Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 8 Naya Theory of Knowledge Questions and Answers.
CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 8 Question Answer Naya Theory of Knowledge
Group – A
Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.
Question 1.
What is Vyapti?
Answer:
Vyapti is an unconditional and invariable relation of concomitance between the middle and the major terms. For example; we infer fire (Sadhya) in the hill (Paksa) by seeing smoke (hetu) in the hill (Paksa) and knowing the invariable relation of concomitance between smoke (hetu) and fire (Sadhya).
Question 2.
What Is called Samavyapti?
Answer:
Vyapti between two terms of equal extension called as Samavyapti. It holds on between two terms that are co-extensive and hence from one term we may infer the other.
Question 3.
What is called Asamavyapti?
Answer:
Vyapti between two terms of unequal extension is called as Asamavyapti or Visamavyapti. It is a non-equipollent concomitance between two terms in which from one of the terms, we may infer the other, but not vice versa.
Question 4.
What is purvavat inference?
Answer:
In an inference if we infer an unperceived effect from the perceived cause that is called purvavat inferene. Example – If we infer the future rain from the dark clouds in the sky that is called purvavat inference.
Question 5.
What is called Sasavat inference?
Answer:
When we infer the unperceived cause from the perceived effect that is called sesavat inference. Example- If we infer the past rain from the perception of the muddy streets is called sesavat inference.
Question 6.
What is called Samanyatodrasta?
Answer:
When we infer one thing from the other not because they are causally related but because they are found to be uniformly related in our experience that is called Samanyatodrsta. For. example; on seeing the different positions of the hour’s hand of a watch, we infer that it is moving even though the motion is not berceived by us.
II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :
Question 1.
What are the conditions on which Nyaya-inference is depend?
Answer:
Nyaya inference is based on two conditions. They are :
(i) Paksadharmata: Paksadharmata is the knowledge of the hetu in the Paksa.
(ii) Lingaparamarsa: Lingaparamarsa is the knowledge of the linga which is related to the Sadhya through the knowledge of Paksadharmata.
Question 2.
What is called Parathanuman inference?
Answer:
Parathanumana means making an inference for others. Here the argument is presented in a logical order. This argument consists of five constituent parts. It is Pachavayavi, Nyaya. These are; Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya, Nigamana.
Question 3.
Distinguish between Purvavat inference and Sasavat inference.
Answer:
(i) When we infer the unperceived effect from the perceived cause that is called purvavat inference.
Example:
When we infer the future rain from the perceived dark clouds in the sky is called Parvavat inference.
(ii) But when we infer the unperceived cause from the perceived effect that is called sesavat inference.
Example:
When we infer the past rain from the perception of the muddy streets is called sesavat inference.
Question 4.
Distinguish between Kevaihvayi and Kevaiavyatireki inference.
Answer:
(i) When the middle term is positively related with the major term that is called Kevalnvayi inference.
Example : Wherever there is smoke, there is fire. There is smoke in the hill. There is fire in the hill.
(ii) But when the middle term is negatively related with the major term that is called Kevalvyatireki inference.
Example : No non-fiery entities are smoky.
The hill is smokey.
∴ The hill is fiery
Question 5.
What is the fallacy of hetavabhasa?
Answer:
(i) When the middle term (hetu) appears to based on reason but actually it is not base don reason at that time we commit the fallacy of hetvabhasa.
(ii) There are five kinds of hetavabhasa. These are;
(1) Savyabhicara
(2) Virudha
(3) Satpratipakas
(4) Asidha
(5) Badhita
Group – B
Long Type Questions With Answers.
Question 1.
Explain Nyaya theory of perception.
Answer:
The sage Gotam is the founder of Nyaya school. Nyaya philosophy is atomistic pluralism andlogical realism. According to Nyaya, when mind subject comes in contact with objects at that time knowledge is possible. And that knowledge is called pramana. There are four pramanas these are –
(1) Perception
(2) Inference
(3) Comparison
(4) Testimony
Perception :
According to Gotam, “Perception is a non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of the sense organs with the object, which is not associated with a name and which is well defined.” But this definition of Gotam is too narrow, because it excludes the Yogic and divine perception where there is no contact between the sense organs and the object.
Hence Biswanath has defined perception as direct or immediate cognition which is not derived through the instrumentality of any other cognition. This definition of Biswanath includes both ordinary and extraordinary perception. According to him ordinary perception involves sense organs, objects, the self, the mind and their mutual contact.
