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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 2 Learning and Motivation Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Foundations of Education Unit 2 Learning and Motivation Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1:
What is learning? What is  learning process? Give the definition of learning and its nature.
Answer:
Learning is not confined to the four walls of classroom. Learning as life long process continues till death. In broader sense learning is the modification of behaviour and as a result of experience learning is the process by which the individual responses to his environment. Learning is also adjustment.

According to Gates: ‘Learning is the modification of behaviour with experience and training’.
To Skinner: ‘Learning is the modification of behaviour adaptation’.
In the sense, learning is the modification of behaviour which involves some changes of behaviour in a desirable direction and the behaviour enables to adjust to the environment. So the process of change that takes place during learning is called learning process.Any situation that brings about desirable change in behaviour is called learning materials.

Definition of Learning
To Kingsley: “Learning is a process which an organism is motivated and adapts to the new situation to modify the behaviour to over come all the obstacles”.
To Gates: “Learning is the modification of behaviour of the individual interaction with its environment”.
To Murphy: “Learning is the change in behaviour and the way of perceiving”.
To Cronback: “Learning is the change in behaviour as a result of experience”.

Nature of Learning
Man tames and trains the animals. In a circus party wild animals like tiger, elephant, bear etc. act according to the direction of ring master and show tricks. Pigeon is trained to carry letter from place to place.
The trained dog can identify a thief and the Chimpanzee can be trained from boyhood and can live with human beings, clean the dress, polish and clean the furniture, clean the room and sharpen the pencil. By training the animals enable to dance and play with the man.Learning also affects one’s life style. It modifies one behaviour, helps in reaching a goal, creates interest to know new things, learning experiences us and brings differences in activities. From this discussion the nature of learning are as follows:

• Learning is a continuous process.
• Learning affects the modes of behaviour.
• Learning is a change in behaviour.
• Learning is active.
• Learning is creative.
• Learning is purposive or purposeful.
• Learning is transferable.
• Learning is training.
• Learning is adjustment to changing situations.

Question 2:
Give the classification of learning. What are the main factors that influence learning? Explain.
Answer:
Learning broadly classified into two categories such as :
i) Logical learning.
ii) Rote learning.

i) Logical Learning: Logical learning involves clear understanding. The individual is able to apply such learning in different situation meaningfully and correctly. Logical lean hug is more significant that rote learning. It is Hilly psychological because the learner enjoys this and gets satisfaction. There is discussion in the classroom and the use of aids. The subject matter is very clearly understandable and meaningful to the people.

ii) Rote Learning: Rote learning or cramming involves mechanical memorisation of the subject matter. The learner simply memorises or gets by heart the subject matter witho ut any understanding. The learning material is not clear to the pupils.One of the characteristics of Rote Learning of variation (to memorise word byword) of the material.

• There is no discussion and use of aids in the classroom in such learning.
• During examination, the learner particularly adopts rote learning.
• Again learning can be classified into passive and active learning.

Passive learning: Passive learning is theoretical in nature. The learner simply receives the theoretical instructions given in the classroom He has nothing to participate in the learning process. So there is an element of boredom, fatigue and monotony in such learning. In such a learning process, both teacher and taught seem to be inactive. There is no use of aids, learning materials, no discussions are there. Today in many schools students go on such passive learning.

Active Learning: By active lemming, we mean learning by experience or learning by doing. There is full participation of pupils in such learning. Each pupil feels that he has some contribution to the lesson. When the child learns through discussions, demonstrations, experimentation and practical works assigned to him, develops his understanding. Learning becomes satisfying with the direct participation of the teacher and taught through discussions, the child-centred instructions promote logical learning among the learners.

Factors influence learning
The factors that influence learning of the learners are as follows:
i) Physiological factors: Physiological factors such as physical health, nutrition, age, physical comfort, defects in sense organs, prolonged illness, suffering from secret disease, defects in sense organs like eyes, and ears, and malfunctioning of glands directly affects the behaviour of the learners. If a person meets any accident he becomes work in both physically and mentally. James Ross, “A sound body creates sound mind and a sound mind”. So physically work person cannot progress in learning. Learning hampers.
ii) Psychological factors: The psychological factors include mental health, tension, conflicts, complexes, motivation, interest, attention, motives and drives etc. affect learning in varying degrees. Psychological factors are ‘mental factors and there is no learning in case the child is mentally handicapped. The person having mental disorder, half crack, mad etc.
iii) Environmental factors: The environmental factors that affect the learning are like atmosphere, atmospheric conditions like high temperature, lack of illumination, over-crowding, uncomfortable sitting arrangement etc. Further the location of school, its surroundings, affects of industries and pollution, crowdy area, unhealthy sanitary condition, impure air, lacking suitable accommodation are badly affect the learning. So learning is very much affected by environmental factors.
iv) Methodology of Instructions: Learning can be facilitated by proper organisation of and pressurisation of learning materials. Learning by doing or experiences and timely testing. Theoretical teachings should be replaced by demonstrations and discussions. The teacher should employ dynamic methods of teaching and use different audio-visual aids and learning materials in time by which learning is greatly affected and influenced.If such factors and undertaken and executed properly, the learning will be much effective and fruitful.

Question 3:
Explain how learning and maturation are interrelated.
Answer:
There is an interrelationship as well as difference in learning and maturation. Learning and maturation both are interrelated, two parts of a coin.Maturation is physical sense where as learning is in mental sense. Maturation is a stage where there is no further physical growth. But learning is a deliberate process which helps in the modification of human behaviour in different stages of growth. The active and activities are changed in time and situation.

Maturation and learning are closely related. Sometimes we fail to guess from which behaviour changes develop. For learning definite level of maturation is essential
Maturation is a mental process. It is growth which takes place within the individual. Learning on the other hand, is a change in living individuals which is not governed by this genetic inheritance. It is a process which takes place as a result of stimuli from without the changes in the behaviour, in the process of teaming are always produced through some activity, training or experience.

By maturation, we mean the physiological growth and development up to a particular level at Which the child will be able to team specifically. Learning without attaining adequate level of maturation, does not yield any good results. Maturation thus implies concept of readiness for an activity. Personality is the interaction between maturation and teaming. Maturation is growth from within but learning is an outward growth. The effect of training or teaming varies with maturation Training will be effective when it will coordinate with the level of maturation As an individual attains maturity his capacity to team enhances.

In case of behaviour sequence through a regular stage irrespective of intervening practice or training the behaviour is said to be developed through maturation and not through teaming. The learning procedure modifies the behaviour.Unless a child is mature, not attained physical maturity, he does not team to walk, to , talk, until he reaches a stage of maturation. For example, a four years child cannot ride a bicycle or handle a sewing machine. This is due to maturation.

Hence, the two processes, maturation and learning are very closely related like the two parts ofa coin. There is need of both physical and mental maturation for perfect learning. Maturation helps in the process of teaming and training. We can train a child, unless he got physical and mental maturation. So when a child reaches the stage of maturation, teaming takes place.

Question 4:
What is Trial and Error theory of leaming. Give its laws. What are the educational implications?
Answer:
The ‘Trial and Error ’ theory of learning is also known as “Theory of Connectionism” the connection between stimulus and response. Such theory was developed by American Psychologist E.L.Thorndike. This theory is called Trial and Error because all teaming is the connection between stimulus and response. It helps in reaching goal. By regular trials, endeavours, exercise one can reach a goal.

CAT’s Experiment:

E.L.Thomdike to prove this theory, put a hungry cat inside a cage or puzzle box. The puzzle box is made in such a way that its door can be opened either lifting a hatch or by pulling a level. A piece of fish is kept outside the box so that hungry cat is sufficiently motivated to go into action. The cat starts blind, random movements, hit and miss methods of movement to go outside. Then out of sheer chance, it touches the lever mechanism and opens the door.

When the hungry cat goes out, it is allowed to take a little portion of fish and then it is put book in the box. After, a white, it again goes out of the box by touching the lever mechanism and again opens the door. When it goes out the Psychologist allowed it to take only a little portion of fish Mid then it is put back in the box. If the process continues and the number of trial increases the cat has less and less unnecessary random activity. A point corns when after being put inside the cage, the cat goes out of the cage straight and release the mechanism and handles it to go out. After a number of trials, the cat learns to use the release mechanism. Trial and error learning takes place.

The psychologist advocated the trial-and-error learning theory and successfully proved it.
Laws of Learning
From the above experiment, Thorndike deduced three theories of learning such as:

• The law of readiness.
• The law of exercise.
• The law of effect.

i) The law of readiness: Readiness means the preparation for action. If the child is ready to learn, he has reached a definite age and experience, he learns more quickly and effecitvely. So the teacher should make attempt to motivate the students accordingly. For readiness, there is need of physical and mental maturation. If readiness is not there, there is no learning.

ii) The law of Exercise: The law of exercise is of two types as the law of use and the law of disuse. Any activity when it is repeated gets fix up practice makes perfect. By regular exercise, learning takes place. The teacher should make practice and drill of a difficult lesson.

iii) The Law of Effect: The law of effect means effective result of an activity. The activity which ends in pleasure and leads to success are repeated and this learnt but the activity which is unpleasant is left. This law emphasizes on the reward and punishment in the process of learning.

Educational implications:
Thorndike’s theory of trial and Error has contributed greatly of educational theory and practice. The most educational implications are as follows :

1.  The teacher should motivate learners from the very beginning. Punishment should be avoided in learning. It brings indifferent attitude.
2.  Such theory of learning is very beneficial for the acquisition of motor skills.
3. The teacher must consider the psycho-biological readiness to lead to learning failures.
4.  Learning situations should be made pleasant through praises, rewards, competitions, teaching aids and through teaching in a new technique like in dramas, word competitions teaching aids and through dictation of words.
5. In the achievement of a number of subjects repetitions, exercise and drilling is needed. Attempts should not be random but with proper planning and understanding.
6.  The teacher must wait till the learner is ready and give such experiences to help for readiness.

Question 5:
Explain learning by classical conditioning and its educational implications.
Answer:
The classical conditioning theory was advocated by Russian physiologist Evan Patrovich Pavlov. It is supported by J.B. Watson. In the experimental works on dogs Pavlov discovered his theory of conditioning. To him learning is a linking of a response to a situation. To him fear is a natural response to a loud sound and salivation is a natural response to food.For a natural stimulus, there is a natural response. For example, food is a natural stimulus, and salivation is a natural response and loud sound is a natural stimulus and fear is a natural response.

If another artificial stimulus is presented along with the natural stimulus a number of times, the artificial stimulus can elicit the natural response. So here, artificial stimulus has acquired the quality of natural stimulus and has acquired the quality of natural responses. So, ‘when artificial stimulus acting upon the natural stimulus elicit natural response is known as conditioning”.

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Experiment

Dog’s Experiment – Evan Pavlov carried out an experiment on dog. He used toring a bell while giving food to the dog. This activity continued for a few days. When the food was placed before the dog, it was accustomed with it. The ringing ofbell would secrete saliva with the mouth of the dog. After a few days, it was seen that when only the bell was rang, but the food was not placed, but saliva start secreting. Pavlov named it as ‘Theory of Conditioned Reflex”. Here, the ringing ofthe bell secreted saliva from the dog in the absence of food.
Although the natural stimulus food was absent, the artificial stimulus bell was alone responsible for the natural response; the secretion of saliva from dog’s mouth.

Educational Implications

Learning is a matter of conditioning. The principle of classical conditioning can be used in the following areas of learning, known as implications.
i) Development of Good habits – Through conditioning, good habits can be developed in children like cleanliness, health habits respect for elders and punctuality.
ii) Removal of Superstitions – A child may develop superstitions. But it can be removed by conditioning. For example – the child develop a superstition that number ‘ 13 ’ is an inauspicious number to remove such superstition, he should be always assigned with no. 13.
iii) Attitude Formation – Children often form attitudes through conditioning. They
may develop positive or negative attitude. So the teacher should create situation, for positive attitude towards learning and the school.
Likewise, if a child dislikes the teacher, he can not appreciate his teaching, whatever fruitful teaching he provides.
iv) Love and Hatred – The child may develop love or hatred by for an object. If the object is associated continuity with object of love or hatred, a child may have a particular subject not because the subject is bad, but because he hates the subject.
v) Language Learning – The child learns alphabet and words by the process of conditioning. The child speaks out, ‘Parrot’ when the picture ofParrot is presented and the word is spelt by the teacher. Later on, if the picture is not presented, only the symbol is presented and child is associated with the symbol with the bird and with the sound of the bird.
vi) Rewards and Punishment – Reward and punishments is closely associated with conditioning. Rewards strengthen the bond and punishment weakens the bond. Hence, rewards and punishment both have positive and negative value.

Question 6:
What is theory of ‘learning by insight’. Explain with examples and discuss the educational implications.
Answer:
The theory of insight was developed by Gestalt, Psychologists Kohler, Koffaka, Weirthemer and Lenin.Kohler strongly propounded the theory ‘Insightful theory’. This theory as an opposition to the trial and error and conditioning theory of learning.

The Gestalt psychologist believed that gestalt or ‘whole’ is more important than the parts. Learning takes place as a whole but hot by parts. This is perceptual learning because the teacher perceives the situation as a whole.German psychologist Kohler conducted a number of experiments on monkeys and . came to conclusion that ‘learning takes place’ through ‘insight’ but not by trial and error. Insight is a sudden perception which gives learning.

Kohler’s Monkey’s Experiment
Kohler kept a monkey, Sultan by name and then shut him in a large cage or a chamber. A bunch ofbanana was kept hanged from the ceiling ofthe large cage roof. Three boxes were put on the floor of the cage. Sultan jumped to catch the banana but failed. Kohler observed that after a while Sultan put one box on the other and snatched the bananas. Here, Sultan used his insight to put two boxes one upon another, stand on these and reach the bananas.

Experiment – II
In another experiment, Kohler put three sticks long and short. The sticks were made in such a way that they can be fixed each other to make a long stick. A bunch of bananas were kept outside the cage. The monkey / Chimpanjee was kept inside the cage. The moment the monkey saw the ripe bananas, it made random movement inside the cage. But it was in vain.
It remained silent a while. All on a sudden he could catch the idea. He fitted the sticks together and got the bananas. Thus, here Sultan displayed insight by observing the total situation, the sticks, the bananas, and the distance. It performed the right task through understanding and insight. Here, whole situation arouses insight with the monkey. The German and Gestalt means whole or configuration. So whole learning is better than part learning.

Educational Implications:
Some of the major educational implications of learning by insight are as follows:

• Proceeding from whole to part – The teacher must always proceed from the
  whole to part. The total concept should be given first, then it should be broken into number of sub-concepts begin from the globe (world) then come to the country, state, city and locality. The teacher should teach about the whole flower and then analyse the part.
• Motivation – The teacher should arouse motivation in the pupils. The purpose for the goals should be clearly understood by the learner so that they will be motivated for further learning.
• Organisation of Materials – Insight depends upon the arrangement of elements in the environment. If the subjects are well arranged by a teacher then the students can solve the problems easily. The integrated curriculum of the modem times recognizes the importance of insight.
• Methodology- John Dewey’s project method of teaching is considered as the best method of teaching for insight. The Heuristic method of teaching recognizes the importance of insight.

Question 7:
Discuss the principles of learning.
Answer:
The learning process is guided by certain fundamental principles or guidelines.
They are as follows:

1. Learning as an active process – Learning is an active process in which both the teacher and taught are active. With the active interaction of teacher and taught, learning takes place. The principle states that passive receptivity of information by the students does not contribute to effective learning. The learner participates actively in the classroom situations through discussion learning becomes meaningful
2. Learning should be individualised – Learners differ from each other with their abilities and interest. To expect the same type of learning, we can help the children to acquire competency when we can teach them individually. Different methods are there for individualised learning such as project method, programmed learning, and mastery learning etc.
3. Learning should be satisfying – Learning should be satisfying to the learners. Satisfaction comes when the learner becomes able to understand the subject matter. Satisfaction motivates the learner to learn more and more.
4.  Learning should be purposeful – Everything has a purpose. The learner must understand what he is doing and why he is doing. Each topic should have some set objectives. The purpose of learning is not to pass in the examination but adjustment to different situations. –
5. Learning should be interesting – Interest is an emotional factor. There are some teachers who make dull thing interesting. Similarly, some other teacher make interesting things dull. For this a teacher should be a resourceful teacher who can create and evoke interest among the pupil’s satisfaction and fulfil of aspirations can create new interest to anything.
6. Learning should be unified-All learning are helpful to our life. Learning always purposive. So nothing can be learned isolated. So the subjects like history, geography, language of literature should be learned as separate subjects. All subjects are interrelated and so an integrated study of pupils.

Question 8:
What is motivation in learning? Give its classification. Explain the different methods/ techniques of motivation.
Answer:
Motivation is simply the process of inducing motives, drives and wills in the learner towards the goal It is that force which impels or incites individual’s action, his direction of action and rate of action.
Adequate motivation is the art of stimulating interest in the pupils. It also involves arousing, sustaining and directing desirable behaviour.
Clansmir defines motivation as an activity by our person to stimulate or arouse a state within a second person that under appropriate situations, initiates activity in relation to goals.

Motivation is a force, an external stimulus which directs activity towards a goal. This motivation plays an important role in realising goals. In all types of learning, there must be a goal and it is sure that all types of learning there lie motivation. So, the teacher should adopt a number of methods, techniques of motivation to motivate his pupils in different learning situations.
Motivation always involves manipulating and goal directing, goal creating of the proper atmosphere arousing of emotional interest and inducing a pleasant state of satisfaction.

Classification of motivation

1. Intrinsic motivation – This type of motivation is directly linked with the natural
   instincts, urges impulses of the organism. The individual is naturally motivated, performs an act. Examples are food, rest, sleep and sex desires etc.
2. Extrinsic motivation – In extrinsic motivation the source of pleasure and the
   Individuals obtain the desired goal are gets some external reward, and working for a better grade, receive praise and blame, reward and punishment etc.

Methods of instruction of motivation

The teacher can adopt the following methods of motivation with classroom and outside of the classroom. They are as follows:

• Dramatisation – While teaching history, a teacher should teach in the form of drama where the students will play the roles of the characters the topic.
• Games and competitions – This emphasizes the play way method of competitions along the children. Individual and group competitions should be encouraged in the classroom. They will be encouraged towards learning.
• Organisation of visits, excursions, and short trips to places of importance to provide the students with first-hand experiences and arouse interest with them towards learning.
• There should be a provision of inviting resource persons from the locality and distant places to address to students and students may have interviews with them to gain experiences.
• Always rewards and praise promote learning. The teacher must use such things for the achievement of students. Regular punishment should be avoided. Rewards and praises will arouse interest to more learning.
• Producing publications, wall magazines and school magazines, narrating all their activities will give maximum opportunity to children for self-expression and satisfaction.
• Competitions and team works should be encouraged and organised. It will develop team spirit among the learners. They will be involved in social work and human qualities be encouraged. The attitude of students will be changed.
• Audio-visual Aids – The teacher should use audio-visual aids to demonstrate and illustrate the content materials, pictures will attract the attention of the pupils. They will understand more.
• Novelty – The teacher must display novelty in his methods of teaching. He should adopt dynamic methods for different categories of learners.
• Feedback knowledge progress in relation to his learning should be provided to the pupils. Feedback will act as an incentive for further learning.

Question 9:
Discuss observation method in learning. Explain its characteristics.
Answer:
The term ‘observation’ means ‘to see’ or ‘to observe. It is not called scientific observation.To P.V.Young, observation is a systematic and deliberate study through the eyes of spontaneous occurrences, at the time they occur.” To C.AMoser.”.Observation implies the ues of eyes rather than that of ears and voice.” To Oxford Concise Dictionary, “Accurate watching and noting of Phenomena as they occur in nature with regard to course and effect or mutual relations”.
So, observation mean to see directly or indirectly.

Characteristics of Observation:

1. Full use Of Human senses – In observation method the sense organs of man like eyes, ears and tongue are fully utilised. The importance of eyesight is more than other organs.
2. Observation is purposive and deliberate technique – Observation is separate from other general insight. Everything is observed by eyesight. It is not observation. Observation is purposive and deliberate process.
3. Observation is the direct method of educational psychology – By observation direct study is done. The researchers go to the place and directly observe the things and collects the data. So observation is a direct method of educational psychology.
4. Observation is a scientific technique – By observation, the datas collected are gathered together and it is reliable. Because the investigator directly collects the data. By the application of scientific techniques, the observer collects the data.
5. Observation minutely studies the educational phenomena – The observer observes the occurrences minutely and studies the educational phenomena. He bring a relationship among the occurrences. This method is suitable for the observation of educational phenomena directly.
6. Observation explains cause and effect relationship – By this method the cause and effect relationship of occurrences is known clearly. It explains the cause-and-effect relationship, after observation and collection of data.

Question 10:
Give the classification of observation.
Answer:
Observation is classified into different categories such as:
1. Participant non-participant observation.
2. Controlled or structured uncontrolled or unstructured observation.

1. Participant observation – When the observer in a group involved and collects data is known as participant observation. As a working observer, his presence is essential. So those are collecting information as participant observers, they have to apply different techniques.

