____ arises due to the ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its construction.
Answer:
Amphiboly or amphibology

Question 15.
_____ fallacy is the result of placing emphasis at a wrong word in a sentence.
Answer:
Accent

Question 16.
_____ fallacy arises due to the application of what is true under one circumstance in a case under different circumstances.
Answer:
Accident

Question 17.
When we argue from a general rule to a special rule then _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Accident

Question 18.
‘Post hoc ergo propter hoc’ is a fallacy of _____.
Answer:
Causation

Question 19.
Literally, post hoc ergo propter hoc means _____.
Answer:
After this, therefore due to this

Question 20.
When we take one condition whether positive or negative to be the whole cause then _____fallacy arises.
Answer:
Mistaking a condition to be the cause.

Question 21.
The fallacy of _____literally means taking something to be the cause which is not really the cause.
Answer:
None causa procausa

Question 22.
When we generalise wrongly then _____fallacy arises.
Answer:
Illicit generalisation

Question 23.
‘Petitio prinipii’ means _____.
Answer:
Assuming the very point proposed for debate at the outset.

Question 24.
When we argue from a premise which is itself false then the fallacy of _____ arises.
Answer:
Falsity of premise

Question 25.
When we unduly assume a premise we commit _____fallacy.
Answer:
Undue assumption

Question 26.
The fallacy of _____ literally means ‘ignoring the point in question’.
Answer:
Ignoratio elenhi

Question 27.
Fallacy of _____ ignoratio elenchi is of types.
Answer:
Five

Question 28.
When we direct our arguments to the opponent and not to the point at issue we ommit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum and hominem

Question 29.
When we appeal to the passion and prejudice of the audience and not to their reason the _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Argumentum ad populum

Question 30.
When we make our conclusion taking advantage of the ignorance of the people then we ommit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum ad ignoratiam

Question 31.
When an appeal in made to the sentiment of reverene or veneration for authority rather than to reason then we commit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Agrumentum ad verecudiam

Question 32.
When we prove our point to be right by fighting if out then we commit _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum ad baculum

Question 33.
Non-sequitur literally means _____.
Answer:
It does not follow

Question 34.
_____ fallacy literally means many questions.
Answer:
Plures interrogationes

Question 35.
Have you left thieving? In the example of _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Plures interrogationes

Question 36.
“Niskam karma in the best action of life because Bhagabad Gita says so in the example of _____ fallacy.
Answer:
Argumentum ad verecundiam

Question 37.
An argument commits a _____ fallacy when its structure is not in accordance with the rules governing deductive logic.
Answer:
Formal

Question 38.
The fallacy of _____ occurs when the conclusion is drawn on the basis of superficial points of similarity between two things.
Answer:
False Analogy

Question 39.
The fallacy of _____ occurs when one attacks an argument by taking its weaker form.
Answer:
Strawman

Question 40.
The fallacy of Red Herring and the fallacy of strawman are the fallacies of _____.
Answer:
Irrelevant thesis

Question 41.
When a presumption arises due to the evasion of facts at that time _____ fallacy arises.
Answer:
Evasion of facts

Question 42.
_____ fallacy arises due to the application of double standards in the choice of words with an intension of evading certain tree facts.
Answer:
Special pleading

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Fallacies are formal.
Answer:
Fallacies are either formal or informal.

Question 2.
The fallacy of accent occurs when we assume that the words similar in form are similar in meaning.
Answer:
The fallacy of figure of speech occurs when we assume that the words similar inform are similar in meaning.

Question 3.
The fallacies of presumption are formal fallacies.
Answer:
The fallacies of presumption are informal fallacies.

Question 4.
The fallacies of relevance arise due to the ambiguous use of language.
Answer:
The fallacies of ambiguity arise due to the ambiguous use of language.

Question 5.
Fallacy of equivocation arises due to the use of different terms in argument.
Answer:
Fallacy of equivocation arises due to the use of equivocal terns in argument.

Question 6.
The fallacy of Division arises it use proceed from the distributive use of a term to its collective use.
Answer:
The fallacy of composition arises if we proceed from the distributive use of a term to its collective use.