Classification of Perception : Firstly perception is divided into two types, such as-
- Indeterminate perception (Nirvikalpa Pratyaksa)
- Determinate Perception (Savikalpa Pratyaksa)
These are not two different kinds but they are the two stages of the same perceptual knowledge. According to Gotam, perception is associated with a name and determinate perception is well defined. Indeterminate perception is the immediate apprehension or experience which is undifferentiated and non-relation. It is free from assimilation and discrimination, analysis and synthesis. But determinate perception is a mediate, differentiated relational mode of consciousness consists the result of assimilation and discrimination.
Secondly, perception is of two types, such as-
1. Ordinary and
2. Extraordinary perception.
(i) Ordinary Perception : When the sense organs come in contact with the object in the usual way that is called ordinary perception. Ordinary perception is a two types such as external ordinary perception and internal ordinary perception. External ordinary perception is of five types, such as visual, tactical, auditory, yastetory, olfactory. But internal ordinary perception is the feeling of pleasure, pain love, affection.
(ii) Extraordinary Perception : When the different sense organs come in contact with the object in an unusual way that is called extraordinary perception. It is of three types, such as :
(1) Perception of class or (Samanya laksana)
(2) Perception of complication (jnana laksana)
(3) Intuitive perception (Yogaja laksana)
(1) Samanya laksana : It is possible not in anusual way but in an unusual way. It is the perception of universals cannot be seen. It can be known only through particulars. For example : The universal conwness can be known through particular cows.
(2) Janana laksana : It is the complicated perception through association. It is called perception by complication because it is based on past experience. Here an object is not directly presented to sense organs but it is possible due to the memory of past cognition. For example : When we perceive a rose from distance and say that how fragrance it is ? Here the fragance of a rose has already been experienced by us in the past.
(iii) Yogaja laksana : It is the intuitive and immediate perception of all objects past, present and future possessed by theYogins. The Yogins immediately know the Nirvana, Kaivalya, self-knowledge.
Question 2.
What is Vyapti? Discuss the various kinds of Vyapti with examples.
Answer:
Vyapti is an unconditional and invariable relation of concomitance between the middle and the major term. It is considered to be the logical ground of inference. In an inference, the conclusion which expresses a relation between the major (Sadhya) and the minor (Paksa) terms depends on the previous knowledge of Vyapti. For example – we infer fire in the hill by seeing smoke in the hill.
The relation ofVyapti is universal and materially true. It many be either positive or negative. In its positive relation, the major term (Sadhya) is universally affirmed wherever there is the middle term (hetu). For example, wherever there is smoke, there is fire. In its negative relation, there is a universal denial between Sadhya and hetu. For example; No non-fiery things are smoky.
Again it is said that Vyapti is the relation between Vyapya and Vyapaka. Vyapti may be of the following two types such as (1) Samavyapti (2) Asamavyapti
(1) Samavyapti: Vyapti between two terms of equal extension is called as Samavyapti. It holds on between two terms that are co-extensive and hence from one term we may infer the other. For example; the terms knowable and ‘namable’ are co-extensive. Whatever is knowable is nameable and whatever is nameable is knowable.
(2) Asamavyapti: Vyapti between two terms of unequal extension is called as Asamavyapti or Visamavyapti. It is a rion-equipollent concomitance between two terms in which from one of the terms, we may infer the other, but not vice-versa. For example; fire and smoke have a relation of non-equipollent concomitance. This is because from smoke we may infer fire, but not vice-versa.
Question 3.
Explain the role of Vyapti in Nyaya inference.
Answer:
Out of three parts of the Nyaya inference, \yapti plays an important place. It is the invariable and concomitance relation between the middle and major term. Without Vyapti, no inference is possible the three components of inference are;
- The perception of the relation between the minor term (Paksa) and the middle term (Hetu).
- The knowledge of the invariable relation of concomitance between the middle term (Hetu) and the major term (Sadhya)
- The inference of the relation between the minor term (Paksa) and the major term (Sadhya).
Inference can be exemplified by clearly stating the above three components as under :
- The perception of smoke in the hill.
- Remembering the invariable relation of concomitance between smoke and fire.
- Inferring fire is the hill.
For the possibility of Nyaya inference, the following two conditions need to be fulfilled.
1. Paksadharmata : Paksadharmata is the knowledge of hetu in Paksa. This is an important conditions as, for the Naiyayikas, the inference starts with the recognition of a mark i. e. the perception of hetu in Paksa.