Advantages of Participant Observation:

• The observer studies the occurrence in a natural environment. He records the group behaviour. He acts as a member of the group in participant observation,
• In such an observation so many data are collected. For example in studying the – socialization of a child, he studies from the early childhood. For this reason he collects more information.
• By observation the observer gather more knowledge than needs. As a result, the insight is developed.
• All social incidents are not directly observed. For example sex behaviour, dissolution of family and all other secret activities. But by participant observation those things are possible.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation:

• The study is limited.
• It creates emotional situation with group relation the observer become nearest to them So more data is not collected and become partial.
• It is lacks aims and objectives.
• It is impossible to collect data for prisoners.
• It is an expensive method.

2. Non-Participant Observation – When the observer is not involved in the group and observes from a distance it is known as Non-participant observation. The investigator self observes and it depends upon experience of the observer. As a strange, he has to observe the occurrences and studies lonely as a stranger to the group.

Advantages of Non-participant Observation :

1. Objective study is possible – In such an observation, the investigator studies the occurrences as a stranger. As a result the group behaviour never affects his behaviour. So the information collected becomes objective and more valuable.
2. Collection of more reliable data – The method is very useful in collecting reliable information. Because the moment the data is collected noted it immediately. „
3. More cooperation – The observer gets cooperation and affection in the observation method. The faith of the members are developed.
4. Less expensive method – It is a less expensive method. So in low budget research is done.
5. More Collection of Data – In such a method more data is collected. Small data are gathered together and result is achieved.
6. Able to maintain his status as a researcher-In this method the researcher is able to maintain his status. As a researcher he keeps his preparation continuing.

Disadvantages of Non-participant observation:

• The researcher sees the observation from his own insight. As a result it losses objectivity.
• In non-participant observation he can not observe the group members. But he has to keep relations with others and biased by them.
• In getting secret and useful information is not compared.
• Such type of observation seems to be incomplete.
• Many incidents are incidental.

3. Uncontrolled or unstructured observation: Uncontrolled or unstructured observation worked out in natural environment but not by external factors. In uncontrolled observation, the observer goes to the spot and investigates the incidents and collects the data. This type of observation method is reliable. It has no any control and so partiality is seen. Different observers observe it differently in different ways.

4. Controlled or structured observation – To control the specific incidents and oppose the external affects, controlled observation is barely needed. It acts in two controls such as:
i) Control upon incidents.
ii) Control upon the observers.
To examine the social incidents such type of observation is worked out. Secondly, to control all the incidents a single observer is not sufficient. Until and unless a incidents are not properly observed, the observer controls the sense organs. The controlled observation controls the incidents observed by the observer in the following ways. They are:

• Total observation planning.
• Useofquestionaries.
• Use of mechanical instruments.
• Use of projects.
• Commonly observation.
• Use of controlled groups.

5. Quasi-participant observation-Jn any study there is no possibility of full participation or non-participation of the observer. It is a very hard task. So for this it is called partly participation and partly non-participation observation. So it is called Quasi-participant observation.

Role of Importance of Observation

• It is the simplest method – Observation is very simple method. The scientific observation is very easy which attracts the persons towards observation. A slight training is need before observation
• It is useful in framing Hypothesis-This method is very useful in the framing of a hypothesis. It is also primary media for observation. Social observers study the activity of people in surroundings. This observation is continuous in nature.
• Greater Accuracy – The observation method is specified to other methods, different from the interview. It is an indirect method. But in observation, the investigator observes in his own eyes and the data collected as reliable and accurate.
• More convincing result-By observation the data collected is more perfect and reliable. The datas are sent by others. In observation, the observer observes the incidents. There is no suspect but the observer tries for its generalisation.

Question 11:
What is Constructive Approach to learning? Explain types, role of teacher and educational implications.
Answer:
In the Constructivist Approach, importance is given on learning centred education. The chief assumption of the constructivist approach is given by Jean Piaget and Liv Vygotsky. They have given five concept about learning process.

• The learner becomes active and learns:
• Most of the human activity is organised by the process:
• The organisation of personal activity is self-referent.
• Learning only possible by interaction.
• Meaningful learning is possible only by perfect learning situation and learning activity.

Different types of Constructivism:

Constructivism is classified into Radical Constructivism, Social Constructivism, Cultural Constructivism etc. But from education point of view Radical Constructivism and Social Constructivism is very important.
1. Radical Constructivism – Van Glaserfeld is the exponent of Radical Constructivism. Van Glaserfeld took the help of Jean Piaget’s Mental Development in the approach.
The main tenets of radical constructivism are:

•  Learner actively participate in the construction of knowledge.
• ‘Coming to know’ is the adjustment process in which the learner modifies his behaviour by interacting of external experience with inter experience.
  Jean Piaget’s adjustment process has two directions – Assimilation and accommodation. When old experience is assimilated with newer experience knowledge is constructed, which means learning is managed fully a person and learning depend of the learner.

2. Social Constructivism – Social constructivism is propagated by Russain Psychologist Vygotsky. To this theory social constructivism has three tenents. They are:
Reality

• Knowledge
• Learning
  To Vygotsky, the mental growth depends on the social situations. Constructivism mostly depends on social activity and learning. In this theory the learner learns through social adjustment. The learner acquires experience with the help of peer groups, and others. It develops to the zone of proximal development – ZPD. By working with other the learning power of the learner is developed.

Role of Teacher in Constructivism:

1. In constructivism theory the teacher is the helper of knowledge organisation.
2. The teacher will help the learners in teaching-learning process.
3. In different activities both teacher and taught will work together.
4. In such a organisation situation is created to learn learner from teacher and teacher from learner.
5. Both teacher and taught through discussion create learning environment.

Educational implication of constructivism:

• In the classroom learning environment is to be created.
• To solve the problems in the real world realistic method is to be given importance.
• In the learning process the teacher is a coach and he works an analyst to solve the problem.
• The aims and objectives is decided to keep in mind the learner. Nothing to be imposed on the learners.
• Learning process should be frilly controlled by the learners.
• For the mental development and understanding of the learner’s errors are to be used.
• The learners should be provided with participating learning situations.
• The learner are to be encouraged to prepare questionaries and preparation in educational planning.
• The learning environment should not be confined or limited with the four walls of classroom, school and periods but extend to the external world.

Question 12.
Discuss the conditions promoting motivation.
Answer:
There are certain conditions that promote motivation in learning are as follows:

• Creating interest – Creating interest in learning promotes motivation The interest may be natural or acquired. Intrinsic motivations are natural (but acquired interests are external). Interest in music, and literature is a permanent interest in the pupils, he should create jokes, employ play way method using aids.
•  Arousing curiosity – Curiosity is a great motivating force. Curiosity about something will naturally lead to its exploration. The motivation for specific exploration is curiosity. A sound environment is necessary to evoke curiosity for creativity. Ideal teaching methods, teachers behaviour, skill in teaching, and suitable curriculum development helps in learning.
• Developing achievement motivation – Higher the achievement motivation, the greater the learning. This implies setting of high goals before the pupils. If the goal is highly challenging the effort will be challenging. So the teacher should keep high aims before the students. Achievement is one of the aspects affects the other. The prizes, medals, and certificates in the last examination influences the most to read more and more.
• Providing incentives – Extrinsic motivation can be provided by providing incentives in the form of rewards, prizes, awards, and appreciation of thing or activity. So the teacher uses or applies such incentives which influence for more activity.
• Producing and spirit of competition – The spirit of competition is a great motivating force, stimulus which implies the desire to excel other. Competition has been widely used by the teacher as a means of motivation towards scholastic achievement. The teacher urges individual and group competitions in the class.
• Use of Audio-visual Aids – The class teachers uses audio-visual aids like T. V. films, record player, maps, graphs, charts, and pictures in the class to motivate the pupils towards learning.
• Use of Praise and Blame – The teacher can use the incentives like praise and blame at proper time and in proper manner to motivate the pupils to learn more praise and blame both acts in positive and negative direction. If it is used by the teacher in right time it will affect the mental factor of the child, and the child will be influenced towards learning. Rewards, prizes, praises and punishment also act as incentives. The teacher should handle it with care.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 2 Learning and Motivation Objective Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Foundations of Education Unit 2 Learning and Motivation Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Tests

Question 1:
Choose the factor mostly affect learning.
(a) Motivation
(b) Punishment
(c) Books
(d) Mental Health
Answer:
(d) Mental Health

Question 2:
To which animal Cohler is associated?
(a) Chimpanzee
(b) Dog
(c) Rabbit
(d) Cat
Answer:
(a) Chimpanzee

Question 3:
To which learning theory Thorndike is associated?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Trial and Error
(c) Classical Conditioning
(d) Insightful
Answer:
(b) Trial and Error

Question4:
In which learning theory Kohler’s name is linked?
(a) Trial and Error Theory
(b) Insightful Learning Theory
(c) Conditioned Response Theory
(d) Non of the above
Answer:
(b) Insightful Learning Theory

Question5:
Typewriting is the example of which theory of learning?
(a) Trial and Error
(b) Conditioning
(c) Insightful
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Trial and Error

Question 6:
‘Learning is the behavior through experience’ who told this?
(a) Crow and Crow
(b) B.E Skinner
(c) Gates
(d)Munn
Answer:
(c) Gates

Question 7:
Who was the propounder of the theory of conditioning?
(a) J. K. Davis
(b) Eram Pavlov
(c) E.L.Thorndike
(d) B.F. Skinner
Answer:
(b) Eram Pavlov

Question 8:
Learning of motor skills is what type of learning?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Trial and Error
(c) Insightful
(d) Kohler
Answer:
(b) Trial and Error

Question 9:
‘Laws of Exercise’ is one of the law of propounded by whom?
(a) Skinner
(b) Koffakla
(c) E.L. Thorndike
(d) None
Answer:
(c) E.L. Thorndike

Question 10:
Who is the writer of the book ‘Animal Intelligence’?
(a) B. F. Skinner
(b) E.L.Thomdike
(c)Weirthemer
(d)Kohler
Answer:
(b) E.L.Thomdike

Question 11:
Habit formation is the example of which theory?
(a) Conditioning
(b) Insightful
(c) Trial and Error
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Conditioning

Question 12:
Reward is the example of which motivation?
(a) Intrinsic
(b) Extrinsic
(c) Both intrinsic & Extrinsic
(d) None
Answer:
(b) Extrinsic

Question 13:
Which animal is related to M.C.Dougall?
(a) Dog
(b) Cat
(c) Rat
(d) Rabbit
Answer:
(c) Rat

Question 14:
From which word ‘Gestalt’ derived?
(a) German
(b) English
(c) Russia
(d) Latin
Answer:
(a) German

Question 15:
‘Observation implies the use of eyes rather than ears and voice’ who told this?
(a) C. A. Moser
(b) P.V. Young
(c) Oxford Dictionary
(d) Von Glaserfeld
Answer:
(a) C.A. Moser

Question 16:
Radical constructivism is propound by?
(a) Von Glaserfeld
(b) Jean Piaget
(c) Vygotsky
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Von Glaserfeld

Question 17:
Learning is the modification of the behavior of the individual interaction with its Environment’ whose definition is this?
(a) Kingsley
(b) Gates
(c) Cronback
(d) Murphy
Answer:
(b) Gates

Question 18:
By whom ‘Learning is the behavior adaption’?
(a) Gates
(b) Skinner
(c) Kingsley
(d) Murphy
Answer:
(b) Skinner

Answer in single word

Question 1:
By whom ‘Insightfullearning’ was developed?
Answer:
German Psychologist‘Kohler’.

Question 2:
Who is the propounder of conditioning theory?
Answer:
Russain Psychologist Evan Pavlov was propounded the conditioning theory.

Question 3:
What is Trial and Error Theory?
Answer:
Learning that takes place through the process of Trial and Error and connection is known as Trial and Error theory.

Question 4:
What is law of Readiness in learning?
Answer:
Law of readiness in learning states that when a bond is ready to act allow it to do so is satisfying.

Question 5:
What are the defect in law of readiness?
Answer:
The law of readiness is useless unless it refers to mental readiness.

Question 6:
What is law of Exercise?
Answer:
Regular practice of a thing is law of exercise.

Question 7:
7. What is the defect of the law of exercise?
Answer:
The law of exercise is too much mechanical. So it does not take into account.

Question 8:
8. What is conditioning?
Answer:
Conditioning is the linking up of the original responses with a secondary stimulus.

Question 9:
What is the nature of learning?
Answer:
The process learning continues throughout life.

Question 10:
What are types of motivation?
Answer:
Motivation are two types – Intrinsic and extrinsic.

Question 11:
Give one education effect of Trial and Error.
Answer:
Acquisition of motor skills.

Question 12:
What is insightful learning?
Answer:
As a mental process an individual receives the situation a whole for proper decision.

Question 13:
What is learning?
Answer:
To Gates, learning is the modification of behavior with experience and training.

Question 14:
Give one characteristics of learning.
Answer:
Learning is a process of adjustment.

Question 15:
What is Intrinsic motivation?
Answer:
Intrinsic motivation is a force inside the individual for example – hunger, thirst, rest sleep.

Question 16:
What is Extrinsic motivation?
Answer:
Extrinsic motivation means the forces that outside tied with the environment help in reaching goal, example – rewards, punishment, and prizes.

Question 17:
What do you mean by ‘Gestalt’?
Answer:
Gestalt means ‘whole.

Question 18:
What is S-R bond?
Answer:
When there is regular connection of stimulus and response – S-R bond is formed.

Question 19:
Give an example of conditioned stimulus.
Answer:
Elicit of Saliva is the example of conditioned stimulus.

Question 20:
What is conditioned response?
Answer:
In the absence of natural stimulus, if an artificial stimulus act as natural stimulus and creates natural response is known as conditioned response.

Question 21:
How a teacher can motivate children?
Answer:
By using audio-visual aids.

Question 22:
What is law of effect?
Answer:
The law of effect means effective result of an activity, may be pleasant or unpleasant.

Question 23:
What is law of exercise?
Answer:
Law of exercise means regular practice or drill when learning takes place.

Question 24:
Give the advantage and disadvantage in learning.
Answer:
It may promote learning or creates indifference attitude towards learning.

Fill in the Blanks with Appropriate Words

Question 1:
_____ is the advantage of punishment.
Answer:
Promote learning.

Question 2:
_____ is the disadvantage of punishment.
Answer:
Indifference attitude.

Question 3:
Law of Exercise is propounded by ______.
Answer:
E.L. Thorndike.

Question 4:
_______ is the writer of ‘Animal Intelligency’.
Answer:
E. L. Thorndike/

Question 5:
Learning of motor skill is the learning _______.
Answer:
Trial and Error.

Question 6:
Kohler experimented his theory by _______.
Answer:
Chimpanzee.

Question 7:
From _______ language Gestalt derived?
Answer:
German.

Question 8:
Gestalt means _______.
Answer:
‘Whole’.

Question 9:
Insightful learning is related to _______.
Answer:
Kohler.

Question 10:
Conditioned response theory is related to _______.
Answer:
Evan Pavlov.

Question 11:
Mc. Dougall experimented on _______.
Answer:
Rats.

Question 12:
J. B. Watson experimented on ______.
Answer:
Rabbit.

Question 13:
Rewards is the example of ______.
Answer:
Extrinsic motivation.

Question 14:
Rest and sleep are examples of _______.
Answer:
Intrinsic motivation.

Question 15:
The Law of exercise/readiness is propounded by ______.
Answer:
E. L. Thorndike.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 1 Democracy in India Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 1 Democracy in India Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Write Meaning of Democracy with giving different definitions of democracy.
Answer:
Long back, former President of the United States of America, Abraham Lincoln said, “Democracy is a government of the people, for the people, and by the people.” The term ‘democracy’ comes from the Greek word demokratia which means “rule of the people”. It was coined from two words: demos that means “people” and Kratos which refers to “power”. That is, in a democracy the power rests with the people. This meaning is based on the experiences of the governments that existed in some of the Greek city-states, notably Athens.

And, today also, democracy is defined as a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodic free elections. When you examinethe definitions of democracy, as suggested above, you will find that most of those definitions define democracy as a form of government which is run by the elected representatives.

Democracy has been defined in many ways. Bryce believes that “Democracy really means nothing more or less than the rule of the whole people, expressing their Sovereign will by their votes”. Maclver observes, “Democracy is not a way of governing, whether by majority or otherwise, but primarily a way of determining, who shall govern, and broadly to what ends”.

It means more than a mere form of government. In its comprehensive form, democracy means, or ought to mean,

• a form of government,
• a type of state,
• a pattern of social system,
• a design of economic order, and
• a way of life and culture. Therefore, when we say that India is a democracy, we mean not only that its political institutions and processes are democratic but also that the Indian society and every Indian citizen is democratic, reflecting basic democratic values of equality, liberty, fraternity, secularism and justice in the social environment and individual behaviour.

Quention 2.
What are the Essential Conditions For Democracy?
Answer:
A system can be termed as a genuine and comprehensive democracy only when it fulfills both political and socio-economic aspects of people’s participation and satisfaction. Let us identify those. There may be two major categories:
(1) political conditions and
(2) social and economic conditions
The fulfillment of the first leads to political democracy and the second as social democracy. Obviously, the first and the foremost, are political conditions of democracy. It is essential that for a system to be democratic, we must adopt a Constitution and laws that vest supreme power in the people.

The human rights and fundamental rights, such as equality, liberty of thought and expression, belief, movement, communication and association must be protected by the Constitution. The democratic system has to have universal adult franchise as the basis of electing representatives at various levels of the government. Moreover, opportunities for political participation of all the citizens not only in elections at regular interval, but also in other aspects of the political process have to be made available.

There has to be a responsible government in which the executive is answerable to the legislature, the legislature to the people and the Judiciaiy to remain independent. Political institutions like political parties and interest and pressure groups (associations, various non-governmental organizations) must be functional for expressing popular needs, demands and grievances. A democratic system is strengthened if it maintains an enlightened public opinion in its various forms through free press and other communication processes. Political democracy is thus one which incorporates all the above political traits.

Question 3.
What is the social and economic conditions of democracy?
Answer:
A democratic system has to ensure that the social development is in tune with democratic values and norms reflecting equality of social status and opportunities for development, social security and social welfare. Citizens must avail opportunities of universal and compulsory education. They must also be enabled to utilize means of economic development. The fruits of economic development must reach all and especially to the poor and the deprived sections of the society. Socio-economic development of the people strengths social democracy.

Question 4.
What are the challenges to democracy?
Answer:
Since independence India has been functioning as a responsible democracy. The same has been appreciated by international community. It has successfully adapted to the challenging situations. There have been free and fair periodic elections for all political offices from the panchayats to the President. There has been smooth transfer of political power from one political party or set of political parties to others, both at national and state levels on many occasions.

You will find many examples in our neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Myanmar and even Bangladesh where transfer of power has been done through military coups. The legislative, executive and judicial organs have been functioning properly.The Parliament and the State Legislatures control the Executives effectively through the means like question hours, etc.

More importantly, some significant enactments like the Right to Information (RTI) Act 2005, Right to Education 2009 and other welfare means have empowered the people. The mass media, including print and electronic, have full autonomy and play a key role in formulating and influencing public opinion. Significant social change has taken place in almost all walks of life and the nation is moving ahead on course of socio-economic development.

India is a very large country full of diversities – linguistically, culturally, religiously. At the time of independence it was economically underdeveloped. There were enormous regional disparities, widespread poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and shortage of almost all public welfare means. Citizens had enormous expectations from independence.

As mentioned above, India has changed a lot. Yet, there are various challenges that the country faces in terms of fulfillment of expectations of various sections of society. The challenges come both from prevailing domestic and international conditions as well as lack of adequate prerequisites for a smooth functioning of democracy. These are discussed below.

Question 5.
How Illiteracy is a factor challenging democracy?
Answer:
Illiteracy among people was a matter of grave concern for the successful functioning of democracy in India on the eve of independence and it still continues to be a major challenge. The level of education of citizens is a key to both the successful functioning of democracy and socio-economic development of the country. And perhaps, more importantly, it is an essential condition for human dignity. But the state of formal literacy was almost dismal when India achieved independence.

The literacy rate in 1951 was mere 18.33 per cent and female literacy was negligible with 8.9 percent. It was, therefore, feared by many that the citizens would not be able to play their roles effectively and exercise their right to vote meaningfully which is an individual’s expression of the power of the people, this apprehension, however, has been proved wrong by the Indian electorate over the years.

In spite of a substantial number of them being illiterates, they have demonstrated maturity in the exercise of their right to vote on more than one occasion thus resulting peaceful transfer of political power since independence. The Indian National Congress under the leadership of Ms. Indira Gandhi was very popular and powerful during the early part of 1970s.

But in 1977’s general election, the people of India rejected her primarily because of the misuse of power during emergency in 1975-1977 and provided an opportunity to the. first nomCongress government at the Centre in form of the Janata Party. After that there have been changes in the governments both at the Centre and in the States almost regularly. Literacy is necessary not simply for enabling citizens to participate in elections and exercise their right to vote effectively, it has other important implications as well. Literacy enables citizens to be aware of various issues, problems, demands, and interests in the country.