Question 7.
The fallacy of Amphibology arises due to the misplaced accent or emphasis of any expression in a sentence.
Answer:
The fallacy of Amphibology arises due to the ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its construction.

Question 8.
The fallacy of Accident arises due to ambiguous meaning of a sentence because of its construction.
Answer:
The fallacy of Accident arises due to application of what is true under circumstance in a case under different circumstances.

Question 9.
Fallacy of Non causa procausa literally means we generalise something wrongly.
Answer:
Fallacy of Non causa procausa literally means taking something to be the cause which is not really the cause.

Question 10.
The fallacy of illicit generalisation committed when we unduly assume premise.
Answer:
The fallacy of illicit generalisation committed when we generalise wrongly.

Question 11.
The fallacy of Petitio Principii means “Afte this therefore due to this”.
Answer:
The fallacy of Petitio Principii means what we are going to prove is already proved.

Question 12.
The fallacy of Ignoratio elenchi means we argue from a Premise which is itself false.
Answer:
The fallacy of Ignoratio elenchi means “Ignoring the point in question”.

Question 13.
The fallacy of plures interrogations means it does not follow.
Answer:
The fallacy of Interrogations literally means many questions.

Question 14.
The fallacy of “Post hoc ergo propter hoc” means what we are going to prove is already proved.
Answer:
The fallacy of “post hoc ergo propter hoc” means After this, therefore, due to this.

Question 15.
Plato has putforth the extra logical fallacies.
Answer:
Aristotle has putforth the extralogical fallacies.

Question 16.
The fallacy of strawman occurs when one brings irrelevant ideas into discussion.
Answer:
The fallacy of Red Herring occurs when one brings irrelevant ideas into discussion.

Question 17.
Non causa procausa is a fallacy of illicit generalisation.
Answer:
Non causa pro-causa in a fallacy of causation.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
From which word the ‘fallacy’ is derived.
Answer:
Fallacia

Question 2.
Which fallacy arises, when the antecedent part of the major premise is denied in the minor premise?
Answer:
Denying the antecedent

Question 3.
Which fallacy arises, when the consequence part of the major premise is affirmed in the minor premise?
Answer:
Affirming the consequent

Question 4.
Which fallacy arises due to wrong construction of sentence?
Answer:
Semilogical

Question 5.
How many types of semilogical fallacies are there?
Answer:
Seven

Question 6.
Which fallacy arises due to the use of ambiguous terms in an argument?
Answer:
Equivocation

Question 7.
Which fallacy arises, when the middle term is used more than one sense?
Answer:
Ambiguous Middle

Question 8.
Which fallacy arises, when the major, term is used more than one sense in an argument?
Answer:
Ambiguous Major

Question 9.
Which fallacy arises, when the minor term is used more than one sense in an argument?
Answer:
Ambiguous Minor

Question 10.
Which fallacy arises, when we use the words similar in form with similar in meaning?
Answer:
Figure of speech

Question 11.
Which fallacy arises due to the misinterpretation of a sentence?
Answer:
Amphiboly or Amphibology

Question 12.
What type of fallacy arises, if we pass from the collective use of a term to its distributive use?
Answer:
Division

Question 13.
What type of fallacy arises, when we pass from the distributive use to a collective use of a term?
Answer:
Composition

Question 14.
When the emphasis is given on a wrong word in a sentence then which fallacy arises?
Answer:
Accent

Question 15.
Which fallacy we commit, when the confusion arises between the general and the special use of a term?
Answer:
Accident

Question 16.
How many kinds of informal fallacies are there?
Answer:
Three

Question 17.
Who has put forth the extra logical fallacies?
Answer:
Aristotle

Question 18.
Which fallacy, formal informal, occurs due to the improper structure of argument?
Answer:
Formal

Question 19.
In how many kind did Aristotle putforth the fallacy of petitio principii?
Answer:
Five

Question 20.
How many answers are desired in plures interrogations?
Answer:
One

Question 21.
Whether Non-sequitur is the fallacy of affirming the antecendent or consequent?
Answer:
Consequent

Question 22.
Which fallacy means, “it does not follow”?
Answer:
Non-sequitor

Question 23.
When we direct our arguments to the opponent but not to the point at issue, at that time which fallacy arises?
Answer:
Argumentum ad hominem