2. Lingaparamarsa: The knowledge of Vyapti and that of Paksadharmata lead to the second condition, namely, lingapara-marsa. Lingaparamarsa is the knowledge of linga or hetu or the middle term (smoke) as related to Sadhya or the major term (fire) and as characterised by the knowledge of Paksadharmata. After Lingaparamarsa, we infer Sadhya (fire) is Paksa (hill).
Question 4.
Discuss the Naiyayikas method of ascertaining Vyapti.
Answer:
According to Nyaya, Vyapti is established by an uncondictory experiences of the unconditional relation of concomitance between two entities. He also says that Vyapti is not based on any a priori principle but it is purely based a posteriori principle. For ascertaining Vyapti the Nyaya thinkers have gives the following six steps.
(a) Anvaya : Anavaya means agreement of presence : In this step we observe the relation of agreement is presence between two things. For example, whereever there is smoke, there is fire.
(b) Vyatireka : Vyatireka means agreement in absence. Here we observe a relation of agreement in absence between two things. For example; where there is no fire, there is no smoke.
(c) Vyabhicharagraha: It means without any contrary instance. Here we mark that there is no contrary instance Where one of the entities is present without the other. For example; there is no case of smoke without fire.
(d) Upadhinirasa: Upadhinirasa means without any condition. Even though there is no contrary instance against the relation of agreement in presence or absence, yet the relation cannot be considered as Vyapti, unless and until it is unconditional.
For example : The driver drives and the bus runs. If the say that there is a relation of invariable concomitance between driving and running if the bus, then it would be wrong.
(e) Tarka: Tarka means indirect proof. It is otherwise called as reduction ad absurdum in western logic.Though Vyapti is unconditional and invariable relation between two things, still some doubt arise. In order to prove this true Nyaya has given the following argument.
Let the preposition “All smoky entities are fiery” be false. So its contradictory “some smoke entities are not fiery” must be true. This implies that there are cases of smoke without fire. But this is wrong. There is no smoke without fire. So if is said that some smoky entities are not fiery is false and all smoke entities are fiery is true, (f) Samanyalaksana Pratyaksa: It means the perception of class concept. Here Nyayikas said that Vyapti is based on the perception of the common quality that is necessarily present in all particular cases. Example : The essence ‘horseness’ is present in all horses.
Question 5.
Discuss the nature of Nyaya inference. Compare if with the western syllogism.
Answer:
According to Nyaya, out of 4 kinds of sources of knowledge; inference orAnumana is one of the important valid source of knowledge. Anumana means the knowledge; which is possible after some other kinds of knowledge.
Example: The hill is fiery because it smokes and whatever smokes is fiery. Here we pass from the perception of smoke in the hill to the knowledge of fire in it. Here there is an invariable relation exists between smoke and fire. Nyaya inference and western logic are nearly the same but-the way in which they are expressed differs.
(1) In both, there are three terms minor term (Paksa), major term (sadhya), middle term (hetu)
(2) Both consisted of members. Aristotles syllogism is consisted of three members like major premise, minor premise and conclusion.
ButNyaya’s logic is consisted of 5 members like Pratijna, hetu, udaharana, upanaya, nigamana. If we reject the last two members or first two members of the Nyaya syllogism then it will be same with Aristotles syllogism.
Pratijna is the first member of the Nyaya Syllogism. It is the proposition that ends to be proved in the conclusion. Hetu gives the reason behind the argument. Udaharana shows the relation between the assertion made in the first proposition and the reason in the second proposition.
In the fourth step Upanaya, Vyapti is applied to the case under consideration and the last step is Nigamana. It is the result or conclusion. From the above it is’said that Nyaya syllogism is both formally valid and materially true.
Question 6.
Explain tht different classification of Nyay’s inference.
Answer:
Nyaya school has classified inference from three differetit Standpoints, They are :
(1) Use of inference
(2) Nature of vyapti
(3) Method of ascertaining Vyapti
(1) From the standpoint of the use, inference is classified into 2 types
(a) Svarthanumana : Svarthanumana is inference for oneself. It has three steps.
- The hill is smoky (that which is perceive)
- Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (Vyapti)
- The hill is fiery (conclusion)
(b) Parathanumana: Parthanumana is inference for others. It is consisted of five members like Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya and Nigamana.
(2) From the standpoint of the nature of Vyapti, inference is of three types.Type are :
(a) Purvavat inference : It is a form of inference in which we infer an unperceived effect from the perceived cause. Example – By observing the darkclouds if we infer the future rain then this is called purvavat inference.