It also makes them conscious of the principles of liberty and equality of all and ensures that the representatives elected by them truly represent all the interests in the society.Universal literacy is therefore a must for the successful functioning of Indian democracy. Although according to 2011 Census, the literacy rate has risen to 74.04 per cent, the female literacy rate is still lagging at 65.46 per cent.

This means that over one-fourth of the country’s population is still illiterate while among women nearly one out of three is not literate. If the children have access to basic education, the problem of illiteracy can be checked. Recently, the Right to Education is provided as a fundamental right. We hope that this will help the cause of educating the children universally.

Question 6.
How Poverty is affecting democracy?
Answer:
It is generally said that for a hungry person right to vote does not have any meaning. For him/her the first requirement is food. Therefore, poverty is considered as the greatest bane of democracy. It is, in fact, the root cause of all kinds of deprivations and inequalities. It is the state of denial of opportunities to people to lead a healthy and fulfilling life. Of course, India inherited poverty from the long exploitative British colonial rule, but it continues to be one of the gravest problems today.

Even now a considerable proportion of Indian population lives below poverty line, called ‘BPL’. The poverty line means an income level below which human beings cannot provide for their basic necessities of food, much less for clothes and shelter. The governmental definition of poverty line during the 1960s sought to measure ihe extent of poverty on the amount of income requiredto purchase a barest minimum desirable food having nutritional standards of caloric intake by a person.

According to it, in Indian conditions, a person in rural areas needs an average of 2400 calories per day and in urban areas an average of 2100 calories per day in order to keep himself above the poverty line.

During the 1990s non-food items’like clothes, employment, shelter, education, etc. got included in the definition of poverty. Poverty in the contemporary phase is linked with systemic deprivation of rights. It is also associated with the notion of Human Development Index (HDI) as championed by Mabud-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen. Viewed from the HDI perspective, the definition of poverty also includes socio-economic-political and human rights issues under its ambit.

The persisting phenomenon of poverty is attributed to any factors, one of which is mass unemployment and under-employmenf. A large number of people in rural areas do not have regular and adequate work. In urban areas also the number of educated unemployed is very high. The growing population is regarded as a reason for poverty, though population is considered as,rthe greatest resource in the country. In fact, the process of economic development has not been able to ensure social justice and gap between rich and poor has not been bridged. Because of all this, poverty continues to remain a great challenge to Indian democracy.

Question 7.
How Gender Discrimination is affecting democracy?
Answer:
Discrimination against girls and women exists in every walk of life. You must have had such experiences of prevailing gender inequality in our society and polity. But we know that gender equality is one of the basic principles of democracy. The Constitution of India enjoins upon the State to ensure that men and women are treated as equals and there is no discrimination against women.

Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties as well as the Directive Principles of State Policy make these intensions very clear. But the discrimination against females continues to be a fact of life. It is clearly reflected in the sex ratio, child sex ratio and maternal mortality rate. The number of females in comparison to males has been declining ever since 1901. In 1901, the sex ratio was 972 females per 1000 males. It came down to 927 females per 1000 males in 1991.

According to 2011 Census it is 940 females per 1000 males which is still very unfavourable to females. In some of the States, the 2011 Census reported a very low sex ratio of 877 females per 1000 males (Haryana), the lowest being 618 in Daman & Diu and 866 in the NCT of Delhi. The child sex ratio is a matter of greater concern. According to 2011 Census, the child sex ratio (0-6 years) in India is only 914 female children per 1000 male children. This is lower than the 2001 Census which reported child sex ratio of927 female children per 1000 male children.

It has been declining because of several factors, like the prevailing preference for male child, discriminatory treatment against the girl child right after birth, and the increasing incidence of female infanticides and female foeticides. By using technology, people are forcing mothers td get the fetus of a female child aborted. The infant mortality rate among girl children is high, as compared to that among boy children. The maternal mortality ratio as per the Sample Registration System 2004-06 is 254 per lakh live births, which is considered very high.

Question 8.
How Casteism, Communalism, Religious Fundamentalism is challenge for democracy?
Answer:
The Indian democracy faces serious challenges also from casteism, communalism and religious fundamentalism. They weaken the functioning and stability of democratic system.
(a) Casteism: The caste system which presumably originated in the division of labour in the ancient society has become a more or less rigid group classification, based on birth. Have you ever experienced the role of caste in your life and society? You will agree that the most detrimental and inhuman aspect of the caste system is the practice of untouchability which is continuing in spite of the constitutional ban imposed on it.

This has led to segregation of so called low castes or ‘Dalits’, depriving them of education and other social benefits.The Dalits have been typically performing menial labour and some of the hardest physical work in society. Casteism has played a negative role even in the democratic political processes, in fact, casteism has become notorious as a strategy of exploitation of caste consciousness for narrow political gains. The caste system acts against the roots of democracy.

The democratic facilities – like fundamental rights relating to equality, freedom of speech, expression and association, participation in the electoral process, free media and press, and even legislative forums – are misused for maintaining casteist identity.Casteism has also been contributing towards continuation of socio-economic inequalities. It is true that India has been an unequal society from times immemorial. The Scheduled Castes (SCs), the Scheduled Tribes (STs) and the backward classes have suffered down the ages from socio-economic deprivations.

There are enormous inequalities in our society which are posing serious challenge to Indian democracy. What is more alarming is the mixing of caste and politics resulting into‘politicization of caste’ and ‘casteization of politics’ in contemporary Indian polity which has become a grave challenge to our democracy. Despite the era of liberalization and globalization caste consciousness has not been eroded in our society and castes are being increasingly used as vote bank politics.

(b) Communalism: Communalism and religious fundamentalism have acquired a very dangerous form and alarming proportion in India. They disrupt the pattern of co-existence in our multi-religious society. Communalism is-an affront to India’s nationalist identity and a tragic setback to its evolving secular culture. It is subversive of our democratic political stability and destroyer of our glorious heritage of humanism and composite culture. Quite often, communalism is wrongly used as a synonym for religion or conservatism. Adherence to a religion or attachment to a religious community is not communalism.

Religious Fundamentalism
Religious fundamentalism also reinforces communalists in exploiting both religion and politics. In fact, fundamentalism acts as an ideology which advocates a return to orthodoxy and a strict compliance to the fundamental tenets of religion. Religious fundamentalists vehemently oppose progressive reforms in order to establish their exclusive control on their respective communities.

Regionalism
Indian democracy has also been struggling with regionalism which is primarily an outcome of regional disparities and imbalances in development. We all know that India is a plural country with diversities of religions, languages, communities, tribes and cultures. A number of cultural and linguistic groups are concentrated in certain territorial segments. Although development process in the country aims at growth and development of all regions, the regional disparities and imbalances in terms of differences in per capita income, literacy rates, state of health and educational infrastructure and services, population situation and levels of industrial and agricultural development continue to exist.

Existence and continuation of regional inequalities both among States and within a State create a feeling of neglect, deprivation and discrimination. This situation has led to regionalism manifested in demands for creation of new States, autonomy or more powers to States or even secession from the country. It is true that regionalism and sub-regionalism are unavoidable in a vast and plural country like India. It is not always correct to consider every attempt to support or defend regional or sub-regional interests as divisive, fissiparous and unpatriotic.

The problem begins when these interests are politicized and regional movements are promoted for ulterior political motives. Such unhealthy regional or sub-regional patriotism is cancerous and disruptive. The continuing regional imbalances have given rise to militant movements in certain parts of our country. Separatist demands in Jammu and Kashmir or by ULFA (United Liberation Front of Assam) in Assam or by different groups in the North-Eastern region are matters of grave concern for Indian polity.

Corruption
Corruption in public life has been a major concern in India. In 2011, India was ranked 95th of 183 countries defined as corrupt in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). In fact, corruption is rampant in all walks of life, be it land and property, health, education, commerce and industry, agriculture, transport, police, armed forces, even religious institutions or so called places of spiritual pursuits.

Corruption continues to exist in covert and overt ways at all three levels – political, bureaucratic and corporate sector. One can see the nexus between the politicians, the bureaucrats and the industrialists which has resulted into corruption and corrupt practices. The tentacles of corruption have affected all organs of government, including the judiciary.

Criminalization of Politics
In recent years, criminalization of politics in India has become a debatable issue. There have been allegations that there are some elements in politics who do not have faith in democratic values and practices. They indulge in violence and take refuge in otjter unhealthy, undemocratic methods to win elections. Undoubtedly, this is not a healthy trend in politics and there is an urgent need to apply serious check on such tendencies.

Criminalization of politics is tke very negation of democratic values and has no place in a ‘ democratic set up. Democracy can be strengthened by adopting and promoting democratic values and shunning criminal activities. Recently, the judiciary, while taking a serious , note of criminal tendencies in politics, has showed signs of adopting remedial measures to apply a serious check on such elements.

The Central government and many State governments have been taking steps to address this issue effectively. This is a matter of great satisfaction and a healthy sign for the successful functioning of democracy in our country. We, as awakened citizens and as voters of the largest democracy in the world, can also contribute by discouraging such persons who have a criminal background, from contesting elections.

Question 8.
How to tackle the challenges of Democracy?
Answer:
It is thus clear that democracy in India faces certain serious challenges. These are causes of serious concern to all. In fact, the leadership.of the freedom movement and especially the framers of the Indian Constitution themselves were very much aware of these issues, they made a number of constitutional provisions to address the same. Since independence governments have taken various measures to respond to many of these challenges.

There have been significant improvements in some of these. However, lots still have to be done. For that, efforts have been going on. These is need for collaboration among governmental agencies, political parties, civil society and citizens in general. Certain . significant corrective measures that have been adopted and can be initiated are as follows:

Universal Literacy ‘Education for All’
The significance and necessity of education for efficient functioning of democracy , was appreciated by the framers of the Indian Constitution. Which is why, free and compulsory education to all children up to the fourteen years of age continued to remain constitutional commitment in IndiaA arious governments at national and state levels have i been making efforts to attain this goal.

As a follow up of the National Policy on Education1986, a National Literacy Mission was set up in 1988 to plan and implement programmes for the removal of illiteracy under the platform, Sarva Shiksha Abhiy an. But the goal of universal literacy is yet to be attained.

Currently a nation-wide programme known as Saakshar Bharat is being implemented. It aims at developing functional literacy and numeracy to non-literate and non-numerate adults in the age group of fifteen and above, to enable them to continue their learning beyond basic literacy and acquire equivalence to formal educational system. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a flagship programme for universalization of elementary education for children between 6-14 years of age. Further, the Parliament of India in 2009 passed the Right to Education Act through which education has become a fundamental right for all children of age group’6-14 years.

Poverty Alleviation
From the 1970s, a number of programmes have been implemented for alleviation of poverty in India. These programmes fall into two broad categories:
(1) There are programmes to lift beneficiaries above poverty line by providing them with productive assets or skills or both, so that they can employ themselves usefully and earn greater income,
(2) Programmes are also being implemented to provide temporary wage employment for the poor and the landless.

Elimination of Gender Discrimination
It is now being recognized that the goals of democracy “of the people, for the people and by the people” can not be fully realized if the female population are not included in all ways in the processes of socio-economic and political development. That is why, besides constitutional provisions, several laws have been enacted, policies have been made and implemented and institutional reforms have been carried out for the development of women.

The 73rd and 74th Amendments of Indian Constitution in 1993 are the milestones in the process of political empowerment of women. These Amendments have reserved one-third of the seats in the Panchayati Raj Institutions, Municipalities and Municipal Corporations. Another significant development has been the adoption of the National Policy for Empowerment of Women in 2001, the overarching goal of which is to “bring about the advancement, development and empowerment cf women.” But a lot needs to be done to attain this goal.

Removal of Regional Imbalance
Redressing regional imbalances has indeed been a vital objective of the planning process in India. Efforts are on to reduce regional disparities. Besides, the Statespecific efforts for reducing intra-State regional disparities, a number of Centrally Sponsored Programmes have been in operation for the last two to three decades for taking care of specific aspects of backwardness of such regions.

Administrative and Judicial Reforms
The success of all the above stated corrective measures primarily depends on the efficient functioning of administration and independence and righteousness of the judicial system. But on both counts, a lot needs to be done. The performance of public administration in India has come under close scrutiny in the last few years. Rampant corruption, inefficiencies, wastages and irresponsiveness to the needs of citizens are some of the , commonly acknowledged problems afflicting the administration.

No doubt, the Indian judiciary lias remained independent and neutral; there are serious problems of
(1) slow disposal of cases leading to delays as well as accumulation of backlog, and
(2) very low rate of prosecution in criminal cases.

Administrative reforms have continuously been on the agenda of the government ever since independence. A number of Commissions and Committees have been set up in this regard. But bureaucratic reluctance to change has prevented the reforms to take place in full measure; The recommendations of various Commissions and Committees focus around the need
(1) to make administration accountable and citizen friendly,
(2) to build its capacity for quality governance,
(3) to orient administration for promoting peoples’ participation, decentralization and devolution of powers,
(4) to make administrative decision-making process transparent,
(5) to improve the performance and integrity of the public services,
(6) to reinforce ethics in administration.
(7) to inculcate readiness for e-govemance. Judicial reform also has been a critical concern since long. Various recommendations have been made on many occasions. The major issues that need consideration in this regard are:

• Simplification of Rules and Procedures,
• Repealing Out-dated Laws,
• Increase in the Judge Population Ratio,
• Time-bound filling of Vacant Posts in Judiciary,
• Transparency in Appointment, Promotion and Transfer of Judges,
• Judicial Accountability; and
• Transparency of Court Proceedings.

Sustainable Development (Economic, Social, Environmental)
Indian democracy can adequately respond to all the challenges when it moves forward on the path of sustainable development. A model of development without taking into account the basic needs of millions, today as well as in the future, can not be conducive for the survival of democracy. Development has to be human-centred and directed towards improvement of quality of life of all the people. It has to be focused on removal of poverty, ignorance, discrimination, disease and unemployment. The development process has to aim at sustained economic, social and environmental development.

Question 9.
what is SGSY?
Answer:
In 1999, Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) was conceived as a holistic programme of micro enterprise development in rural areas with emphasis on organizing the rural poor into self-help groups (SHGs), capacity building, planning of activity clusters, infrastructure support, technology, credit and marketing linkages. This programme has impacted many rural poor, for example, in Mathur, a village of the Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu, 100 women from eight self-help groups were trained in fruit processing by a non-government organization (NGO).

They availed assistance under SGSY to run a fruit processing unit registered under the name of Sathyamurthi Mahalir Mandram in May 2000, The unit produces fruit squash, jam, readyto- serve beverages, pickle, etc. Apart from raising the economic status of the group members, this venture has made the members more aware and they are actively involved in the government schemes, camps and campaigns. They have made significant representations for ensuring provision of basic facilities in their village and by bringing overall development of the area.

Question 10.
Write the meaning and role of political parties.
Answer:
Human beings have always organised themselves in groups and larger formations. Political parties have emerged as one of these human organisations. In modern age the ideal form of government is run through one or the other method of representative institutions. All representative governments and representative institutions require the existence of political parties.

A political party is an organised body of people who share certain common principles and goals regarding the political system of a country. The main purpose of political parties is to acquire and retain political power. Political parties which run the government are called the ruling party. In a coalition government, there may be more than one ruling party. Those who sit in the opposition and criticise and analyse the performance of-the ruling party/ parties generally or on specific issues are called opposition parties. Apolitical party as such should have the following essential features:

• it must be an organised body of people with a formal membership;
• it must have clearly spelt out policies and programmes;
• its members should agree with its ideology, policies and programmes;
• it must aim at getting power through the democratic process;
• it must have a clear and acceptable leadership; and
• it must focus on broad issues and major areas of government policies.

Question 11.
Write about the types of party system.
Answer:
India has a multi-party system- Indian politics is dominated by several national and regional parties. There are countries where there is one-party system or two-party system. Erstwhile Soviet Union and Yugoslavia had single party systems. Similarly, China has one-party system. Earlier in Germany there existed only one-party – the Nazi Party; so was the case in Italy where the only party was known as the Fascist Party. In a two party or bi-party system there are two main political parties.

The United Kingdom (UK), the United States of America (USA), Australia and New Zealand have bi-party systems. There may exist other parties but their role is generally insignificant. For example in UK, there are two main parties, the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. In the USA the two main parties are the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. Japan, France, Germany and Switzerland have multi-party systems.

Question 12.
Write about the evlution of party system in India.
Answer:
The evolution of Indian party system can be traced to the formation of the Congress, as a political platform in 1885. Other parties and groups originated later. The Indian National Congress was formed as a response to the colonial rule and to achieve independence from the British rule. After independence and with the adoption of a democratic Constitution, a new party system emerged in the wake of the first general elections based on universal adult franchise in 1952.

In preceding lesson you have learnt about the universal adult franchise in detail. During the post-independence period, the party system passed through various phases.The first phase is known as the phase of one-party dominance because with the exception of Kerala during 1956-59, the ruling party both at the Centre and in the states was the Congress. The second phase (1967-1975) saw the emergence of a multi-party system in India. In the Assembly elections in 1967, Congress was defeated in eight States.

For the first time non-Congress parties formed governments in these states. These parties formed coalition governments. Then came the split in Congress into Congress (O) and Congress (N). However, the Congress again became a dominant force at the Centre after winning 1971 mid-term poll. Then came the emergency period (1975-77) which is known as the authoritarian period of Indian democracy.

With the lifting of emergency, the dominance of Congress ended. In the general elections of 1977 Congress was defeated by the Janata Party. Janata Party came into existence as a result of the merger of many opposition parties. But again in 1980 general elections Congress came back to power and remained in power till 1989. Janata Party emerged out of the merger of Congress (O) led by Moraiji Desai, Bharatiya Lok Dal led by Ch. Charan Singh, Congress for Democracy (CFD) led by Jagjivan Ram and H.N. Bahuguna, the socialists led by George Fernandes and Jana Sangh led by L.K. Advani.

In 1989 elections, the National Front joined government with the support of BJP and the Left Front.But this formation could not last its tenure and elections for the tenth Lok Sabha were held in May- June, 1991. Congress again formed government at the Centre. In 1.996 general elections BJP emerged as the single largest party and was asked to form government at the Centre. Since it could not prove its majority within the given time it had to resign. The United Front which was a combination of thirteen parties, formed the government at the Centre with the external support of the Congress and the CPI(M).

But this government also could not last its full term. Although the coalition government formed under the leadership of BJP after 1998 elections was defeated in Lok Sabha, the 1999 elections again provided them the opportunity to form government which lasted its full term under a multi-party coalition, known as National Democratic Alliance (NDA). In the 14th general elections held in 2004, Congress emerged as the single largest party.

It formed alliance with like minded parties and formed government at the Centre. The phase of Indian party system which began in 1989 and is still continuing has been aptly called a phase of coalition politics. No single party has been able to form government on its own at the Centre.

Question 13.
Write about two types of major parties in India.
Answer:
India has two types of political parties – national parties and regional parties. National parties are those which generally have influence all over the country. It is not necessary that a national party will have equal strength in all the states; it varies from State to State. A party is recognised as a national party by the Election Commission on the basis of a formula. The political party which has secured not less than four percent of the total valid votes in the previous general elections at least in four states, is given the status of a national party.

The number of national parties has been changing. In the year 2006, Indian National Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party, Communist Party of India (Marxist) [CPI(M)], Communist Party of India (CPI), Bahujan Samaj Party, and the Nationalist Congress Party were national parties. However, there are other parties in India, which do not enjoy national influence. Their activities and influence are restricted to particular states or regions. Sometimes these parties are formed to voice demands of a specific region.

These parties are neither weak nor short-lived. Sometimes they prove to be very powerful in their respective regions. These are known as regional parties. Major regional parties are AIADMK and DMK in Tamil Nadu, Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh, Akali Dal in Punjab, National Conference in Jammu dnd Kashmir, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha in Jharkhand, Asam Gana Parishad in Assam and Nationalist Congress Party and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra.

Question 14.
Write about Indian National Congress.
Answer:
As you have already read, Indian National Congress was formed in the year 1885 in Bombay. W.C. Banarjee was the first President of the Indian National Congress. To begin with, Congress was an organisation of middle class intellectuals who were primarily concerned with political reforms in the British colonial rule. In the twenties under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the Congress became a mass based organisation. The party started enjoying the support of the common people and played a very significant role in the freedom struggle.

After independence Jawahar Lai Nehru became the Prime Minsiter and led the Congress till his death in 1°64. As already mentioned in an earlier paragraph, this was known as the ‘Nehru era’. The Congress party won first five general elections in 1952, 1957, 1962,1967 and 1971. In 1975 national emergency was declared which went on till 1977. In the elections of 1977, the Congress was defeated.

However, in 1980 general elections, the Congress Party led by Indira Gandhi came back to power. Indira Gandhi was assassinated in 1984 and during 1985 general elections, Rajiv Gandhi was the leader of the party. Congress won the 1985 general elections with a larger majority. In 1989 though Congress could not get absolute majority, it was the single largest party. In the tenth general
elections in 1991.

Congress again emerged as the single largest party and formed the government at the Centre. In the 1996, general elections Congress could not form government at the Centre. In the 12th general elections in 1998, Congress could get only 140.Lok Sabha seats. In the 1999 general elections Congress’s strength was further reduced to 112. But in the 14th general elections Congress entered into alliance with other secular parties and secured the number of seats that provided it an opportunity to form a coalition government.

Question 15.
Write about The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
Answer:
The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) was formed in 1980. Since then it has extended its influence in the Hindi belt, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Since 1989, it has been trying to extend its base in South India also. Since its formation in 1980, the BJP has been increasing its number of seats in the Lok Sabha gradually. In 1984, general elections it secured only two seats. In 1989 the number of seats increased to 88. In 1991 general elections BJP’s strength in the Lok Sabha increased to 122 which rose to 161 in the 1996 elections.

In 1998 it won 180 seats and in 1999 its number in Lok Sabha increased to 182. In the 1999 general elections, BJP contested as an alliance partner in the National Democratic Alliance (NDA). In the recent 2004 general elections BJP as an alliance of NDA could not get the required majority. It is playing the role of the opposition party. The BJP has emerged as a significant national party but its support base as yet is limited to certain areas, rather than spread all over India.

Question 16.
Write short notes on the Communist Parties.
Answer:
The two Communist Parties are the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) [CPI(M)]. Next to the Congress, the Communist Party is the oldest in India. The communist movement began in the early twenties, and the Communist Party was founded in 1925. The communists participated in the national movement, though often they had serious differences with the Congress. The communists assert that the people should be economically equal and the society should not be divided into classes of rich and poor.

The workers and peasants and other toiling people who do most of the productive work for the society, should be given due recognition and power.The communists were the main opposition in the Lok Sabha throughout the Nehru Era. In the firstLok Sabha they had 26 members, in the second and the third Lok Sabha, they had 27 and 29 members respectively. In 1957, the CPI won absolute majority in the Kerala Assembly and formed the first Communist government in India. In the early sixties specially after the Chinese aggression of 1962 there were serious differences among the members of the Communist Party. As a result, the party split into two.

Those who broke away from CPI formed CPI(M) in 1964. The CPI(M)’s main support base has been concentrated in West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, though it has registered its presence in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Odisha, and Punjab. The CPI has its pockets of influence in states like Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Manipur, Odisha, Pondicherry, Punjab, etc. Moreover, CPI has been a part of the left-front coalition in Kerala and West Bengal. In the Lok Sabha elections of 2004, both the CPI and the CPI (M) were alliance partners of the Congress. They are supporting the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government at the Centre from outside.

Question 17.
Write short notes on Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP).
Answer:
The BSP acquired the status of a national party in 1996. The BSP champions the cause of those sections which belong to low castes, deprived groups, and minorities. In fact, these sections of Indian society (the Bahujan Samaj) form the majority of the Indian population. The BSP believes that this ‘ Samaj ’ should be freed from the exploitation of the upper castes and by forming their own government. BSP’s influence lies in states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. In 1995 and 1997 BSP was a partner in the coalition governments in Uttar Pradesh.

Question 18.
Describe the one-party dominance in early phases.
Answer:
The results of the first general election did n<?t surprise anyone. The Indian National Congress was expected to win this election. The Congress party, as it was popularly known, had inherited the legacy of the national movement. It was the only party then to have an organization spread all over the country. And finally, in Jawaharlal Nehru, the party had the most popular and charismatic leader in Indian politics.

He led the Congress campaign and toured the country. When the final results were declared, the extent of the victory of the Congress did surprise many. The party won 364 of the 489 seats in the first Lok Sabha and finished way ahead of any other challenger. The Communist Party of India came next in terms of seats winning only 16 seats. The state elections were held with the Lok Sabha elections. Congress scored a big victory in those elections as well.

It won a majority of seats in all the states except Travancore-Cochin (part of today’s Kerala), Madras, and Odisha. Finally even in these states Congress’formed the government. So the party ruled all over the country at the national and the state level. As expected, Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister after the first general election. In the second and the third general elections, held in 1957 and 1962 respectively, the Congress maintained the same position in the Lok Sabha by winning three-fourths of the seats. None of the opposition parties could win even one-tenth of the number of seats won by the Congress. In the state assembly elections, Congress did not get a majority in a few cases.

The most significant of these cases was in Kerala in 1957 when a coalition led by the CPI formed the government. Apart from exceptions like this, Congress controlled the national and all the state governments. The extent of the victory of the Congress was artificially boosted by our electoral system. The Congress won three out of every four seats but it did not get even half of the votes. In 1952, for example, Congress obtained 45 percent of the total votes. But it managed to win 74 percent of the seats.

The Socialist Party, the second-largest party in terms of votes, secured more than 10 percent of the votes all over the country. But it could not even win three percent of the seats. How did this happen? For this, you need to recall the discussion about the first-past-the-post method in your textbook ‘Constitution at Work last year. In this system of election, adopted in our country, the party that gets more votes than others tends to get much more than its proportional share.

That is exactly what worked in favour of Congress. If we add up the votes of all the non-Congress candidates it was more than the votes of the Congress. But the non-Congress votes were divided between different rival parties and candidates. So the Congress was still way ahead of the opposition and managed to win.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 1 Democracy in India Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 1 Democracy in India Short Answer Questions

Short Questions And Answers

Question 1.
Define democracy. Why democracy cannot be defined only in political context?
Answer:
Democracy is defined as a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and is exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodic free elections. In essence, democracy is a form of government which is run by the elected representatives of the people.

Question 2.
Describe the essential conditions for a successful democracy.
Answer:
The definition of democracy is incomplete unless it is defined in social and individual contexts as well. In the present age, it means more than a mere form of government. In its comprehensive form democracy means,

• a form of government
• a type of state,
• a pattern of social system,
• a design of economic order
• a way of life and culture.
  Therefore, when we say Indian democracy, we mean not only that its political institutions and processes are democratic but also that the Indian society and every Indian citizen is democratic, reflecting basic democratic values of equality, liberty, fraternity, secularism and justice in social sphere and individual behaviour.

Question 3.
What are the major challenges the Indian democracy faces? How these challenges are opportunities to make India an effective democratic system?
Answer:
A system can be termed as a genuine democracy only when it fulfils
(a) political conditions as follows:

• Having a Constitution that vests supreme power in the people and protects fundamental rights, such as equality, liberty of thought and expression, belief, movement, communication and association.
• Having universal adult franchise as the basis of electing representatives
• Having a responsible government in which the executive is answerable to the legislature and the legislature to the people and

(b) social and economic conditions as follows:

• The system ensuring social development that is in tune with democratic values and norms reflecting equality of social status, social security and social welfare and
• The system facilitating a situation where the fruits of economic development reach all and especially the poor and deprived sections of the society.

1. Illiteracy, inequality and poverty adversely affect the functioning of Indian democracy,

• Illiterate citizens are not able to play their roles effectively and exercise meaningfully their right to vote which is an individual expression of the power of the people. Literacy enables citizens to be aware of various issues, problems, demands, and interests in the country, be conscious of the principles of liberty and equality of all and ensure that the representatives elected by them truly represent all the interests in the society,
• Poverty is perhaps the greatest bane of democracy. It is the root cause of all kinds of deprivations and inequalities and is the state of denial of opportunities to people to lead a healthy and fulfilling life.

2. Yes, the popular entertainment channels and films generally depict gender discrimination. In fact, the serials on television channels are reinforcing the prevailing patriarchal system showing females playing traditional roles of mothers, sisters, wives and daughters. It is true that a few of them question the traditional roles, but those also somehow reflect gender discrimination.

3. Caste System: The most detrimental and inhuman example of the prevailing caste system is the practice of untouchability which is continuing in different covert and overt ways in spite of the constitutional ban imposed on it.

• The Dalits still bear the brunt of discrimination and deprivation. This has led to segregation of so called low castes, depriving them of education and other social benefits. The second example relates to politicization of caste system. Casteism has become notorious as a strategy of exploitation of caste consciousness for narrow political gains.
• The caste system acts against the roots of democracy. Communalism: It disrupts quite often the smooth process of co-existence in a multi-religious Indian society Communal riots happening in the country since independence have been dangerous for peace order and social harmony. Secondly the misuse of religion by fundamentalist people during elections and even in other situations has always been proved to be counter-productive.

4. Although development process in the country aims alt growth and development of all regions, the regional disparities and imbalances continue to exist. Existence and continuation of regional inequalities in terms of differences in per capita income, literacy rates, state of health and educational infrastructure and services, population situation and levels of industrial and agricultural development both among States and within a State create a feeling of neglect, deprivation and discrimination.

5. The influence of muscle power in Indian politics has been a fact of life for a long time. Political parties and candidates do not hesitate in seeking the help of criminal elements to dominate the election scene in India. Earlier in the 1960’s, the criminals were content by covertly helping the politician win the election so that they could in turn get protection from him. But the roles have now been reversed. It is the politicians who now bank on the support of the criminals for protection.

6. One of the major reasons of increase of political violence has been the emergence of serious conflict of interests between higher and middle castes as an outcome of agricultural development, abolition of zamindari system, and developments like green revolution and white revolution. These have led to aggressive competition for political power which many a time leads to violence. Another reason is the backlash of the higher castes against the growing awareness and assertion of their rights by the lower castes, particularly the Scheduled Castes and the lowest backward castes. Moreover, violence has been associated with demands for separate States, re-organization of States or adjustment of State boundaries. As we observe, the Telangana Movement in Andhra Pradesh and Bodo Movement in Assam often turned violent. Violence has also been used quite frequently during industrial strikes, farmers’ movements, students’ agitations, and a number of other civil disobedience campaigns.

1. To attain the goal of universal literacy a nation-wide programme known as Saaksltar
Bharat is being implemented. Moreover, the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a flagship programme for the universalization of elementary education for children between 6-14 years of age. Besides, the Parliament of India in 2009 passed Right to Education Act through which education has become a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14 years. For poverty alleviation, two kinds of programmes are being implemented:

• Programmes to lift beneficiaries above poverty line by providing them with productive assets or skills or both so that they can employ themselves usefully and earn greater income, and
• Programmes to provide temporary wage employment for the poor and the landless. Public Distribution System (PDS) contributes towards meeting people’s basic food needs, the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) provides rural households below the poverty line with credit to purchase income-generating assets, the Jawahar Rbzgar Yojana (JRY), provides more than 700 million person days of work a year. Moreover, TRYSEM (Training Rural Youth for Self Employment) was started to provide technical skills to the rural youth and to help them to get employment.

2. Besides the State-specific efforts for reducing intra-State regional disparities, a number of Centrally Sponsored Programmes have been in operation for the last two to three decades for taking care of specific aspects of back wardness of such regions. Some of the major programmes are:

• the Tribal Development Programme,
• the Hill Area Development Programme,
• the Border Area Development Programme,
• the Western Ghat Development Programme,
• the Drought Prone Area Programme, and
• the Desert Development Programme.

3. For administrative reforms, the following recommendations need to be implemented:

• to make administration accountable and citizen friendly,
• to build its capacity for quality governance,
• to orient administration for promoting peoples’ participation, decentralization and devolution of powers,
• to make administrative decision-making process transparent,
• to improve the performance and integrity of the public services,
• to reinforce ethics in administration, and
• to inculcate readiness for e-governance. For judicial reforms, the steps that are to be taken are as follows:
  (a) Simplification of Rules and Procedures,
  (b) Repealing Out-dated Laws,
  (c) Increase in the Judge Population Ratio,
  (d) Time-bound filling of Vacant Posts in Judiciary, Transparency in Appointment, Promotion and Transfer of Judges,
  (e) Judicial Accountability and
  (f) Transparency of Court Proceedings.

4. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for the future generations. When the development is human-centred and directed towards improvement of quality of life of all the people, it has to be focused on removal of poverty, ignorance, discrimination, disease and unemployment.

All these steps will strengthen Indian democracy.
1. Participation in a democratic polity is not confined simply to participation in elections. A vital form of participation comes through membership of political parties and more importantly, active membership in independent non-governmental organizations, that are known as “civil society organizations.” Civil Society Organizations, represent a variety of interests of different groups: women, students, farmers, workers, doctors, teachers, business owners, religious believers and human rights activists.
2. Citizens have to make the democratic system responsive and responsible. They are needed to ensure that the Parliamentarians, Members of State Legislatures and their representatives in Panchayati Raj and Municipal Institutions are accountable. The instruments created by Right to Information Act, 2005 in our country enable citizens to play their role, effectively. Citizens must watch carefully how their political leaders and representatives use their powers, and to express their own opinions and interests.

Question 4.
What is JGSY?
Answer:
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) is a programme for the creation of rural economic infrastructure with employment generation as a secondary objective. The programme is implemented by the village panchayats and since its inception it has generated 27 crore men-days of employment each year. The Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) covers 1,778 drought-prone, desert, tribal arid hill area blocks. The programme was designed to provide employment in the form of manual work in the lean agricultural season.

Question 5.
What is Sustainable development?
Answer:
lt is a pattern causing resources that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations to come. The term was used by the Bruntland Commission (1987) which coined what has become the most often-quoted definition of sustainable development as development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Question 6.
What is MNREGA?
Answer:
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA) is being implemented to enhance the livelihood security of people in rural areas by guaranteeing hundred days of wage-employment in a financial year to a rural household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.

Question 7.
What are Goal and Objectives of National Policy for Empowerment of Women?
Answer:
The goal of this Policy is to bring about the advancement, development and empowerment of women. Specifically, the objectives of this Policy include:

• Creating an environment through positive economic and social policies for full development of women to enable them to realize their full potential;
• Equal access to participation and decision making of women in social, political and economic life of the nation;
• Equal access to women to health care, quality education at all levels, career and vocational guidance, employment, equal remuneration, occupational health and safety, social security and public office, etc.;
• Strengthening legal systems aimed at elimination of all forms of discrimination against women.
• Elimination of discrimination and all forms of violence against women and the girl child.

Question 8.
Define Democracy.
Answer:
It is a form of government in which the people are the source of all power. It is exercised by them either directly or indirectly through their elected representatives.

Question 9.
What is indirect democracy?
Answer:
Indirect democracy means the government formed by the elected representatives of the people. It governs on the basis of public opinion.

Question 10.
What is direct democracy?
Answer:
In direct democracy the people directly take part in the law-making. They can reject any law in a referendum and propose bills for law-making under initiative.

Question 11.
What are the modern devices of Direct Democracy?
Answer:
The major modem devices of direct democracy are referendum and initiative. By these two the people participate in the process of law-making.

Question 12.
What are the three dimensions of Democracy?
Answer:
(a) Political Dimension, (b) Social Dimension and (c) Economic Dimension.

Question 13.
What is Referendum?
Answer:
Referendum is the power of the people to .approve or reject any law passed by the legislature. They can demand referendum on any law and then vote to reject or approve it by a majority.

Question 14.
What is Initiative?
Answer:
Initiative is right of the people to propose measures for law making. They can submit bills or demands for law-making on which the legislature has to act.

Question 15.
Write two most essential features of a Democracy.
Answer:
(1) Faith in popular sovereignty and mass political participation and (2) Faith in liberalism and equal rights of all the people.

Question 16.
What is Recall?
Answer:
Recall is the right of the people to recall an elected representative in case it has not been acting according to the dictates of public opinion or who is misusing his authority as their representative.

Question 17.
What is the merits of initiative?
Answer:
(1) A law initiated by the people represents popular will. (2) It positively involves people in the law-making process.

Question 18.
What is the meaning of Plebiscite?
Answer:
It means to know the opinion of the people over any particular issue. It is a democratic way of knowing public opinion on any national issue.

Question 19.
What is popular sovereignty?
Answer:
Popular sovereignty means supremacy i.e. supreme power of the people. It is the very basis of a democracy.

Question 20.
What is a political party?
Answer:
Political party is a large political organisation of people.

Question 21.
What is the most major objective of a political party?
Answer:
The most major objective of a political party is secure political power in the state.

Question 22.
For which purpose political parties use political power?
Answer:
Political parties use political power for securing national interests of the country.

Question 23.
Which party is called the major party?
Answer:
Which secures a majority of seats in a legislature is called the majority party.

Question 24.
What is Bi-party system?
Answer:
When a state has only two or two major and some other political parties, the system is known as bi-party system.

Question 25.
What is multiparty system?
Answer:
When a large number of active political parties are involved in politics is known as multiparty system.

Question 26.
Which party system is not held to be really democratic?
Answer:
One party system is not hold to be really democratic.

Question 27.
By whom elections are basically fought?
Answer:
By political parties elections are basically fought.

Question 28.
What is meant by limited government?
Answer:
When the government of the state enjoys defined powers and a fined hence it is called a limited government. The constitution of the state defines the powers of such government and it always works within such limits.

Question 29.
What are the basic principles of Democracy?
Answer:
The basic principles of democracy are:

• Faith in popular sovereignty.
• Right to equality.
• Right to freedom.
• Representative and responsible government.
• Secret voting and free and fair election system.
• Decentralisation of powers.
• Limited government.
• Rule of law.
• Independence of judiciary.

Question 30.
What is universal adult franchise?
Answer:
When all the adult citizens, both men and women enjoy the right to vote, the system is called universal Adult Franchise. In every modem democratic system, the principle of universal Adult Franchise is essential.

Question 31.
What is direct democracy?
Answer:
In this form of democracy, people have the right and opportunity to directly participate in law-making. They have the power to approve or disapprove the laws passed by the legislature.

Question 32.
What is Indirect Democracy?
Answer:
Indirect democracy in which political power is used by the elected representative of the people. The elected representatives use the legislative and executive authority of the state for a fixed tenure.

Question 33.
What are the fundamental features of Liberal Democracy?
Answer:
The fundamental features of liberal democracy are:

• Faith in the ideology of liberalism and the principle of sovereignty of the people.
• Duly elected representative, limited and responsible government.
• Accountability of all public servants and power-holders.
• Transparency in the working of Government.
• Supremacy of public opinion.
• Mass political participation.

Question 34.
What is social inequality?
Answer:
Social inequality refers to the ways in which socially-defined categories of persons (according to characteristics such as gender, age, class and authenicity) are differentially positioned with regard to access to a variety of social ‘goods’ such as the labour market and other sources of income.

Question 35.
How the Indian Constitution grants constitutional and legal equality?
Answer:
Indian society continues to be a male dominated society. Women of India continue to live with certain inequalities and exploitations. The constitution of India grants equal fundamental rights to all the citizens. It declares that there is to be no discrimination on the basis of genders. Legally women enjoy equal opportunities for development as are being enjoyed by men.

Question 36.
What is the steps which Indian democracy must takes for eliminating social inequalities?
Answer:
Indian democracy must take several strong steps for eliminating social inequalities.
(1) To check caste based discrimination and violence through stronger laws,
policies and actions.
(2) To promote secularism as the way of life by suitably reforming the Indian
education system.
(3) To work for securing the empowerment of women by all.
(4) All women organisations like All India Women Conference and all non
government organisation (NGOs) must organise campaigns against social evils, particularly against casteism.
(5) Since social inequalities are mostly the products of ignorance and mad love for some age-old tradition, all the people must make concerted and collective efforts for creating widespread awareness against social evils.
(6) Our educational institutions, mass media and interest groups should try to build a strong public opinion against all social inequalities.
(7) Indian democracy must ensure that all the people should get encouraged to realise their responsibilities towards the nation.

Question 37.
What is Regionalism?
Answer:
Regionalism means the love for one’s area of living in a particular region to which one belongs. It is something quite natural. The inhabitants of Punjab love the language and culture and there is nothing unusual or wrong about it. To secure the interests of their state is a natural objective before all the inhabitants. This type of regionalism has to be accepted as a natural feature of a federal polity like India.

Question 38.
What is political violence?
Answer:
Violence is being used by some people, their groups and organizations for achieving their narrow political goals, it is called political violence. Several organizations, groups and individuals unfortunately believe that their political system or government will never respond to their political demands and consequently, they believe that use of violence is needed and justified for securing their political objectives.

Question 39.
What is Naxalism?
Answer:
The terms Naxal and Naxalism owe their origin to the village Naxal and Naxalbari movement (West Bengal). Naxalism or Naxal violence began as a violent opposition to the established order. It was basically a peasant and tribal movement against the existing socio-economic political system. It wanted to overthrow the established order by violent means. The Naxal movement had its birth in the late 1960s in the Naxalbari area of West Bengal.

Question 40.
What steps are needed for controlling Naxal violence?
Answer:
India government decided to use Indian Army and paramilitary forces for neutralizing and controlling the Naxal violence in the affected states.
The steps are needed for controlling Naxal violence :
(1) Modernisation, effective deployment and use of law and order enforcement
agencies.
(2) All necessary and well-designed systematic steps must be undertaken for the protection and promotion of the socio-economic welfare.
(3) Participation of all sections of people, particularly the poor peoples.
(4) Securing of sustainable development must be pursued as a priority.
(5) More employment opportunities must be created for poor, tribal people.
(6) Counter-Insurgency operations against the Naxals must be well-planned on efficiently executed.