(b) Sesavat inference : It is a form of inference in which we infer the unperceived cause from the perceived effect. Example – The inference of a past rain from the perception of the muddy streets is the sesavat inference.
(c) Samanyatodrsta : When we infer onething to another thing only the basis of co-existence that is called Samanya todrsta. Example- On seeing the different positions of the hours hand of a watch, we infer that it is moving even though the motion is not perceived by us.
(3) From the stand point of the method of ascertaining vyapti, inference is of three types.
(a) Kevalanvayi: When the middle term is related with the major term positively that is called kevalanvayi inference.
Example = wherever there is smoke, there is fire.
There is smoke in the hill.
There is fire in the hill.
(b) Kevalavyatireki: When the middle term is related with the major term negatively that is called Kevalvyatireki inference.
Example : No Non-fiery entities are smoky.
The hill is smoky.
∴ The hill is fiery.
(c) Anvayavyatireki: When the middle term is related with the major term both positively that is called Anvayavyatireki inference.
The above two examples of Kevalanvayi and Kevalvyatireki are coming under the Anvayavyatireki inference.
Question 7.
What is the procedure of inference in Nyaya system?
Answer:
The Nyaya system, one of the classical Indian schools of philosophy, has a well- defined procedure of inference known as Anumana. In Nyaya, inference is considered a valid means of knowledge (Pramana), alongside perception (Pratyaksha) and verbal testimony (Sabda). Anumana plays a crucial role in the Nyaya epistemological framework, providing a systematic method for drawing conclusions or acquiring knowledge about the unpefceived or imperceptible.
Procedure of Inference (Anumana) in Nyaya:
1. Pratijna (Proposition): The inference process begins with the enunciation of a proposition or statement. This proposition serves as the basis for the subsequent inference. The Pratijna is the initial claim that the reasoner intends to establish. Example: “The mountain has fire.”
2. Hetu (Reason) : The Hetu is the reason or middle term that connects the subject of the proposition with the predicate. It is the logical ground or evidence that supports the Pratijna. Example: “Because there is smoke on the mountain.”
3. Udaharana (Example/Illustration) : The Udaharana provides an example or illustration of the connection between the reason (Hetu) and the proposition (Pratijna). It demonstrates instances where the presence of the Hetu is invariably associated with the presence of the Pratijna. Example: “In the kitchen, where there is smoke (Hetu), there is fire (Pratijna).”
4. Upanaya (Application) : Upanaya involves the application of the example to the subject of the proposition. It highlights the parallel between the example (Udaharana) and the subject of the inference, emphasizing the universal connection between the reason and the proposition. Example: “Similarly, on the mountain where there is smoke (Hetu), there is fire (Pratijna).”
5. Nigamana (Conclusion) : The Nigamana is the conclusive statement that affirms the Pratijna based on the provided reasons. It summarizes the inference drawn from the presented evidence. Example: “Therefore, the mountain has fire.”
6. Vyapti (Universal Concomitance) : Vyapti is the principle of universal concomitance, asserting that wherever the Hetu is present, the Pratijna will also be present. Vyapti establishes an invariable connection between the reason and the proposition. Example : “Wherever there is smoke, there is fire.”
7. Tarka (Criticisms and Counterarguments) : The Nyaya system recognizes the importance of critical examination and anticipates potential objections or counterarguments. Tarka involves considering alternative explanations or challenges to the inference and responding to them.
8. Siddhanta (Established Conclusion) : Siddhanta represents the final, established conclusion that results from a sound and valid inference. A Siddhanta is accepted when the inference satisfies all the necessary conditions, including the presence of the Hetu in the subject.
Conditions for a Valid Inference (Hetvabhasa) :
The Nyaya system emphasizes the importance of avoiding fallacies or incorrect inferences known as Hetvabhasa. A valid inference must satisfy the following conditions :
- Sadhya (Probandum) : The Pratijna or the proposition must be something to be proved or established. It is the subject of the inference.
- Hetu (Reason) : The Hetu or the middle term must be present wherever the Pratijna is present and absent wherever the Pratijna is absent. This is known as Vyapti.
- Vyapti (Universal Concomitance) : There must be a universal concomitance between the reason (Hetu) and the proposition (Pratijna). This means that the presence of the Hetu is always associated with the presence of the Pratijna.
- Asamavayi (Non-coexistence of the Reason with the Opposite of the Proposition) : The Hetu should not be present where the opposite of the Pratijna is present. In other words, the Hetu should not be found in instances where the Pratijna is absent.
- Savvyabhicara (Non-deviation): The Hetu must not undergo any variations or exceptions. It should consistently exhibit a uniform relationship with the Pratijna.
Example of Nyaya Inference : Let’s consider an example:
- Pratijna (Proposition) : “The pot is hot.”
- Hetu (Reason) : “Because it has smoke.”
- Udaharana (Example/Illustration) : “In the kitchen, where there is smoke, there is fire.”
- Upanaya (Application) : “Similarly, in the pot where there is smoke, there is heat.”
- Nigamana (Conclusion) : “Therefore, the pot is hot.”
- Vyapti (Universal Concomitance) : “Wherever there is smoke, there is fire.”
In this example, the presence of smoke (Hetu) is invariably associated with the presence of fire (Pratijna) based on the example provided. The inference is valid when the conditions of Hetvabhasa are met, ensuring a logical and sound connection between the reason and the proposition.
Conclusion :
The Nyaya system’s procedure of inference, Anumana, is a systematic and rigorous method that follows a structured sequence of steps to establish knowledge about unperceived or imperceptible phenomena. Through careful analysis, logical reasoning, and the avoidance of fallacies, Nyaya inference contributes to the epistemological foundation of this classical Indian philosophical tradition. The adherence to conditions such as Vyapti ensures the reliability and validity of inferences drawn within the Nyaya framework.
Question 8.
Compare the Nyaya theory of inference with that of the Western method.
Answer:
The Nyaya theory of inference, as part of classical Indian philosophy, shares some similarities with Western methods of inference, particularly within the broader context of logical reasoning. However, there are notable differences in terms of foundational principles, epistemological frameworks, and the treatment of specific aspects of inference. A comparison between the Nyaya theory of inference and the Western method highlights both shared elements and distinct philosophical approaches.
Nyaya Theory of Inference :
1. Epistemological Context : Nyaya is one of the classical Indian schools of philosophy that places a strong emphasis on epistemology (theory of knowledge). In Nyaya, inference (Anumana) is considered a valid means of knowledge (Pramana), alongside perception (Pratyaksha) and verbal testimony (Sabda).
2. Components of Inference : Nyaya’s inference involves specific components, including Pratijna (proposition), Hetu (reason), Udaharana (example/illustration), Upanaya (application), Nigamana (conclusion), Vyapti (universal concomitance), Tarka (criticisms), and Siddhanta (established conclusion).
3. Conditions for Valid Inference (Hetvabhasa) : Nyaya emphasizes the importance of avoiding fallacies or incorrect inferences known as Hetvabhasa. A valid inference must satisfy conditions such as Sadhya (probandum), Hetu (reason), Vyapti (universal concomitance), Asamavayi (non-coexistence), and Sawyabhicara (non-deviation).
4. Inferential Knowledge (Anumiti) : Nyaya distinguishes between direct perception (Pratyaksha) and inferential knowledge (Anumiti). While direct perception involves immediate awareness of an object, inferential knowledge is derived through reasoning based on observed evidence.
Western Method of Inference :
1. Philosophical Traditions : Western philosophy encompasses a variety of traditions, including ancient Greek, medieval, modem, and contemporary philosophy. Within these traditions, various approaches to inference- and reasoning have been developed.
2. Epistemological Context: Western philosophy has explored epistemology extensively, with thinker’s like Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, and Hume contributing to discussions on the nature and sources of knowledge. Unlike Nyaya, Western philosophy may not explicitly categorize inference as a separate means of knowledge.
3. Logical Reasoning : Western methods of inference often rely on principles of formal and informal logic. Deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, and abductive reasoning are fundamental to Western philosophical traditions. Logical systems, such as propositional and predicate logic, are extensively used.
4. Scientific Method : The Western method of inference has been heavily influenced by the development of the scientific method. Scientific inference involves systematic observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and the drawing of conclusions based cm empirical evidence. This method is widely employed in natural and social sciences.
5. Empirical Emphasis: While Nyaya acknowledges the importance of empirical evidence, the Western method, especially in the scientific context, places a strong emphasis on empirical observation and experimentation. Empirical validation is a central criterion for establishing the validity of inferences.
Shared Elements :
1. Logical Reasoning : Both the Nyaya theory of inference and Western methods involve logical reasoning. They emphasize the importance of valid and sound inference, ensuring that conclusions are drawn based on logical principles.
2. Critique and Counterarguments : Both traditions recognize the importance of critique and counterarguments. In Nyaya, Tarka involves considering alternative explanations or challenges to the inference and responding to them. Similarly, Western philosophical traditions engage in critical analysis and dialectical reasoning.