Question 41.
Give one definition of a political party.
Answer:
Gilchrist writes “A political party may be defined as an orgnised group of citizens who profess to share the same political views and who, by acting as a political unit, try to control the government”.

Question 42.
What is One Party System?
Answer:
One party system is also called single party system. In it there is only one main political party which is continuously in power. One party system is held to be undemocratic.

Question 43.
Give three essential features of a political party.
Answer:
Three essential features of a political party are:
(1) A fairly large organised political association of people.
(2) Agreement on basic principles on ideology.
(3) Faith in peaceful and constitutional means.

Question 44.
Define Bi-party System.
Answer:
Party system exists in a state where there are either only two nearly equal popular political parties or two main political parties. However, there are also present some union or less influential political parties. People have the freedom to form their political parties but in actual practice there are present only two major political parties in . the country.

Question 45.
Define Multiparty System.
Answer:
Multiparty system means the presence of several equally influential political parties in the country. Several political parties are actively involved in the political process elections are contested by a large number of political parties.

Question 46.
Name some countries which have Multiparty System.
Answer:
Some countries which have multiparty system are: India, Switzerland, Japan, Italy and France.

Question 47.
What are the six main functions of political parties?
Answer:
The six main functions of political parties are:
(1) Formation of public opinion.
(2) Act as agencies of political education.
(3) Valuable agencies for recruitment of leaders.
(4) Formulation of Demands.
(5) Aggregation of public demands and taking these to the government.
(6) Formation of government or acting as opposition parties.

Question 48.
What is the merits of political parties?
Answer:
The merits of political parties are:
(1) Essential democratic actors of politics.
(2) Political parties are a source of rational unit.
(3) Political parties in opposition keep the government under check.
(4) Political parties are vital links between the people and their government.
(5) Parties act an agencies for the formulation of public opinion.

Question 49.
What is the demerits of political parties?
Answer:
The demerits in political parties are:
(1) Political parties are a source of divisions among the people.
(2) Political parties cannot reflect and clarify public opinion.
(3) Political parties are always dominated by rich people.
(4) Political parties are a source of disharmony and unhealthy opposition.
(5) Political parties are a source of dirty party politics and delays in law-making.
(6) Often give more importance to their interests over the national interests.

Question 50.
What is the role of political parties in a democracy?
Answer:
Political parties are essential for every democratic state. These act as the basic actors in politics. These continuously participate in the political process. In particular, these always contest elections. When a political party or an alliance of some political parties gets a majority, it forms the government and other parties act as opposition parties.

Question 51.
What is the meaning of “No party No Democracy”?
Answer:
Political parties are totally essential for the functioning of democracy. Without political parties elections cannot be held, government-making cannot be really done, there can be no real check in the exercise of government power, public opinion remains ambiguous and people do not get a real political party, no democratic government can really function. The absence of political parties means the presence of unreal democracy.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 1 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1:
Life span development psychology is the _____ psychology.
(a) Behaviour
(b) Development
(c) branch
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(c) branch

Question 2:
_____ has pointed out “not only description but also explication of age-related. changes is behaviour in terms of antecedent – consequent relationships”.
(a) La Bouvie
(b) Siegel
(c) Dietrich Tiedemarm’s
(d) both (a) and (b)
Answer:
(a) La Bouvie

Question 3:
Life span psychologists have six major objective ______.
(a) to find out what are the common and characteristic change.
(b) to find out when these changes occur.
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(c) both (a) and (b)

Question 4:
The baby biographies journals published in _____ year.
(a) 1787
(b) 1777
(c) 1767
(d) 1774
Answer:
(a) 1787

Question 5:
Who observations of his son’s sensory-motor, language and cognitive behaviour during the first 2.1/2 years.
(a) Siegel
(b) La Bouvie
(c) Dietrich Tiedemann’s
(d) none of the above.
Answer:
(c) Dietrich Tiedemann’s

Question 6:
In ____ year Daruin published notes on his son boddy’s sensory, cognitive and emotional development during his first twelve months.
(a) 1877
(b) 1904
(c) 1916
(d) 1922
Answer:
(a) 1877

Question 7:
Who has explained structures are “far from being static and given him the start?
(a) Van den Dacle
(b) Piaget
(c) GStancbey
(d) Daniel Uvirson.
Answer:
(b) Piaget

Question 8:
Who called the first year the oral stage.
(a) Freud
(b) Erikson
(c) Darkein
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) Freud

Question 9:
Categories of stress in middle Adulthood are
(a) Somatic stress
(b) Cultural stress
(c) Economic stress
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 10:
Who has explained “Life span psychology was preoccupied with ages and stages. Investigators sought to learn the typical age at which various stages of’ development occurred”
(a) La Bouvie
(b) Siegel
(c) Dietrich
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) Siegel

Question 11:
G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in child study published “popular book is called _____.
(a) Adolescence
(b) Senescence
(c) baby biographies
(d) none of the above.
Answer:
(a) Adolescence

Question 12:
_____ causes more neonatal deaths.
(a) prematurity
(b) postmaturity
(c) both (a) and
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) prematurity

Question 13:
_____ theory is major impacts in education.
(a) Erikson
(b) Piaget
(c) Fraid
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(b) Piaget

Question 14:
Characteristics of adolescence is
(a) Adolescence is an important period.
(b) Adolencence is a transactional period.
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the above
Answer:
(c) both (a) and (b)

Question 15:
The word adult comes from the same Latin verb as the term adolescence – adult care which means _____.
(a) grown to full size and strength
(b) to grow to maturity
(c) only (a)
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) to grow to maturity

True/False questions

Question 1:
La Bounce has pointed out is “not only description but also explication of age-related changes in behaviour in terms of antecedent consequent relationships”
Answer:
True

Question 2:
Development psychologists study developmental change not covering life span.
Answer:
False

Question 3:
Baby biographies journal published in 1787 in England.
Answer:
False

Question 4:
In 1877 Drawin published notes on his son noddy’s sensory.
Answer:
True

Question 5:
Piget has pointed out “development implies qualitative change”
Answer:
False

Question 6:
Life span development is not branch of psychology.
Answer:
False

Question 7:
The human beings are never static.
Answer:
True

Question 8:
Miller has said, “In all the rest of his life there will never be such a sudden and complete change of locale”
Answer:
True

Question 9:
Prematurity causes more neonatal deaths.
Answer:
True

Question 10:
Freud the first year of the oral stage.
Answer:
True

Very short answer questions with answers

Question 1:
Appearance
Answer:
Developments that improve one’s appearance are welcome and lead to favorable attitudes while those that detract from one’s appearance are resisted and every possible attempt is made to camouflage them.

Question 2:
Cultural Values
Answer:
Each culture has certain values associated with different ages. Because maximum productivity is associated with young through early middle-age adulthood, attitudes toward this age group are more favorable than attitudes toward other ages.

Question 3:
Hereditary Endowment
Answer:
The first important happening at the time of conception is the determination of the newly created individual’s hereditary endowment. The contributions to this endowment from both parents and from both maternal and “paternal ancestors.

Question 4:
Number of Offspring
Answer:
The third important happening at the time of conception or shortly thereafter is the determination of the number of offspring there will be. While most humans are singletons, multiple births also occur.

Question 5:
Mental Development
Answer:
Mental similarities between identical twins are much greater than between nonidentical twins and this persists into old age. Identical twins also show strong similarities in terms of special abilities, such as musical and artistic aptitudes.

Question 6:
Personality Development
Answer:
Many twins have difficulty in developing a sense of personal identity. This is especially true of identical twins and of nonidentical twins of the same sex. Others enjoy the close relationship of twinship and the attention they receive as a result of their similarity in appearance. This leads to self-satisfaction and self-confidence.

Question 7:
Physical Hazards
Answer:
Each of the three major subdivisions of the prenatal period involves particular physical hazards. While these do not affect all individuals by any means, they do occur with some frequency and can be serious enough to affect the development of the individual throughout life.

Question 8:
Infancy Is a Hazardous Period
Answer:
Infancy is a hazardous period, both physically and psychologically. Physically, it is hazardous because of the difficulties of making the necessary radical adjustments to the totally new and different environment. The high infant mortality rate is evidence of this. Psychologically, infancy is hazardous because it is the time when the attitudes of significant people toward the infant are crystallized.

Question 9:
Elimination:
Answer:
The infant’s organs of elimination begin to work soon after birth; formerly, waste products were eliminated through the umbilical cord. Every newborn infant finds adjustment to postnatal life difficult at first. Some have trouble adjusting to temperature changes and develop colds, which may turn into pneumonia. Others find breathing difficult and must be given oxygen.

Question 10:
Prematurity:
Answer:
Prematurity causes -more neonatal deaths than any other condition. Prematurely born infants are also especially susceptible to brain damage at birth because the skull is not yet developed enough to protect the brain from pressures experienced during birth. Anoxia is another common problem since the premature baby’s respiratory mechanism is not fully developed.

Short answer questions with answers

Question 1:
Developmental tasks of early childhood.
Answer:
Although the foundations of some of the developmental tasks young children are expected to master before they enter school are laid in toddlerhood, much remains to be learned in the relatively short four-year span of early childhood. When toddlerhood ends, all normal babies have learned to walk, though with varying degrees of proficiency; have learned to take solid foods and have achieved a reasonable degree of physiological stability.

The major task of learning to control the elimination of body wastes has been almost completed and will be fully mastered within another year or two.While most babies have built up a useful vocabulary, have reasonably correct pronunciation of the words they use, can comprehend the meaning of simple statements and commands and can put together several words into meaningful sentences, their ability to communicate with others and to comprehend what others say to them is still on a low level. Much remains to be mastered before they enter school.

Similarly, they have some simple concepts of social and physical realities, but far too few to meet their needs as their social horizons broaden and as their physical environment expands.Few babies know more than the most elementary facts about sex differences and even fewer understand the meaning of sexual modesty. It is questionable whether any babies, as they enter early childhood, actually know what is sex- appropriate in appearance and they have only the most rudimentary understanding of sex-‘ appropriate behavior.

Question 2:
Nutrition.
Answer:
With the transition to early childhood, many children become unpredictable and choosy eaters. This decline in appetite is normal. It occurs because growth has slowed. Furthermore, preschoolers’ wariness of new foods may be adaptive. By sticking to familiar foods, they are less likely to swallow dangerous substances when adults are not around to protect them. Parents need not worry about variations in amount eaten from meal to meal.

Preschoolers compensate for a meal in which they ate little with a later one in which they eat more. Even though they eat less, preschoolers need a high-quality diet.They require the same foods adults do-only smaller amounts. Fats, oils, and salt should be kept to a minimum because of their link to high blood, pressure and heart disease in adulthood. Foods high in sugar should also be avoided. In addition to causing tooth decay, they lessen young children’s appetite for healthy foods and increase their risk of overweight and obesity.

The social environment powerfully influences young children’s food preferences. Children tend to imitate the food choices of people they admire-adults as well as peers. A pleasant mealtime climate also encourages healthy eating. Repeated exposure to a new food (without any direct pressure to eat it) increases children’s acceptance. Sometimes parents bribe their children, saying, “Finish your vegetables and you can have an extra cookie.

Question 3:
Piget Theory.
Answer:
Piaget’s theory has had a major impact on education, especially during early childhood. Three educational principles derived from his theory continue to have a widespread influence on teacher training and classroom practices:

Discovery learning:
In a Piagetian classroom,’ children are encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment. Instead of presenting ready-made knowledge verbally, teachers provide a rich variety of activities designed to promote exploration-art materials, puzzles, table games, dress-up clothing, building blocks, books, measuring tools, musical instruments and more.

Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn:
A Piagetian classroom does not try to speed up development. Instead, Piaget believed that appropriate learning experiences build on children’s current thinking. Teachers watch and listen to their students, introducing experiences that enable them to practice newly discovered schemes and that are likely to challenge their incorrect ways of viewing the world. But teachers do not impose new skills before children indicate they are interested and ready.

Acceptance of individual differences:
Piaget’s theory assumes that all children go through the same sequence of development but at different rates. Therefore, teachers must plan activities for individual children and small groups rather than just for the whole class. In addition, teachers evaluate educational progress by comparing each child to that child’s own previous development. They are less interested in how children measure up to normative standards or the average performance of same-age peers.

Question 4:
Erikson’s Theory.
Answer:
Erikson described early childhood as a period of “vigorous unfolding.” Once children have a sense of autonomy, they become less contrary than they were as toddlers. Their energies are freed for tackling the psychological conflict of the preschool years: initiative versus guilt. As the word initiative suggests, young children have a new sense | of purposefulness. They are eager to tackle new tasks, join in activities with peers and discover what they can do with the help Of adults. And they also make strides in conscience development.

Erikson regarded play as a central means through which young children find out about themselves and their social world. Play permits preschoolers to-tryout new skills with little risk of criticism and failure. It also creates a small social organization of children who must cooperate to achieve common goals. Around the world, children act out family scenes and highly visible occupations-police officer, doctor and nurse. It is known Erikson’s theory builds on Freud’s psychosexual stages.

In Freud’s well-known Oedipus and Electra v, conflicts, to avoid punishment and maintain the affection of parents, children form a superego, or conscience, by identifying with the same-sex parent. That is, they take the parent’s characteristics into their personality and as a result, adopt the moral and gender role standards of their society. Each time the child disobeys standards of conscience, painful feelings of guilt occur.

Question 5:
Define two characteristics of adolescence.
Answer:
Like every important period during the life span, adolescence has certain characteristics that distinguish it from the periods that preceded it and the periods that will follow it. These characteristics are explained briefly below.

Adolescence is an important period:
As all periods in the life span are important, some are more important than others because of their immediate effects on attitudes and behavior, whereas others are significant because of their long-term effects. Adolescence is one of the periods when, both the immediate effects and long-term effects are important. Some periods are important for their physical and some for their psychological effects.
Adolescence is important for both. Accompanying these rapid and important physical developments, especially during the early adolescent period, rapid mental developments occur. These give rise to the need for mental adjustments and the necessity for establishing new attitudes, values and interests.

Adolescence is a transitional period:
Transition does not mean a break with or a change from what has gone before but rather a passage from one stage of development to another. This means that what has happened before will leave its mark on what happens now and in the future. Children, when they go from childhood to adulthood, must “put away childish things” and they must also learn new patterns of behavior and attitudes to replace those they have abandoned.

Question 6:
What is the Goal of Life span Changes?
Answer:
It is to enable people to adapt to the environment in which they live. To achieve this goal, self-realization, or, as it is sometimes called, ‘Self-actualization,” is essential. However, this goal is never static. It may be considered an urge-the urge to do what one is fitted to do, the urge to become the person, both physically and psychologically, that one wants to be. The way people express this urge depends on the individual’s innate abilities and training, not only during the early, formative years of childhood but also as he or she grows older and comes under greater pressures to conform to social expectations.

Since self-realization plays an important role in mental health, people who make good personal and social adjustments must have opportunities to express their interests and desires in ways that give them satisfaction but, at the same time, conform to accepted standards. Lack of these opportunities will result in frustrations and generally negative attitudes toward people and toward life in general.

Question 7:
Write the aspects that influence attitudes toward Life span changes?
Answer:
Appearance: Developments that improve one’s appearance are welcome and lead to favorable attitudes while those that detract from one’s appearance are resisted and every possible attempt is made to camouflage them.

1. Behaviour:
   As and when behaviour changes are disconcerting, as during puberty and senescence, they affect attitudes toward the changes unfavorably. The reverse is true when changes are favorable, as occurs, for example, when the helplessness of babyhood gradually gives way to the independence of childhood.
2. Cultural Stereotypes:
   From mass media, people learn cultural stereotypes associated with different ages and they use these stereotypes to judge people of those ages.
3. Cultural Values:
   Each culture has certain values associated with different ages. Because maximum productivity is associated with young through early middle-age adulthood, attitudes toward this age group are more favorable than attitudes toward other ages.
4. Role Changes:
   Attitudes toward people of different ages are greatly influenced by the roles they play. When people change their roles to less favorable ones, as in the case of retirement or widowhood, social attitudes toward them are less sympathetic.
5. Personal Experiences:
   Personal experiences have a profound effect on an individual’s attitude toward developmental changes. Since the authority and prestige of middle-aged executives decreases as they approach retirement, their attitudes toward aging are, for example, unfavorably affected. These attitudes are intensified by unfavorable social attitudes.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Objective Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the causes of tension in our federal system?
(a) Centre state relations
(b) Demand for autonomy
(c) Role of governors and president’s rule
(d) Demand for new states
Answer:
(a) Centre state relations

Question 2.
Into how many countries did USSR disintegrate?
(a) 14
(b) 15
(c) 16
(d) 17
Answer:
(b) 17

Question 3.
In which country Treaty of Chaguaramas was signed?
(a) West Indies
(b) Nigeria
(c) Uzbekistan
(d) Pakistan
Answer:
(a) West Indies

Question 4.
When was treaty of Chaguaramas signed?
(a) 1972
(b) 1973
(c) 1974
(d) 1975
Answer:
(b) 1973

Question 5.
When was federation of West Indies came into being?
(a) 1956
(b) 1957
(c) 1958
(d) 1985
Answer:
(c) 1958

Question 6.
When was USSR disintegrated?
(a) 1991
(b) 1989
(c) 1992
(d) 1993
Answer:
(a) 1991

Question 7.
Who settles disputes between center and states?
(a) executive
(b) legislature
(c) judiciary
(d) tribunals
Answer:
(c) judiciary

Question 8.
In which conference Nigerian federal constitution was formed?
(a) Ibadan
(b) Carribean
(c) Zizac
(d) Yoruba
Answer:
(a) Ibadan

Question 9.
When was Ibadan constitutional conference held?
(a) 1951
(b) 1950
(c) 1952
(d) 1953
Answer:
(b)1950

Question 10.
Which is not the ethnic group of Nigeria?
(a) Yoruba
(b) Ikoba
(c) Ibo
(d) Hausa fulani
Answer:
(b) Ikoba

Question 11.
When was the democracy restored in Nigeria?
(a) 1998
(b) 1997
(c) 1999
(d) 2000
Answer:
(c) 1999

Question 12.
Which is not the List in our Constitution?
(a) Panchayat List
(b) Union List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) State List
Answer:
(a) Panchayat List

Question 13.
Any matter that is not mentioned in any of the Lists come under which List?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary List
Answer:
(d) Residuary List

Question 14.
In which List can both State and Union can legislate?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(c) Concurrent List

Question 15.
In which list does defense comes?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 16.
In which List does local government come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(b)State List

Question 17.
In which List does atomic energy come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 18.
In which list does foreign affairs come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 19.
In which list does war and peacemaking come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 20.
In which List does Banking come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 21.
In which list does railways come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 22.
In which list does education come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary
Answer:
(c) Concurrent List

Question 23.
In which list does cyber laws comes?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(d) Residuary Powers

Question 24.
In which list does state public services come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(b)State List

Question 25.
In which list does police come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(b) State List

Question 26.
In which list does airways come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 27.
In which list does currency and coinage come?
(a) Union List
(b) State List
(c) Concurrent List
(d) Residuary Powers
Answer:
(a) Union List

Question 28.
Article which protects officers during martial law?
(a) 33
(b) 35
(c) 36
(d) 37
Answer:
(a) 33

Question 29.
Article which shows that executive power of union is superior than states?
(a) 281
(b) 280
(c) 259
(d) 257
Answer:
(d)257

Question 30.
Which factor does not centralize the federal system?
(a) Financial.resources
(b) Chief Minister
(c) Power for formation of new States
(d) All India Services
Answer:
(b) Chief Minister

Question 31.
Article which declares president’s rule in the state?
(a) Article357
(b) Article 355
(c) Article 356
(d) Article 358
Answer:
(c) Article 356

Question 32.
After which period did the imposition of president’s rule increase?
(a) 1967
(b) 1968
(c) 1969
(d) 1970
Answer:
(a) 1967

Question 33.
Which part in Andhra Pradesh has been demanding a separate statehood?
(a) Rayalseema
(b) Vidarbha
(c) Telangana
(d) Marijuana
Answer:
(c) Telangana

Question 34.
When was the states reorganisation committee set up?
(a) 1954
(b) 1955
(c) 1956
(d) 1957
Answer:
(a) 1954

Question 35.
In which year Gujarat and Maharashtra was created?
(a) 1964
(b) 1963
(c) 1962
(d) 1960
Answer:
(d) 1960

Question 36.
In which year Haryana and Punjab was separated?
(a) 1968
(b) 1967
(c) 1966
(d) 1965
Answer:
(c) 1966

Question 37.
The best form of federalism suited for countries like India is:
(a) Centralised federalism
(b) Bargaining federalism
(c) Cooperative federalism
(d) Conflicting federalism
Answer:
(c) Cooperative federalism

Question 38.
The Finance Commission is constituted to recommend criteria for
(a) Framing a finance bill.
(b) Preparing the annual budget of Union Govt.
(c) Distribution offinancial resources between union & the state.
(d) Auditing the receipts & expenditure of the union govt.
Answer:
(c) Distribution of financial resources between union & the state.