3. Concern for Fallacies : Both’Nyaya and Western philosophical traditions are concerned with avoiding fallacies in reasoning. Whether labeled as Hetvabhasa in Nyaya or recognized as logical fallacies in Western philosophy, there is a shared commitment to identifying and rectifying incorrect inferences.
Distinct Elements :
1. Cultural and Historical Context: Nyaya arises within the context of classical Indian philosophy, which is influenced by its own cultural and linguistic traditions. Western methods of inference emerge within diverse cultural, linguistic, and historical contexts, resulting in differences in philosophical approaches.
2. Epistemological Emphasis : Nyaya places a specific emphasis on delineating different means of knowledge, including inference, perception, and testimony. In Western philosophy, while epistemology is a central concern, there may not be the same explicit categorization of various pramanas or means of knowledge.
3. Formal Logic vs. Empirical Validation : While both traditions engage in logical reasoning, the Western method, especially in the scientific context, places a greater emphasis on empirical validation. The scientific method, rooted in Western philosophical traditions, involves systematic observation and experimentation to test hypotheses and draw conclusions based on empirical evidence.
Conclusion :
The Nyaya theory of inference and Western methods share a common commitment to logical reasoning, critique, and the avoidance of fallacies. However, they diverge in terms of their epistemological foundations, cultural contexts, and the degree of emphasis on empirical validation. Nyaya’s explicit categorization of inference as a means of knowledge, along with its detailed components and conditions, reflects its unique contribution to the broader landscape of philosophical inquiry.
On the other hand, Western methods, shaped by diverse philosophical traditions, place a strong emphasis on formal and empirical reasoning, particularly within the scientific domain. A comparative analysis illuminates both the shared principles and the distinctive characteristics of these two philosophical approaches to inference.
Group – C
Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :
Question 1.
For Nyaya school knowledge is
(i) Cognition of objects
(ii) Apprehension of objects
(iii) Consciousness of objects
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these
Question 2.
A vlid presentative knowledge is called –
(i) Prama
(ii) Aprama
(iii) Pramana
(iv) Pratyaksa
Answer:
(i) Prama
Question 3.
Nyana theory of knowledge is –
(i) Realistic
(ii) Pragmatic
(iii) Both realistic and pragmatic
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Both realistic and pragmatic
Question 4.
How many kinds of external perception do we have?
(i) Three
(ii) Four
(iii) Five
(iv) Six
Answer:
(iii) Five
Question 5.
Which of the following constitutes Laukika Pratyaksa?
(i) Nirvikalpa Pratyaksa
(ii) Savikalpa Pratyaksa
(iii) Pratyabhijna
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these
Question 6.
Which of the following is the first stage of perception?
(i) Nirvikalpa
(ii) Savikalpa
(iii) Pratyabhijna
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Nirvikalpa
Question 7.
Which of the following is not Alaukika Pratyaksa?
(i) Samanyalaksana
(ii) Jnana Laksana
(iii) Yogaja Laksana
(iv) Pratyabhijna
Answer:
(iv) Pratyabhijna
Question 8.
The perception of class essence is
(i) Samanya Laksana
(ii) Jnana Laksana
(iii) Yogaja Laksana
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Samanya Laksana
Question 9.
The perception due to the contact of the mind with the psychological states, emotions, feelings etc. is –
(i) External perception
(ii) Internal perception
(iii) Visual perception
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) C
Question 10.
Perception by the sense-organs in the usual way is called
(i) Ordinary perception
(ii) Yogaja perception
(iii) Samanya Laksaria perception
(iv) Jnana Laksana Perception
Answer:
(i) Ordinary perception
Question 11.
The relation of Vypti is
(i) Only positive
(ii) Only negative
(iii) Either positive or negative
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Either positive or negative
Question 12.
Vyapti is an unconditional, invariable relation between the
(i) Middle and major term
(ii) Major and minor term
(iii) Middle and minor tenTh
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(I) Middle and major term
Question 13.
Hetu corresponds to the
(i) Major
(ii) Minor term
(iii) Middle term
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Middle term
Question 14.
Panchakarani is the member of
(i) Naiyikas
(ii) Buddhists
(iii) Vedantins
(iv) None ‘of’ these
Answer:
(ii) Buddhists
Question 15.
All kins of hetvabhasa are:
(i) Formal fa11acie
(ii) Informal fallacies
(iii) Both formal and informal
(iv) Material fallacies
Answer:
(iv) Material fallacies
Question 16.
Paksadharmata is what kind of ground of inference?
(i) Causal
(ii) Logical
(iii) Psychological
(iv) Inferential
Answer:
(iii) Psychological
Question 17.
Whereever there is smoke, there is fire, is an example of?
(i) Vyatiriki
(ii) Anvya
(iii) Tarka
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Anvya
Question 18.
Which one of the following is not a member of Nayaya Syllogism?
(i) Upanaya
(ii) Pratijina
(iii) Hetu
(iv) Paksa
Answer:
(iv) Paksa
II. Fill in the blanks :
Question 1.
Nyaya is a system of logical _______.
Answer:
Realism
Question 2.
_______ Perception is called the intuitive and immediate perception of all objects of past, present and future.
Answer:
Yogaja
Question 3.
Any invalid presentative knowledge is called as _______ .
Answer:
Aprama
Question 4.
Perception is a _______ source of knowledge.
Answer:
Perception
Question 5.
Savikalpa Pratyaksa is _______ perception.
Answer:
Determinate
Question 6.
There are _______ kinds of Alaukika Pratyaksa.
Answer:
Three
Question 7.
There are _______ distinctions or modes of Laukika Pratyaksa.
Answer:
Three
Question 8.
_______ is cognition of object as something cognised earlier.
Answer:
Pratyabhijina
Question 9.
The intuitive perception of objects through one’s meditative powers is _______ .
Answer:
Yogaja Pratyaksa
Question 10.
The usual contact of the senses with their respective objects is _______ .
Answer:
Pratyaksa
Question 11.
The perception of ‘Cowness’ in perceiving a cow is _______ Pratyaksa.
Answer:
Samanya Laksana
Question 12.
For the Nyaya School of thought, the most important source of knowledge is _______ .
Answer:
Inference
Question 13.
The western syllogism involves _______ number of proposition.
Answer:
Three
Question 14.
Inference is an _______ source of knowledge.
Answer:
Indirect
Question 15.
In inference we pass from the seen to _______ .
Answer:
Unseen
Question 16.
Anumana in English as _______ .
Answer:
Inference
Question 17.
_______ is the knowledge that follows from some other knowledge.
Answer:
Inference
Question 18.
Nyaya Syllogism involves _______ number of propositions.
Answer:
Five
Question 19.
Nyaya inference involves _______ number of terms.
Answer:
Three
Question 20.
From the standpoint of purpose, Nyaya inference may be either _______ or _______ .
Answer:
Svarthanumana, Parethanumana
Question 21.
The inference for oneself is called _______ .
Answer:
Svarthanumana
Question 22.
There exists an invariable relations of concommittance between smoke and _______ .
Answer:
Fire
Question 23.
_______ is the relation of pervasion.
Answer:
Vyapti
Question 24.
Vyapti is of two types, namely _______ and _______ .
Answer:
Samavyapti, Asamavyapti
Question 25.
In ______ inference, on perceiving the antecedent cause, we infer the consequent effect.
Answer:
Purvavant
Question 26.
In _______ inference, on perceiving the consequent effect, we infer the antecedent cause.
Answer:
Sesavat
Question 27.
In inference, Vyapti doesnot depend on the _______ casual link but depends on co-existence.
Answer:
Samanatodrasta
Question 28.
In kevalanvayi inference, vyapti is based on the _______ instances of the relation of concommittance between the middle and the major term.
Question 29.
In Kevalavyatireki inference, Vyipti is based on the instances on the _______ relation of concommittance between the middle and the major term.
Answer:
Negative.
Question 30.
In _______ inference, Vyapti is based on both the positive and negative instances of the relation of concommittance between the middle and the major term.
Answer:
Anvayavyatireki.
Question 31.
There are _______ steps in scientific method.
Answer:
Five
Question 32.
There are _______ terms in Nyaya inference.
Answer:
Three
Question 33.
There are _______ kinds of inference from the stand point of purpose.
Answer:
Two
Question 34.
Paksa corresponds to _______ term.
Answer:
Minor
Question 35.
Sadhya corresponds to _______ term.
Answer:
Major
Question 36.
The conclusion of Nyaya inference is called _______ .
Answer:
Nigamana .
Question 37.
A Vyapti between two terms of equal extension is called _______ .
Answer:
Samavyapti
Question 38.
Inference is an _______.
Answer:
Indirect
Question 39.
Nyaya inference involves _______ kinds of propositions.
Answer:
Five
Question 40.
In Nyaya inference the minor term is called _______ .
Answer:
Paksa
Question 41.