Question 39.
Sarkaria Commission Report was officially received by the Govt, in
(a) 1969
(b) 1970
(c) 1976
(d) 1988
Answer:
(d) 1988

Question 40.
Which of the following states has a separate constitution of its own?
(a) Andhra Pradesh
(b) Karanataka
(c) Tamil Nadu
(d) Jammu & Kashmir
Answer:
(d) Jammu & Kashmir

Question 41.
The Members of the Finance Commission are appointed by the President & this qualifications are determined by-
(a) President
(b) Parliament
(c) Prime Minister
(d) Speakers of Lok Sabha
Answer:
(b) Parliament

Question 42.
Under which Article, the Governor can reserve the bill for the consideration of the President?
(a) 198
(b) 200
(c) 201
(d) 202
Answer:
(c) 201

Question 43.
Which of the following items has been added in the Union list?
(a) Deployment ofarmed forces of the Union is any state
(b) Fisheries
(c) Tanes on lands and buildings
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) Deployment of armed forces of the Union is any state

Question 44.
Which of the following has been added to the Concurrent List?
(a) Social security
(b) Electricity
(c) Protection of wild animals & birds
(d) Social Planning
Answer:
(c) Protection of wild animals & birds

Question 45.
Match List I with List II
A. Union List 1. Forest
B. State List 2. Police
C. Concurrent 3. Banking
Code ABC
(a) 1 2 3
(b) 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2
(d) 2 3 1
Answer:
(b) 3 2 1

Question 46.
Who describes the Indian Federation as a cooperative federation?
(a) Grandville Austin
(b) Sir Ivor Jennings
(c) K.C. Wheare
(d) Alex and Rowicz
Answer:
(a) Grandville Austin

Consider the following statements.
A. In a federation the powers of the federal and provincial governments are clearly
demarcated.
B. India is a federation because the powers of the Union and State Governments are specified in the Constitution and they have exclusive jurisdiction over their respective subjects.
C. Sri Lanka is a federation because the country is divided into provinces.
D. India is no longer a federation because some powers of the states have been
devolved to the local government bodies.

Question 47.
Which of the statements given above is correct?
(a) A, B and C
(b) A, C and D
(c) A and B only
(d) B and C only
Answer:
(c) A and B only

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 1 Democracy in India Objective Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 1 Democracy in India Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Who among the following is the founder of the Bahujan Samaj Party?
(a) Kanshi Ram
(b) Sahu Maharaj
(c) B.R. Ambedker
(d) Jotiba Phule
Answer:
(a) Kanshi Ram.

Question 2.
What is the guiding philosophy of the Bharatiya Janata Party?
(a) Bahujan Samaj
(b) Revolutionary democracy
(c) Integral humanism
(d) Modernity
Answer:
(d) Modernity

Question 3.
Consider the following statements on parties.
(a) Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people.
(b) Parties are often rocked by scandals involving top party leaders.
(c) Parties are not necessary to run governments.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) (a) (b) and (c)
(b) (a) and (b)
(c) (b) and (c)
(d) (a) and (c)
Answer:
(b) (a) and (b)

Question 4.
The basis of Democracy is-
(a) Elected government
(b) Welfare State
(c) Bicameralism
(d) Popular Sovereignty
Answer:
(d) Popular Sovereignty

Question 5.
Which is a dimension of Democracy?
(a) Political democracy
(b) Social democracy
(c) Economic democracy
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 6.
A democratic government is-
(a) Elected government
(b) Responsible government
(c) Limited government
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(d) All the above.

Question 7.
Which of the following is not a feature of democratic government?
(a) Rule of one person
(b) Limited government
(c) Responsible government
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(a) Rule of one person

Question 8.
Indirect democracy is known as:
(a) Representative government
(b) Government of the public
(c) Non direct democracy
(d) Elected government
Answer:
(a) Representative government

Question 9.
Who said democracy is a government in which everyone has a share?
(a) Seeley
(b) Dicey
(c) Bryee
(d) Abraham Lincoln
Answer:
(a) Seeley

Question 10.
Direct Democracy is based upon the principle of:
(a) Direct Election
(b) Direct: participation of the/people in the work of the government.
(c) Sovereignty of State
(d) Rule of all.
Answer:
(b) Direct: Participation of the people in the work of the government.

Question 11.
Which is the most essential condition for the success of democracy?
(a) Economic equality
(b) Enlightened citizenship
(c) Democratic citizenship
(d) All the above
Answer:
(d) All the above

Question 12.
Initiative means:
(a) The system of representation.
(b) Right of the people to propose legislation.
(c) Right to approve legislation.
(d) The system of legislation.
Answer:
(b) Right of the people to propose legislation.

Question 13.
Referendum is a:
(a) Positive device
(b) Negative device
(c) Device of delegated legislation
(d) Legislative device.
Answer:
(b) Negative device

Question 14.
Which is not a device of direct democracy?
(a) Recall
(b) Representation
(c) Initiativer
(d) Referendum
Answer:
(b) Representation

Question 15.
Electorate means :
(a) Those who actually vote
(b) All the voters
(c) The right to vote
(d) Contestants in an election. ,
Answer:
(b) All the voters

Question 16.
A Representative Democracy has :
(a) Representative government
(b) Limited government
(c) Responsible and accountable government
(d) All the above.
Answer:
(d) All the above.

Question 17.
The system of direct legislation by all the people of a Canton is known in Switzerland as:
(a) Landesgemeimde
(b) Direct law making
(c) Popular law making
(d) Delegated legislation.
Answer:
(a) Landesgemeimde

Question 18.
The other name of representative democracy is :
(a) Direct Democracy
(b) Indirect Democracy
(c) Limited Democracy
(d) Partial Democracy
Answer:
(b) Indirect Democracy

Question 19.
Democracy cannot function without:
(a) Political parties
(b) Elections
(c) Electorate
(d) All these three
Answer:
(d) All these three

Question 20.
Referendum means :
(a) Reference
(b) Refer from
(c) Refer there
(d) Refer to
Answer:
(d) Refer to

Question 21.
Democracy has a form faith in the ideology of:
(a) Gandhism
(b) Socialists
(c) Individualism
(d) Liberalism
Answer:
(d) Liberalism

Question 22.
In universal adult franchise :
(a) All the people have the right to vote
(b) All adult women have the right to vote
(c) All adult men have right to vote
(d) AH adults have the right to vote
Answer:
(d) All adults have the right to vote

Question 23.
The inauguration of the Constitution of India on:
(a) 15th August 1947
(b) 23rd Feb. 1972
(c) 12th March 1962
(d) 26th January 1950
Answer:
(d) 26th January 1950

Question 24.
Which Article of the Constitution of India calls upon the state to provide adequate means of livelihood to men and women?
(a) Article 39
(b) Article 48
(c) Article 52
(d) Article 72
Answer:
(a) Article 39

Question 25.
Which Act is the criminal law Amendment?
(a) Act 1973
(b) Act 1983
(c) Act 1953
(d) Act 1963
Answer:
(b) Act 1983

Question 26.
Which Acts have given 30% reservation to women in Panchayati Raj and Urban local government Institution?
(a) 64th and 65th Amendment Acts
(b) 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts
(c) 45th and 46th Amendment Acts
(d) 84th and 85th Amendment Acts
Answer:
(b) 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts

Question 27.
Which Article of the Constitution of India calls upon the State to provide adequate means of livelihood?
(a) Article 39
(b) Article 56 .
(c) Article 48
(d) Article 93
Answer:
(a) Article 39

Question 28.
Which Act is the Dowry Prohibition?
(a) Act 1961
(b) Act 1972
(c) Act 1895
(d)Act 1983
Answer:
(a) Act 1961 .

Question 29.
Who among the following is the founder of the Bahujan Samaj Party?
(a) Kanshi Ram
(b) Sakshi Maharaj
(c) B.R. Ambedkar
(d) Jatiba Phule
Answer:
(a) Kanshi Ram

Question 30.
What is the guiding philosophy of the Bharatiya Janta Party?
(a) Bahujan Samaj
(b) Revolutionary democracy
(c) Integral humanism
(d) Modernity
Answer:
(d) Modernity

Question 31.
Indian National Congress was established-
(a) 1906
(b) 1885
(c) 1872
(d) 1892
Answer:
(b) 1885

Question 32.
Who observed “No Party No Democracy”?
(a) Munro
(b) Duvergen
(c) Gettell
(d) Burke
Answer:
(a) Munro

Question 33.
Most visible, function of political parties is?
(a) Formulation of Public opinion
(b) Policy-making
(c) Contesting elections
(d) Social Reforms
Answer:
(c) Contesting elections

Question 34.
The basis of organisation of a pressure group is-
(a) Ideology
(b) Interests
(c) Leadership
(d) Needs
Answer:
(b) Interests

Question 35.
Which is consider to be a better party system?
(a) Bi-Party system
(b) Lack of Party system
(c) Multi-Party systein
(d) Single-Party system.
Answer:
(a) Bi-Party system

True or False

1. Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) is a programme for the creation of rural economic infrastructure.
Answer: True

2. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is not a flagship programme for the universalization of elementary education.
Answer: False

3. Public Distribution System (PDS) contributes towards meeting people’s basic food needs.
Answer: True

4. During the 1990s non-food items like clothes, employment, shelter, education, etc. got included in the definition of poverty.
Answer: True

5. W.C. Bonnarjee was the first President of the Indian National Congress.
Answer: True

6. The two Communist Parties are the Communist Party of India (CPI) and the. Communist Party of India (Marxist)
Answer: True

7. In 2008 passed the Right to Education Act through which education has become a fundamental right for all children of age group 6-14 years.
Answer: False

8. The United Kingdom (UK) has not bi-party systems.
Answer: False

9. The United Kingdom (UK), the United States of America (USA), Australia and New Zealand has bi-party systems.
Answer: True

10. The BSP acquired the status of a national party in 1996.
Answer: True

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Provisions in the Indian Constitution of Federalism with strong central government

• Formation of states or merger of states of two or more states into one is in the hands of Parliament, the parliament has powers to form a new state or merge with old states or change the name of any state.
• Our centre has important and powerful emergency powers which can turn a federal system into highly centralised. During emergency, parliament takes the power of states from state list. That means, in these emergency situations, centre will legislate on state list.
• Under normal conditions, centre has important financial powers, items generating revenue are under the control of central government, therefore, centre has many financial resources and states are dependent on grants and financial resources from centre.
• In terms of planning and development of the entire country, it adopted centralisation. Planning Commission was appointed by union government that will control, supervise and manage the resources ofstates and union government uses its discretion to give grants and loans to states.
• The position of governor in states is also a sign of centralisation. The Governor can recommend dismissal of state government and dissolution of assembly. He also has the power to keep the bill with himself rather than passing to president for his assent, this leads to delay in passing the bill by state legislation.
• There may be situations where the centre needs to legislate in state list. This can happen if the Rajya Sabha agrees. The constitution clearly says that executive power of centre is superior than executive power of states. Article 257(1) says that executive power of states should be exercised in such a way that it does not disturb the functioning or exercise of powers of union, and the executive power of the union can give directions to state government if it appears necessary.
• The central government may choose to give instructions to the state government.
• We are also having an All India Services. These officers are under control of central government but serve in the administration of states. States cannot remove these officers nor can take disciplinary action.
• Articles 33 and 34 authorise parliament to protect officers of union or states if these officers have taken any action during the martial law to maintain peace and order. Armed Forces Special Powers Act has been made on these basis but this act has created tensions because a officer will not be penalised or punished if he/she has done any wrong in a state or part of country where there is martial law.

Question 1.
How has central government controlled the financial resources of states?
Answer:
The central government has effective financial resources. Firstly, interims generating revenue are under the control of central government. Therefore, central government has many revenue sources and states are dependent on grants and financial assistance from centre. Secondly, union also appointed Planning Commission for the socio-economic progress and development of the country. This led to centralisation where the Planning Commission coordinated, controlled and supervised the resources ofthe states.

Question 2.
How does the position of governor led to the centralisation of resources?
Answer:
Governor has power to recommend the dismissal of state government and dissolution of state assembly. In normal circumstances also, Governor has the power to reserve a bill passed by state legislature for the assent of the President. This gives the central government an opportunity to delay the state legislation and examine bills and veto them.

Question 3.
How has all India services centralised our federal system?
Answer:
The all India services are common to the entire territory of India and officers selected serve in the states, states on the other hand cannot take disciplinary action nor can they remove these officers from service.

Question 4.
What is articles 33 and 34?
Answer:
Articles 33 and 34 authorise the parliament to protect the persons in the service of nation or a state in respect of any action taken by them during martial law to maintain law and order.

Conflicts in India’s Federal System:

Although the distribution of powers between centre and states is well defined in the Indian constitution. But still many conflicts has taken place between centre and states for demanding autonomy, for share in resources, for demanding new states and conflicts between states have also arisen. This topic will deal with some of these conflicts.

Centre states relations: Federalism in India has been influenced by political process of the country. In the 1950s and 1960s when there was Congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio-economic progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, Congress ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.

But in the 1960s Congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition parties came to power, they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not want centre to intervene in their state’s affairs everytime. And the Congress which was ruling at centre in 1960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with opposition parties in states.

And in 1990s coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states. So, this resulted in greater say for the states, a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So, therefore, in this second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Question 1.
What has been centre state relations since the time of independence?
Answer:
In 1950s and 1960s when there was Congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio-economic progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, Congress ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.

But in 1960s Congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition parties came to power, they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not want centre to intervene in their state’s affairs everytime. And the Congress which was ruling at centre in 1 960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with different and opposition parties in states.

And in 1990s, coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states. So,this resulted in greater say for the states, a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So, therefore, in this second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Question 2.
How was the centre state relations in the 1990s?
Answer:
In 1990s, coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states. So,this resulted in greater say for the states, a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So, therefore, in this second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Question 3.
What kind of federalism did we see in 1990s?
Answer:
In 1990s we saw more of mature federalism where states had greater say and less intervention by centre, and coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was:a different government at centre and different government at states. So, this resulted in a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. And the issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Demand for autonomy:

The other nature of conflict which arose in federalism was related to demand of autonomy. The states had started demanding more independence to govern their state of affairs. Now the question is what kind of autonomy? Autonomy means different things to different states and parties. Parties like DMK, akali dal, CPI-M, had demanded division of powers in favor of
states and more important powers to be assigned to states.

They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of revenue and greater control resources. if you remember, we learnt that centre has control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in West Bengal brought out a document demanding the restructuring of centre and state relations. Which means that the states wanted more independence to be given to them. Tamilnadu and Punjab also demanded greater financial powers

They are also angry about greater administrative control through All India Services. States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.

The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For example, Tamilnadu was opposed to domination of Hindi and the Punjabi culture. In 1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these states thought that they are trying to spread Hindi and Punjabi culture and this will destroy their own South Indian culture.

Question 1.
What kinds of autonomy demands were made by states?
Answer:
Autonomy demands made by states were:
Parties like DMK, Akali Dal, CPI(M) had demanded division of power in favor of states and more important powers to be assigned to states.

They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of revenue and greater control of resources. if you remember, we learnt that centre has control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in West Bengal brought out a document demanding restructuring of centre and state relations. Tamil Nadu and Punjab also demanded the same.

They are also angry about greater administrative control through All India Services. States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.

The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For example, Tamil Nadu was opposed to the domination of Hindi and the Punjabi culture. In 1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these states thought that they are trying to spread Hindi and Punjabi culture and this will destroy their own South Indian culture.

Role of Governors during President’s Rule:

The position of governor has also become a source of conflict for centre state relations and tension for federalism. The governor is not an elected office but many governors have been retired military officers or civil servants or politicians. And also governor is appointed by central government. So governor is seen as an interfere in the affairs of state. The Sarkaria Commission which was appointed in 1983 and submitted its report in 1988 to give recommendations of centre-state relations, recommended’ that appointments of governor should be strictly non partisan and impartial.

Article 356 is also a source of controversy as this article provides for President’s Rule in any state. It means that ifthe government ofthe state can not be carried in accordance of the provisions of the Constitution then the President’s Rule is declared. And the state government is taken over by Union Government. The President’s proclamation has to be ratified by parliament and President’s Rule can be extended till three years.

Governor has the power to dismiss the state government which means that governor can remove the state government in power or suspend it. This power was misused and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority for example: in Kerala in 1959.

Article 356 was used occasionally till 1967. After 1967 many states had non Congress states and the Congress was in centre. Sp centre used this provision of article 356 to remove elected governments as in Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in 1980’s.

Question 1.
How the position of governor has centralised our federalism?
Answer:
The position of governor has centralised our federalism. The governor is not an elected office and many governors have been retired military officers or civil servants or politicians. The appointment of governor has been by central government. So governor is seen as an interference in the affairs of state.

Article 356 has also been used by centre to assert its control over the state. This article provides for President’s Rule in any state. It means that if the government of the state cannot be carried in accordance of the provisions of the constitution then the President’s Rule is declared. And the state government is taken over by union government. And along with this Governor also has the power to dismiss the state government or suspend it. This power has been misused and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority for example: in Kerala in 1959, Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in 1980s.

Question 2.
What is Sarkaria Commission?
Answer:
Sarkaria Commission was the commission which was appointed in 1983 to look into centre-state relations.

Question 3.
What was the recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission ?
Answer:
The recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission was that appointments of governors should be strictly non partisan.

Question 4.
Why was the Sarkaria commission appointed?
Answer:
After the decline in the dominance of Congress in the states, states started demanding autonomy and less interference in their state’s affairs. Centre state relations were leading to constant source of tensions. That is why Sarkaria Commission was appointed.

Question 6.
What is article 356?
Answer:
Article 356 says that if a situation has arisen in which the government of the state cannot be carried in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, President’s Rule can be declared in that state.

Demand for New States :
The other factor which is leading to source of in our federal system is demands for new states. Initially the demand for new states was for conserving their identity and their culture. So in 1954, the states reorganization commission was set up and it recommended creation of states on a linguistic basis. It means that states will be formed on the basis of language. Gujarat and Maharashtra were created in 1960, Punjab and Haryana were separated in 1966. North East region was reorganised and several new states were formed like Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.

Since 1990s, demand for further states have been made. It is made on the reason that development have net been able to reach these parts ofthe country. Three new states have been formed Jharkhand from Bihar, Chattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh and Uttaranchal from UP. These areas remained backwards and were underdeveloped.

Following states have also been demanding new states on the reason of development. For example, Telangana in Andhra Pradesh and Vidarbha in Maharashtra.

Question 1.
Why was states reorganisation commission formed?
Answer:
States Reorganisation commission was formed in 1 954 to recommend creation of states on a linguistic basis.

Question 2.
On what basis has the states been formed?
Answer:
In 1950s, states were formed on the basis of language. For example, Haryana and Punjab in 1966, Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960. But after the 1990s states are being formed on the need for development. For example, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chattisgarh in the 1990s.

Question 3.
How did demand of new states become the source of conflict for federalism?
Answer:
Demand of new states became the source of conflict for federalism because in 1950s many groups rose to demand statehood for preserving their culture and identity. And post 1 990s, new states have been demanded on the basis of development.

Question 4.
When was Gujarat and Maharashtra formed?
Answer:
In 1960

Question 5.
When was Haryana separated from Punjab?
Answer:
In 1966

Inter-state conflict :
Another source of tension in federalism is inter-state conflicts. Till now we have read that there have been conflicts between centre and states. But there are conflicts between two or more states also. The prominent conflicts are over

• boundary issues and
• river disputes

Boundary issue:
States have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than 1 language resides. So, states lay claim over the territories. One of the long-standing dispute is between Maharashtra and Karnataka over the city of Belgaum. Both Punjab and Chandigarh has laid claims over Chandigarh and both declare Chandigarh as their capital. While border disputes are about sentiments. Other important source of conflicts is river dispute.

River dispute:
This is more important because water is required for agriculture and drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where Tamilnadu and Karnataka are fighting over the share of cauvery water. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are fighting over Narmada river.

Question 1.
What are the source of inter-state conflicts?
Answer:
Boundary issue: States have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than 1 language resides. So, states lay claim over the territories. One of the long standing dispute is between Maharashtra and Karnataka over the city of Belgaum. Both Punjab and Chandigarh has laid claims over Chandigarh and both declare Chandigarh as their capital.

River dispute: This is more important because water is required for agriculture and drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where Tamilnadu and Karnataka are fighting over the share of Cauvery water. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are fighting over Narmada river.

Question 2.
What are the causes of tension in our federalism?
Answer:
Centre- State relations
Demand for autonomy
Role of Governors and President’s Rule
Demand for new states
Inter state conflicts

Special Provisions: The most surprising feature of Indian federalism is that many. states are given differential treatment. We already know that in Rajya Sabha, states have got representation according to the size of states. UP have got largest number of members while small north eastern states have got 1 member in Rajya Sabha. But the division of powers is common to all states.