In Nyaya inference, the major terms is called _______ .
Answer:
Sadhya
III. Correct the Sentences :
Question 1.
Prama is the wrong cognition of objects.
Answer:
Prama is the right congnition of objects.
Question 2.
Perception is a false cognition
Answer:
Perception is a right cognition
Question 3.
Perception is indeterminate
Answer:
Perception is determinate.
Question 4.
A clear-cut perception of objects with their characteristics is Nirvikalpa Pratyaksa.
Answer:
A clear-cut perception of objects with their chracteristics is savikalpa pratyaksa.
Question 5.
Perception may be mediate and indirect.
Answer:
Perception is always immediate and direct.
Question 6.
The relation of vyapti holds on between the middle and minor terms.
Answer:
The relation of vyapti holds on between the middle and major terms
Question 7.
Hetu is the major term
Answer:
Hetu is the middle term.
Question 8.
The relation of vyapti is formally true
Answer:
The relation of vyapti is materially true
Question 9.
Vyapti is apriori
Answer:
Vyapti is aposteriori
Question 10.
The Nyaya procedure for assertaining vyapti consists of five steps.
Answer:
The Nyaya procedure for assertaining vyapti consists of six steps.
Question 11.
Upadhinirasa means without any contrary instance.
Answer:
Upadhinirasa means without condition.
Question 12.
Vyapti is the unconditional invariable concomitance between two syllogism.
Answer:
Vyapti is the unconditional invariable concomitance between two events.
Question 13.
Paksadharmata is the knowledge of Tarka in the Paksa.
Answer:
Paksadharmata is the knowledge of hetu in Paksa.
Question 14.
Tarka means direct proof.
Answer:
Tarka means indirect proof.
Question 15.
Hentu is also called Paksa.
Answer:
Hetu is also called Linga Vyapti is a particular relation.
Answer:
Vyapti is a universal relation.
Question 16.
Vyapti is only formally true.
Answer:
Vyapti is both formally and materially true.
Question 17.
The relation of Vyapti holds on between the middle and the minor terms.
Answer:
The relation of Vyapti holds on between the middle and the major terms.
Question 18.
Hetu is the major term.
Answer:
Hetu is the middle term.
Question 19.
Vyapti is a priori.
Answer:
Vyapti is a posteriori.
Question 20.
Nyaya syllogism is consisted of three memers.
Answer:
Nyaya syllogism is consisted of five members
IV. Answer the following questions in one word :
Question 1.
Is perception direct or indirect knowledge.
Answer:
Direct.
Question 2.
Is inference direct or indirect knowledge,
Answer:
Indirect.
Question 3.
What is perception by association with some past cognition called?
Answer:
Jnanalaksana
Question 4.
What is the usual contact of the senses with their objects called?
Answer:
Laukika Pratyaksa
Question 5.
What is Vyapti between two terms of equal extension called?
Answer:
Samavyapti
Question 6.
Whether vyapti is conditional or unconditional?
Answer:
Unconditional
Question 7.
What is perceived in Samanya Laksana Pratyaksa?
Answer:
Class essence.
Question 8.
Name the Nyaya inference that corresponds to nulls method of agreement.
Answer:
Kevalanvayi
Question 9.
Name the Nyaya inferene in which the middle term is both positively and negatively related with the major term.
Answer:
Anvyavyatireki
Question 10.
How many kinds of Hetvabhasado we have?
Answer:
Five
Question 11.
Name the fallacy of non = inferenctially contradicted middle.
Answer:
Badhita
Question 12.
Who is the founder of Nyaya school?
Answer:
Gautama
Question 13.
How many kinds of ordinary perception are there?
Answer:
Two
Question 14.
Name the fallacy of unproved middle.
Answer:
Asidha
Question 15.
Name the Nyaya inference in which no contrary instance is found.
Answer:
Kevalavyatireki
Question 16.
What is the unconditional, invariable relation between two events called?
Answer:
Vyapti
Question 17.
To which term hetu corresponds in Aristotelean syllogism?
Answer:
Middle
Question 18.
What is Vyapti between two terms of equal extension called?
Answer:
Samavyapti
Question 19.
If what is Vyapti the logical ground?
Answer:
Anumana
Question 20.
Whether Vyapti is conditional or unconditional?
Answer:
Unconditional
Question 21.
What is the inference for one self called?
Answer:
Svarthanumana
Question 22.
What is the inference for others called?
Answer:
Parathaumana
Question 23.
How many kinds of Hetvabhasa do we have?
Answer:
Five.