But constitution has given special provisions to north eastern states because of large tribal population, their different history and culture, which they wish to retain (Article 371). Article 370 has given special provisions to Jammu and Kashmir. Because after independence, there was a war between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. And Maharaja of Kashmir agreed to join India under certain conditions. That is why Jammu and Kashmir has been given special provisions in the Constitution. But these provisions have not been able to arrest the alienation and marginalization they are suffering.

Question 1.
What is Article 370?
Answer:
Article 370 gives special provisions to Jammu and Kashmir under Indian Constitution.

Question 2.
What is Article 371?
Answer:
Article 371 gives special provisions to North-Eastern States under Indian Constitution.
Non-serious
Non-serious federalism

Introduction
USSR broke into 15 Countries in 1991. Pakistan was also divided in 1971, from which Bangladesh was formed. Canada also came close to break up into english speaking and french speaking regions of the country.

It seems to be great achievement that India, which is so diverse in terms of language, regions, religions has remained united after Independence. What was our political system that kept India united despite being such a diverse country? This question will be answered in this Chapter.

Federalism:
Our constitution adopted a federal structure where states can govern independently yet centre will maintain its control over the states.

The characteristics of federalism are:

1. There are two types of government one at the state level and other at the national level and these governments are independent. In some countries, like USA there is a system of dual citizenship which means that USA citizens has two citizenship, one of USA and other of there state, but in india we have only one citizenship that is of Indian nationality. Our Constitution does not recognise any other nationality that is of being Assamese, Bengali etc.
2. But yes, if we are not having two types citizenship but we are surely having two types of identities, that is we are identified as Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati or Kashmiri but at the same time we are identified as an Indian also. Therefore, each level government has their own powers, responsibilities and a separate system of governance.
3. The powers, responsibilities and their manner of governance are written in the constitution, which is considered supreme.
4. And ifany conflict arises over the demarcation of power between centre and state, then the judiciary intervenes to settle the disputes.

Question 2.
What other factors besides politics keep the federations united?
Answer:
Besides politics, other factors which keep the federations united are culture, ideology and history. Culture of trust, cooperation, mutual respect and restraint has also helped in the smooth functioning of federations.

Federalism in the Indian Constitution:

If the countries have disintegrated like USSR, Pakistan; it does not mean that they did not have any federal system, these countries were also having federal system, but then why it lead to their disintegration?

Because simply having federalism is not enough, it also depends on the type of federalism you have, whether you have federalism with a weak centre or there is a federalism with a strong centre. USSR had federalism with a weak centre that is why the centre was not able to control its territories. But India has federalism with a strong centre and it was able to have a strong control over its states.

India is a diverse land with many languages, religions and regions. And to give them identity and recognition, leaders of our national movement thought that these units should govern themselves. But how much powers should be given to the states to govern themselves? Our Constituent Assembly decided to frame the government that would be based on principles ofunity and cooperation between centre and states and separate power to states.

The most important principle of the federal system adopted by Indian Constitution is that relations between states and centre would be based on cooperation, therefore, our constitution recognised diversity but at the same time it emphasised unity. And surprisingly, our constitution does not even mention the word federation. Article-1 simply says that India that is Bharat shall be a union of states which means states will live in unity.

Question 1.
What is the nature of our federal system?
Answer:
Our federal system is based on the principles of unity and cooperation between centre and states and separate powers to the states, therefore, our constitution recognises diversity and emphasies unity.

Question 2.
Why did our national leaders thought of centralised federal system?
Answer:
India is a diverse I md with many languages, culture, religions and regions. it was necessary to give recognition to them, and also India is a large country, so it was important to divide powers between provinces and central government, that is why our national leaders thought of federal system, but they wanted unity and cooperation between states. so they gave us a centralised federal system.

Division of powers:

As we have just read that our leaders of national movement divided the powers between centre and states, so there are two levels of government- one which governs the entire country that is national government and the other which governs the states is called state government. Both of these have been granted status by the constitution and their acreas of functions are clearly demarcated under union list, state list and concurrent list.

Under union list only, centre can legislate and work in these subjects, in state list, only state can legislate and work in these subjects and under concurrent both union and state can work. If there is any conflict in these lists, or if there is a conflict which subject to be done by whom, then judiciary intervenes and resolves the issues.

One important thing is that economic and financial powers are centralised and are in the hands of central government. that means though states have been given subjects to be worked under but they do not have financial resources to carry out their work. And if any matter is not mentioned in the lists, then it comes under residuary powers. and union legislature can alone legislate on these matters, state cannot legislate on these matters.

This means that there is a unitary federal structure.

Question 1.
What are the two levels of government in our political system?
Answer:
Our political system has two levels of government:

• National level.
• State level.

Question 2.
What are residuary powers?
Answer:
Subjects which do not come in any of the lists come under residuary powers. union legislature alone has the power to legislate on such matters. For example, Cyber Laws

Why did we adopt federalism with a strong central government?

As we have read in introduction that federal countries like USSR disintegrated, so the important question which comes is the nature of federalism, whether the federalism was with a weak central government who could not control the desire of states to separate from their country or federalism was with strong central government which would keep a check and control on states.

India is a diverse country and there was a requirement of federalism which will accommodate the demands ofall diversities, but at the same time it require a strong central government that will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change, with this idea in mind our constitution framers drafted the constitution and also at the time of independence. India was not only divided into Provinces by the British but there were more than 500 Princely States which had to be integrated into existing states or new states had to be created.

Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio-economic problems of the country. It required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required strong central government in cooperation with states for development and unity.

Question 1.
Why did India adopt federalism with strong central government?
Answer:
The reasons for which India adopted federalism with strong central government:

• India is a diverse country. So, there was a need of federalism which will accommodate the demands of all diversities. But at the same time it require a strong central government that will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change.
• At the time of independence, India was not only divided into provinces by the British but there were more than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states or new states had to be created.
• Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio-economic problems of the country. It required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required strong central government in cooperation with states for development.

Conflicts in India’s federal system:

Although the distribution of powers between centre and states is well defined in the Indian constitution. But still many conflicts has taken place between centre and states for demanding autonomy, for share in resources, for demanding new states and conflicts between states have also arisen. This topic will deal with some of these conflicts.

(a) Centre states relations: Federalism in India has been influenced by political process of the country. In the 1950s and 1960s when there was Congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio-economic progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, Congress ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.

But in 1960s Congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition parties came to power, they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not want centre to intervene in their state’s affairs everytime. And the Congress which was
ruling at centre in 1960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with opposition parties in states.

And in 1990s coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended and states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states.

(b) Demand for autonomy: The other nature ofconflict which arose in federalism was related to demand of autonomy. The states had started demanding more independence to govern their state of affairs. Now the question is what kind of autonomy? Autonomy means different things to different states and parties.

• Parties like DMK, Akali Dal, and CPI(M) had demanded division of powers in favor of states and more important powers to be assigned to states.
• They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of revenue and greater control resources.ifyou remember, we learnt that centre has control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in West Bengal brought out a document demanding a restructuring of centre and state relations. Which means that the states wanted more independence to be given to them. Tamilnadu and Punjab also demanded greater financial powers
• They are also angry about greater administrative control through All India Services. States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.
• The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For example, Tamil Nadu was opposed to the domination of Hindi and the Punjabi culture. In 1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these states thought that they are trying to spread Hindi and Punjabi culture and this will destroy their own South Indian culture.

(c) Role of Governors and President’s Rule: The position of governor has also become a source of conflict for centre state relations and tension for federalism. The governor is not an elected office. Governor is appointed by central government. So governor is seen as an interfere in the affairs of state.

Article 356 is also a source of controversy as this article provides for President’s Rule in any state. It means that if the government of the state can not be carried in accordance of the provisions of the constitution then the President’s Rule is declared and the state government is taken over by Union government.

Governor has the power to dismiss the state government which means that governor can remove the state government in power or suspend it. This power was misused and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority for example: in Kerala in 1959, Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in 1980s.

(d) Demand for New States: The other factor which is leading to source of tension in our federal system is demands for new states. Initially the demand for new states was for conserving their identity and their culture. So the states were formed on the basis of language. Gujarat and Maharashtra were created in 1960, Punjab and Haryana were separated in 1966. North East region was reorganised and several new states were formed like Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.

Since 1 990s, demand for further states have been made. It is made on the reason that development have not been able to reach these parts of the country. Three new states have been formed Jharkhand from Bihar, Chattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh and Uttaranchal from UP. These areas remained backwards and were underdeveloped.

Following states have also been demanding new states on the reason of development.
For example, Telangana in Andhra Pradesh and Vidarbha in Maharashtra.

(e) Inter-state conflict: Another source of tension in federalism is inter-state conflicts. Till now we have read that there have been conflicts between centre and states. But there are conflicts between two or more states also. The prominent conflicts are over

• boundary issue
• river disputes

Boundary issue:
States have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than one language resides. So, states on the border lay claim over the territories. One ofthe long standing dispute is between Maharashtra and Karnataka over the city of Belgaum. Both Punjab and Chandigarh has laid claims over Chandigarh and both declare Chandigarh as their capital. While border disputes are about sentiments, other important source of conflicts is river dispute.

River dispute:
This is more important because water is required for agriculture and drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where Tamilnadu and Karnataka are fighting over the share of Cauvery water. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are fighting over Narmada river.

Special Provisions:
The most surprising feature of Indian federalism is that many states are given differential treatment. We already know that in Rajya Sabha, states have got representation according to the size of states. UP have got largest number of members while small northeastern states have got 1 member in Rajya Sabha. But the division of powers is common to all states.

But constitution has given special provisions to northeastern states because of large tribal population, their different history and culture, which they wish to retain (Article 371). Article 370 has given special provisions to Jammu and Kashmir. Because after independence, there was a war between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. Maharaja of Kashmir agreed to join India under certain conditions. That is why Jammu and Kashmir has been given special provisions in the Constitution. But these provisions have not been able to arrest the alienation and marginalization they are suffering.

Constitution of India visualised village panchayats as units of self-government. Think over the situation described in the following statements and explain how do these situations strengthen or weaken the panchayats in becoming units of self-government.

• Government of a State has allowed a big company to establish a huge steel plant. Many villages would be adversely affected by the steel plant. Gram Sabha of one of the affected villages passed a resolution that before establishing any big industries in the region, village people must be consulted and their grievances should be redressed.
• The government has decided that 20 % of all its expenditure would be done through the panchayats.
• A village panchayat kept on demanding funds for a building for village school, the government officials turned down their proposal saying that funds are allocated for certain other schemes and cannot be spent otherwise.
• The government divided a village Dungarpur into two and made a part of village Jamuna and Sohana. Now village Dungarpur has ceased to exist in government’s books.
• A village panchayat observed that water sources of their region are depleting fast. They decided to mobilise village youth to do some voluntary work and revive the old village ponds and wells.

Question 1.
Suppose you are entrusted to evolve a local government plan of a State, what powers would you endow to the village panchayats to function as units of self-government? Mention any five powers and the justification in two lines for each of them for giving those powers.
Answer:

• Allowing panchayats to raise their own funds-This would reduce their dependency on the higher levels of government and make them more active in the development process.
• Starting village co-operatives at the panchayat level-This would lead to development of village economy and cooperation between various panchayats. It would also generate employment and allow panchayats to directly market village produce and get better prices for the same.
• Authority to create and maintain infrastructure in village-This would lead to less dependence on government officials for funds and consequently, lead to autonomy
• Control of village panchayat over local resources-Resources like water and pastureland should come under the village panchayat to enable their maintenance and prevent their degradation. This would engage the entire community in their conservation.
• Direct engagement of village panchayats with state government in matters related to development projects-This would allow them to get adequate compensation for development projects and land acquisition and reduce the role of middlemen.

Question 2.
What are the provisions for the reservations for socially disadvantaged groups as per the 73rd amendment? Explain how these provisions have changed the profile of the leadership at the village level.
Answer:
The socially disadvantaged groups like women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes have been given reservations for various posts in the local government of rural India according to the proportion of their population. One-third of all positions in panchayats are reserved for women while Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have seats reserved as per the proportion to their population. States can also provide reservations to Other Backward Classes if they think it is necessary.

This has changed the profile of the leadership at the village level by transferring the leadership from the earlier dominant social groups to groups that were previously unable to have a say in the decision-making process. There is now a greater representation of all social groups in the panchayat institutions. Thus, more women and people belonging to Scheduled Castes and Tribes are now able to play important role in decisions that can bring benefits for their community.

Question 3.
What were the main differences between the local governments before the 73rd amendment and after that amendment?
Answer:
The main differences between the local governments before 73rd Amendment and after the amendment can be listed as:

• After the implementation of the 73rd amendment, the local government has been divided into a uniform three-tier Panchayati Raj structure.
• Earlier the state administration was responsible for conducting elections to the Panchayati Raj institutions but now the state government has to appoint a state election commission for this purpose.
• After the dissolution of the Panchayati Raj before its term of five years, a fresh election has to be conducted within six months. This was not the case before the 73rd amendment was passed.
• Distribution of revenue between the state government and local government and between rural and urban government is done by the state election commission. This was not the case before the 73rd amendment was implemented.
• Reservation for women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and to other backward classes (if the state government thinks it is necessary for OBCs) is implemented for various positions in the local government according to the proportion of their population.
• Twenty-nine subjects that were earlier in the State list of subjects in the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution have been transferred to the Panchayati Raj institutions.

Agenda of the Gram Sabha:

• Age of children: All children of the village from the age of5 years should be enrolled in the school.
• School Building: The school building should be renovated with proper seats and blackboards in all classrooms.
• Water and sanitation facility: The Gram Pradhan is made responsible for the water supply and better and separate sanitation facilities for boys and girls.
• Syllabus: Sports and extra co-curricular activities will be included to lessen the pressure of study and cultivate physical development.
• Mid-day meal: School principal would be responsible for the quality and quantity of the food provided to the students.
• Free education: Every child till 14 years of age is eligible for free education.
• Appointment of the staff: Helping staff can be recruited from the village and the secretary would be responsible for the appointment of the teachers.
• Residential facility: Gram Pradhan has to approach the Block Development Officer for appealing to provide a residential facility to the teachers.
• Hostel facility: Gram Pradhan has to approach the BDO to ask for a hostel facility near the village school to accommodate students from distant villages.
• Compensation: Villagers whose land will be taken will be provided with appropriate compensation from the government.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Short Answer Questions

Short Questions and Answers  

Question 1.
Which states have been given special provisions in our constitution?
Answer:
Jammu and Kashmir and North Eastern States like Nagaland, Manipur and Assam.

Question 2.
Point out one feature in the practice of federalism in India that is similar to and one feature that is different from that of Belgium.
Answer:
In India, just like in Belgium, the central government has to share its powers with the regional governments. However, unlike India, Belgium has a community government in addition to the central and the state government.

Question 3.
What is the main difference between a federal form of government and a unitary one? Explain with an example.
Answer:
In a federal form of government, the central government shares its powers with the various constituent units of the country. For example, in India, power is divided between the government at the Centre and the various State governments. In a unitary form of government, all the power is exercised by only one government. For example, in Sri Lanka, the national government has all the powers.

Question 4.
What are the characteristics of federalism?
Answer:
The characteristics of federalism are:

• It is an institutional mechanism to accommodate two sets of polities – one at the regional level and other at the national level.
• The people have two sets of identities and loyalties, each level of polity has distinct powers and responsibilities and has a separate system.
• The details of the dual system of government are spelt out in the written constitution, which is considered to be supreme and is also the source of power of both sets of government.
• To prevent conflicts between centre and state, there is an independent judiciary to settle disputes.

Question 5.
What other factors besides politics keep the federations united?
Answer:
Besides politics, other factors which keep the federations united are culture, ideology and history. Culture of trust, cooperation, mutual respect and restraint has also helped in the smooth functioning of federations.

Question 6.
What is Federation?
Answer:
In a federation, there is division of powers between one central government f and several state governments. Each government exercises power in its own area as demarcated by the constitution.

Question 7.
What is Unitary Government?
Answer:
Unitary Government is one in which all authority and power is in the hands of a single central government. Local governments get their powers from the central government.

Question 8.
Name two essential features of a federation.
Answer:
The name of two essential features of a federation are:

(1) Division of powers between the centre and states.
(2) Written, rigid and supreme constitution.

Question 9.
Write a major failure of unitary government.
Answer:
In a unitary state there is a single central government. There is one legislature 1 and one executive for the whole state.

Question 10.
What is main difference between a unitary state and federal state?
Answer:
In a federal state all powers stand divided between one central government and, several state governments. In a unitary state all powers are in the hands of one single central government.

Question 11.
List the four features of a federation.
Answer:
The four features of a federation are:
(1) Division of powers between the center and states.
(2) Written, rigid and supreme constitution.
(3) Dual Administration.
(4) Special role of Judiciary as the arbiter of centre-state.

Question 12.
What are the three main conditions for the success of a federation?
Answer:
The three main conditions for the success of a federation are:
(1) Desire for union among member states.
(2) Political maturity and educated citizenship.
(3) Similar political strictures and equality of all states of the federation.

Question 13.
How the Constitution of India described the State?
Answer:
The Constitution declares India to be a Union of States. It describes India neither as a federation nor as a unitary state. Indian Constitution has both federal and unitary features.

Question 14.
How the division of powers between the centre and states has been made?
Answer:
The Constitution contains three lists –
(1) Union List which specifies the powers of the Centre.
(2) State List which contains the powers of each state of India.
(3) Concurrent List specifies some powers given jointly to the centre and state.

Question 15.
What is the name and nature of rural local government in India?
Answer:
Rural local government is known as Panchayati Raj. It has a three-tier structure Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad. It is grass roots level system of rural local self-government.

Question 16.
Which are the Institutions of Urban Local Government?
Answer:
For very big cities, Municipal Corporations, for middle-level cities or towns Municipal Committees or Nagar Councils and Nagar Panchayats for semi-urban, semi-rural areas.

Question 17.
Which Constitutional amendments have been recently incorporated in respect of Local Government in India.
Answer:
The following Constitutional amendments have been recently incorporated in respect of local government in India.
(1) 73rd Amendment Act in respect of Rural Local Government.
(2) 74th Amendment Act in respect of Urban Local Government.

Question 18.
Which are the salient objectives of the 73rd and 74th Amendments?
Answer:
The salient objectives of the 73rd and 74th Amendments are:
(1) Continuity in the operation of local governments.
(2) More involvement of women in the working of local government.
(3) Empowerment of local government institutions.

Question 19.
What is Gram Sabha?
Answer:
It is the real grass roots level institution of Panchayati Raj. It is the assembly of all adult citizens of the village. It elects the village Panchayat which is its executive body.

Question 20.
What is Municipal Corporation?
Answer:
It is the biggest institution of Urban self-government. Each big city or metropolitan city has a Municipal Corporation. It performance both civic, development and welfare functions in its areas.

Question 21.
Define Panchayati Raj.
Answer:
Panchayati Raj can be defined as rural local-self government system which is at work in every village in India. Each village has its Panchayat which works for providing civic amenities to the people. It also tries to secure the socioeconomic development of the village.

Question 22.
What are the main functions of a Municipal Council?
Answer:
To provide civic amenities, to in sure public health and sanitation, maintain fire-fighting services, ensure water supply, to regulate construction of houses and other buildings in its area.

Question 23.
What are objectives of local government Institutions?
Answer:
The objectives of local government institutions are:

(1) Socioeconomic development of the local area.
(2) Undertaking civic and welfare functions.
(3) Ensuring all civic amenities in the local area.
(4) Provide an efficient system of self-government in the local area.

Question 24.
What are the main aims of Panchayati Raj?
Answer:
The main aims of the Panchayati Raj in India have been democratic decentralization, rural local-self government and machinery for rural development. Socioeconomic development of rural India can be described as the key aim of the Panchayati

Question 25.
What are the salient features of rural and urban local-self Government Institutions?
Answer:
The salient features of rural and Urban local-self government Institutions are:

(1) These are grass roots level democratic institutions.
(2) These are elected by the local people for securing local needs with the help of local resources.
(3) These act as training schools of Indian Democracy.

Question 26.
What is the dual administration feature of the Indian Constitution?
Answer:
Dual administration: India establishes a dual polity. Each citizen is a subject of two governments- the government of the state in which he resides and the government of India. He participates in elections for both these governments. He obeys both the central as well as state laws. He pays taxes to both the governments. Both governments act to provide him with services in their respective areas as stand demarcated by the Constitution.

Question 27.
What is the special role of Judiciary in the federal feature and the Indian Constitution?
Answer:
Special role of Judiciary: The constitution of India provides for an independent judicial system with the Supreme Court at its head. The Supreme Court has the power to settle the disputes arising between the Union and States as well as among the States. It is the final interpreter of the Constitution. It judges the Constitutional validity of laws of both the Union and States and in case any law or any part of the law is found to be unconstitutional.

Question 28.
What are the facts reflect very strong centre Unitarian features of Indian Federalism?
Answer:
A very strong Centre Unitarian features of Indian Federalism reflect the following facts reflect this feature.

(1) The Union List, over which the Union Government has the exclusive jurisdiction, Government has the exclusive jurisdiction is the largest List with 97 subjects.
(2) The Concurrent List contains 47 subjects. It is also virtually in the hands of the Union.
(3) The Constitution of India gives the residuary powers to the Union and not the States.
(4) The Constitutional history of India since 1950 shows that there has been a tendency to limit the state List by the incorporation of more and more subjects either in the Union List or in the Concurrent List.

Question 29.
Write about limitations on the Legislature Power of a State.
Answer:
The limitations on the Legislative Power of a state is:
(1) The Governor of State has the right to reserve any bill passed by a State Legislature.
(2) Upon a request made by two or more State Legislatures.
(3) During the period of emergency, the Union Parliament gets the power to legislate on State Subjects.
(4) The Union Parliament has the power to make any law necessary for meeting. any obligation resulting from an international treaty.

Question 30.
What is common Election Commission Unitarian feature?
Answer:
Common Election Commission: For organizing elections to the Union Parliament as well as to the State legislatures, the Constitution of India provides for a single Common Election Commission. The Election Commission of India has the sole responsibility for conducting all elections or by-elections for the Union Parliament and State Legislatures. The Parliament has the right to legislate on matters of election.

Question 31.
Unequal representation of the States in the Rajya Sabha.
Answer:
The States do not enjoy equality of representation in the Union. They get seats in the Rajya Sabha in proportion to their populations and as fixed by Constitution. These do not enjoy equal Seats in the Rajya Sabha. The Indian system of giving representation to the States in the Upper House as such is not based on the true federal principle of equal representation of all the federating States.

Question 32.
What have been the main changes introduced by the 73rd Amendment Act in the Panchayati Raj?
Answer:
The main changes introduced by the 73rd Amendment Act in the Panchayati Raj are:

(1) Reservation of seats for SCs and STs in a state.
(2) Reservation of the posts of chairpersons for the SCs and STs in a state.
(3) Reservation of not less than l/3rd of the elected seats in each Panchayat for women.
(4) Reservation of l/3rd posts of chairpersons for rural women and rotation of reservation of women among constituencies.
(5) Direct election of Panchayats and continuity in the working of Panchayati Raj institutions.

Question 33.
What is the composition of a Gram Panchayat?
Answer:
The membership of the Gram Panchayat varies considerably from 5 to 31. In most of the seats, Gram Panchayat have 5 to 9 members but in U.P. from 16 to 31 members and in Odisha 11 to 25 members. The members of the Panchayat i.e. Panchas are directly 1 elected by all the voters by a secret ballot. In all the seats l/3rd of the seats are reserved for women.

Question 34.
What are the major functions of the Gram Sabha?
Answer:
The major functions of the Gram Sabha are:

(1) To approve the plans, programmes and projects for socioeconomic development before these are taken up by the Grama Panchayat for implementation.
(2) To identify and select persons for getting benefits under poverty eradication and other such programmes.
(3) To consider and approve the budget of the Gram Panchayat.
(4) To consider proposed taxes, levies, rent, and fees.

Question 35.
What are the functions of the Sarpanch of a Gram Panchayat?
Answer:
Sarpanch presides over the meetings of the Gram Panchayat. He conducts and
regulates its proceedings. He also maintains records of the meetings. Signs documents on behalf of the Gram Panchayat, prepares all statements and reports, maintains and regulates the property of the Gram Panchayat and carries out all correspondence with the government and administration.

Question 36.
Write some functions of Gram Panchayat.
Answer:
Some functions of Gram Panchayat are:

(1) Maintenance of public places including its sanitation, the drainage systems.
(2) Maintenance of wells, water pumps, baolies, springs, ponds and tanks for the supply of water for drinking, washing and bathing.
(3) Maintenance of burial and cremation grounds.
(4) Registration of births and deaths.

Question 37.
What are the functions of the Panchayat Samitis?
Answer:
The functions of the Panchayat Samitis are Planning, execution and supervision of development programmes in the Samiti area, execution of community development projects, management of primary education, management of such trusts and institutions as stand entrusted to it by the Odisha government, supervision of laws relating to vaccination and registration of births and deaths, borrowing of funds and granting of loans, supervision of Gram Panchayats of the Samiti area.

Question 38.
Who are the members of the Zilla Parishad?
Answer:
Each Zilla Parishad in Odisha consists of both directly elected as well as ex-officio members. One member is directly elected on the basis of adult suffrage from each constituency within the areas of the Zilla Parishad. Ex-officio members include Chairman of all Panchayat Samitis and MLAs, MLCs and MPs who represent the Zilla Parishad area in the state legislature and the Union Parliament. Some seats are reserved for persons belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

Question 39.
What are the obligatory functions of a Gram Panchayat in Odisha?
Answer:
The obligatory functions of a Gram Panchayat in Odisha are construction, repair and maintenance of streets, lighting, clearing of public street and places, removal of unauthorized constructions, laying and maintenance of drains and public urinals and latrines, water supply, scavenging and waste removal, checking epidemics, removal of harmful vegetation, checking of dangerous and offensive trade, registration of birth and death and marriages.

Question 40.
What are the main sources of income of the Zilla Parishad?
Answer:
The main sources of the income of the Zilla Parishad are:
(1) Central or state government funds allotted to the Zilla Parishad.
(2) Share in the land reserve collected from the Zilla Parishad area.
(3) Grants from All India bodies and Institutions for development of cottage, village and small scale industries.
(4) State taxes or fees as may be prescribed.
(5) Income from trusts administered by the Zilla Parishad.

Question 41.
What are the qualification for getting elected to a Municipal Corporation or a Municipal Committee?
Answer:
The qualification for getting elected to a Municipal Corporation or a Municipal Committee are:

(1) The person should be a citizen of India.
(2) His/her name should figure in the voters’ list of the city/word concerned.
(3) He/she must be at least 21 years or more of age.
(4) He/she should not hold any government office.
(5) He/she should not have been declared ineligible to contest elections for committing crime.

Question 42.
What are the Administrative functions of Municipal Corporation?
Answer:
The administrative functions of Municipal Corporation are:

• It frames its own bylaws for proper municipal administration.
• It imposes fines on those who violate its rules.
• It recruits staff of the Municipal Corporation.
• It can purchase and sell land.
• It demolishes dilapidated and dangerous buildings and bridges.
• It registers birth and death.
• It makes arrangements for the cremation of the dead.
• It welcome foreign guests.

Question 43.
What is the system of reservation of seats in a Municipal body?
Answer:
Reservation of seats:

(1) Scheduled Castes,
(2) Backward classes
(3) Women is a rule.

The ratio of seats reserved for scheduled castes is in proportion to the population of scheduled castes in the Municipal area. One seat is reserved for the Backward classes. No less than l/3rd of the seats are reserved for scheduled caste women.

Question 44.
In which area Nagar Panchayats are established?
Answer:
Nagar Panchayats are created for transitional areas or for very-small urban areas. For this purpose several factors are taken into consideration, the density of the population therein, the revenue generated for local administration, the percentage of employment in non-agricultural activities, the economic importance of the area.

Question 45.
What are the main sources of income of a Municipal Council?
Answer:
The main sources of income of a Municipal Council are:

• Taxes for house, property, water and service.
• Income from Municipal property, electricity supply and water supply.
• Government grants.
• Development loans from public financial institutions.

Federalism In West Indies:

As we all are aware the West Indies is not a country, then what is West Indies?

West Indies was a colony of British. In 1958, the Federation of West Indies came into being, it had a weak central government and the units(states) in it were independent, a weak central government is not able to maintain hold over the units, that is why it broke into several parts(states) in 1962. (In India, our central government is strong, that is why the units(states) were not able to go away or break from the country).

In 1973, by treaty of Chaguaramas independent islands joined together to form joint authorities in the form of common legislature, supreme court, common currency and to a ceration degree common market which is known as Caribbean community. Therefore, the units did not live separately also and neither together.

Question 1.
What is a treaty of Chaguaramas?
Answer:
In 1973, the Caribbean community was formed, independent islands established joint authorities in the form of Common Legislature, Supreme Court, a Common Currency and to a certain degree Common Market which is known as Caribbean Community.

Federalism In Nigeria:

As discussed above, there are other factors that decide the unity of federations, that is culture, ideology and history, so if there is a distrust or failure of trust between Communities, then also a federal community will not be able to survive. An example is Nigeria.

Till 1914, there were two colonies of British: Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria. After the independence, Nigerian leaders decided to form a federal constitution at Ibadan constitutional conference. ( federal constitution means where the regions were given independence to control their own affairs but it also had a central government to look after the affairs of the entire country, for example, issues like foreign policy does not affect one region but the entire country as a whole).

So three major ethnic groups of Nigeria controlled their own regions- Yoruba controlled West, Ibo controlled East and Hausa – Fulani controlled North. And when these groups tried to spread their influence in other regions, it failed and it led to fears and conflicts, it failed because there was lack of trust and faith, so it led to military regime, in 1979, no state was allowed to have any civil police because if each region would have their own police, so they would have protected their own region and harassed the other region, and also the region having police facility would have become powerful and it would have led to secession from the country.

Military regime finally gave way to democracy in 1999, religious differences and conflicts over who will control revenues from oil resources continue to be present, therefore, Nigeria is an example where religious, ethnic and economic differences is leading to problems in a federation.

Question 1.
Give an example where a trust deficit is leading to problems in federalism.
Answer:
Nigeria

Question 2.
Explain the federation problems in Nigeria.
Answer:
Till 1914, there were two Colonies of British: Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria. After the independence, Nigerian leaders decided to form a federal constitution at Ibadan constitutional conference. So three major ethnic groups of Nigeria controlled their own regions- Yoruba controlled West, Ibo controlled East and Hausa – Faulani controlled North. And when these groups tried to spread their influence in other regions,it failed and it led to fears and conflicts, military regime was established.

In 1 979, no state was allowed to have any civil police, a military regime finally gave way to democracy in 1 999, religious differences and conflicts over who will control revenues from oil resources continued to be present. Therefore, Nigeria is an example where religious, ethnic and economic differences is leading to problems in a federation.

Federalism In The Indian Constitution:

If the countries have disintegrated like USSR, Pakistan; it does not mean that they did not have any federal system, these countries were also having federal system, but then why it lead to their disintegration? Because simply having federalism is not enough, it also depends on the type of federalism you have, whether you have federalism with a weak centre or there is federalism with a strong centre.

USSR had a federalism with a weak centre that is why the centre was not able to control its territories but India has federalism with a strong centre and it was able to have a strong control over its states.

India is a diverse land with many languages, religions and regions. And to give them identity and recognition, leaders ofour national movement thought that these units should govern themselves. But how much power should be given to the states to govern themselves? our constituent assembly decided to frame the government that would be based on principles of unity and cooperation between centre and states and separate power to states.

The most important principle of federal system adopted by Indian constitution is that relations between states and centre would be based on cooperation, therefore, our constitution recognised diversity but at the same time it emphasised unity. And surprisingly, our constitution does not even mention the word federation, article simply says that India that is Bharat shall be a Union of States, which means states will live in unity.

Question 1.
What is the nature of our federal system?
Answer:
Our federal system is based on the principles of unity and cooperation between centre and states and separate powers to the states, therefore, our constitution recognizes diversity and emphasies unity.

Question 2.
What does Article 1 says?
Answer:
Article 1
(1) says that India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
(2) says that the states and territories there of shall be as specified in the first schedule.

Question 3.
Why did our national leaders thought of centralised federal system?
Answer:
India is a diverse land with many languages, culture, religions and regions. it was necessary to give recognition to them, and also India is a large country, so it was important to divide powers between provinces and central government, that is why our national leaders thought of federal system, but they wanted- unity and cooperation between states. so they gave us a centralised federal system.

Division Of Powers:

As we have just read that our leaders of national movement divided the powers between centre and states, so there are two level of government: one which governs the entire country that is national government and the other which governs the states is called state government, both of these have been granted status by the constitution and their acreas of functions are clearly demarcated under union list, state list and concurrent list.

Under union list only, centre can legislate and work in these subjects, in state list. only state can legislate and work in these subjects and under concurrent both union and state can work. If there is any conflict in these lists, or if there is a conflict which subject to be done by whom, then judiciary intervenes and resolves the issues.

One important thing is that economic and financial powers are centralised and are in the hands of central government. that means though states have been given subjects to be worked under but they do not have financial resources to carry out their work. And if any matter is not mentioned in the lists, then it comes under residuary powers. and union legislature can alone legislate on these matters, state cannot legislate on these matters.

This means that there is a unitary federal structure.

Question 1.
What are the two levels of government in our political system?
Answer:
Our political system has two levels of government:
(a) National level.
(b) State level.

Question 2.
What are residuary powers?
Answer:
Subjects which do not come in any of the lists come under residuary powers. union legislature alone has the power to legislate on such matters.
For example, Cyber Laws

Question 3.
List some subjects come under union list.
Answer:
Currency and coinage, foreign trade, defense, atomic energy

Question 4.
List some subjects which come under state list.
Answer:
Police, prison, agriculture and state public services.

Question 5.
List some subjects which come under concurrent list.
Answer:
Education, Forests

Question 6.
List some subjects which come under residuary list.
Answer:
Cyber Laws

Why did we adopt federalism with a strong central government?

As we have read in introduction that federal countries like USSR disintegrated, so the important question which comes is the nature of federalism, whether the federalism was with weak central government who could not control the desire of states to separate from their country or federalism was with strong central government which would keep a check and control on states.

India is a diverse country and there was a requirement of federalism which will accommodate the demands of all diversities, but at the same time, it requires a strong central government that will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change, with this idea in mind our constitution framers drafted the constitution, and also at the time of independence, India was not only divided into provinces by the British but there were more than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states or new states had to be created.

Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle the socioeconomic problems of the country. lt required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy, and inequalities of wealth. So it required a strong central government in cooperation with states for development and unity.

Question 1.
Why did India adopt federalism with a strong central government?
Answer:
The reasons for why India adopted federalism with a strong central government:

• India is a diverse country. So, there was a need for federalism that will accommodate the demands of all diversities. But at the same time, it requires a strong central government that will stop disintegration and brings about social and political change.
• At the time of independence, India was not only divided into provinces by the British but there were more than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states, or new states had to be created.
• Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle the socioeconomic problems of the country. It is required to eliminate of poverty, illiteracy, and inequalities of wealth. So it required a strong central government in cooperation with states for development.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-2.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Counselling Process
Answer:
Meaning and Nature of Counselling:
Counselling provides a system for planning the interview, analysing the counsellor’s and client’s behaviour, and determining the developmental impact on the client. In this section, we will discuss skills, concepts and methods that are designed to help develop concrete competencies. A counsellor is most often interested in building an understanding of the client’s problem by focusing on what understanding the client has of her/his problem and how s/he feels about it.

The actual or objective facts of the problems are considered less important, and it is considered more important to work on the feelings and their acknowledgement by the clients. The focus is more on the person and how s/he defines the problem. Counselling involves a helping relationship, which includes someone seeking help, and someone willing to give help, who is capable of or trained to help in a setting that permits help to be given and received (see Fig.9.2).

The following elements about counselling are common to the major theoretical approaches to counselling :

• Counselling involves responding to the feelings, thoughts and actions of the client
• Counselling involves a basic acceptance of the client’s perceptions and feelings, without using any evaluative standards.
• Confidentiality and privacy constitute essential ingredients in the counselling setting. Physical facilities that preserve this quality are important.
• Counselling is voluntary. It takes place when a client approaches a counsellor. A counsellor never uses any kind of coercion for obtaining information.
• Counsellors and clients both transmit and receive verbal and non-verbal messages during the process. Therefore, awareness and sensitivity to the nature of the message is an important prerequisites for a counsellor’s effectiveness.

Breaking the Myths of Counselling:

• Counselling is not merely giving information.
• Counselling is not giving advice.
• Counselling is not the selection and placement of individuals onto jobs or for courses.
• Counselling is not the same as interviewing though interviewing may be involved.
• Counselling is not influencing attitudes, beliefs and behaviour by persuading, admonishing, threatening or compelling.

Developing Effective Relationships:
For most people who seek help from a counsellor, effective or satisfying relationships are almost non-existent or infrequent. Since the change in behaviour is often created and supported by a network of social support, it is essential for clients to start developing more positive relationships with other persons. The counselling relationship is the initial vehicle through which this begins.

Like all of us, counsellors too are not perfect, but they are trained in developing a more healthy and helpful relationships than others. In brief, counselling usually has an all-inclusive outcome for the clients. Effective behavioural change that takes place in the client is multifaceted. It may show up in the form of a client taking greater responsibility, developing new insight, learning to engage in different behaviours, write down the characteristics of counselling.

Characteristics of an Effective Helper:
Being a trained helper, the counsellor has the responsibility for ensuring that her/his client benefits from counselling and its therapeutic effects are achieved. To a large extent, however, the success of a counselling process depends on the skill, knowledge, attitude, personal qualities and behaviour of a counsellor, any or all of which can enhance or diminish the helping process. In this section, we will discuss four qualities that are associated with effective counsellors. These include:

• Authenticity,
• Positive regard for others
• Ability to empathise and
• Paraphrasing.
  Let us understand these qualities briefly:

Authenticity:
Your image or perception of yourself makes up your “I”. The self-perceived “I” is revealed through ideas, words, actions, clothing and lifestyle. All of these communicate your “I” to others. Those who come into close contact with you also build their own image of you for themselves, and they also sometimes Communicate this image to you.

For example, friends tell you what they like and dislike about you. Your teachers and parents praise and/or criticise you. You are also evaluated by persons you respect. These collective judgments by people you respect also called ‘significant others, develop into a ‘me’. This other perceived ‘me’ is the person that others perceive you to be.

This perception may be the same as or different from your own self-perception of ‘I’. The degree to which you are aware of these perceptions of others as well as of your own perception of yourself indicates that you are self-aware. Authenticity means that your behavioural expressions are consistent with what you value and the way you feel and relate to your inner self-image.

Positive Regard for Others:
In a counselling-counsellor relationship, a good relationship allows freedom of expression. It reflects acceptance of the idea that the feelings of both are important. We should remember that when we form a new relationship, we experience feelings of uncertainty and anxiety. Such feelings pt minimised when a counsellor extends a positive regard to the client by accepting that it is all right to feel the way the client is feeling. In order to show positive regard to others, the following guidelines may be kept in mind:

• When you are speaking, get into the habit of using “I” messages rather than “you” messages. An example of this would be, “I understand” rather than “you should not”.
• Respond to what the other person has said, after checking with her/him.
• Give the other person the freedom to share feelings or anything she/he wants to say. Do not interrupt or cut in.
• Do not assume that the other person knows what you are thinking. Express yourself according to the frame of reference, i.e. in the context of the verbal exchange taking place.
• Do not label either yourself or the other person (e.g., “you are an introvert”, etc.).

Empathy:
This is one of the most critical competencies that a counsellor needs to have. You have already read in Chapter 5 that empathy is the ability of a counsellor to understand the feelings of another person from her/his perspective. It is like stepping into someone else’s shoes and trying to understand the pain and troubling feelings of the other person. There is a difference between sympathy and empathy. In sympathy, you play the saviour. You may think that someone deserves your kindness.

Paraphrasing:
This skill has already been discussed in the section on communication earlier. You will recall that this involves the ability of a counsellor to reflect on what the client says and feels using different Words.

Ethics of Counselling:
In recent years, counsellors have taken important steps to develop their professional identity. A critical criterion for any professional group is the development and implementation of appropriate ethical standards. Social workers, marriage counsellors, family therapists and psychologists —all have their ethical codes. Awareness of ethical standards and codes is extremely important because counselling is a part of the service sector. Not following ethical standards may have legal implications.

While learning about the competencies of a counsellor, it is important for you to know that the client-counsellor relationship is built on ethical practice. The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed a code of ethical conduct for behaviour “‘and decision-making in actual clinical settings. The practical knowledge of these ethical domains can guide the practice of counselling in achieving its desired purpose.

Some of the APA practice guidelines are:

• Knowledge of ethical/professional codes, standards and guidelines, knowledge of statutes, rules, regulations and case law relevant to the practice of psychology.
• Recognise and analyse ethical and legal issues across the range of professional activities in the clinical setting.
• Recognise and understand the ethical dimensions/features of her/his own attitudes and practice in the clinical setting.
• Seek appropriate information and consultation when faced with ethical issues.
• Practice appropriate professional assertiveness related to ethical issues.

Interview Stage/Phase:
Any counselling process, be it individual or group, starts with the interview stage. This stage could also be referred to as the familiarization, orientation or introductory stage. This stage is very important because for you as a counsellor to start well determines the success of other stages and the entire counselling relationship. The counsellor and the client meet for the first time.

The counsellor makes a deliberate effort to get acquainted with the client by establishing rapport. This is done by asking the client to sit down so that he or she would be emotionally relaxed in the counsellor’s office. The Counsellor inquires about the client’s name, class, parents, friends, progress in school and mission in the counsellor’s office. This should be done with caution so that the client does not feel as if he or she is being interrogated.

The counsellor further assures the client that whatever is discussed will be kept confidential. This is to win the client’s confidence and make him or her open up to say the purpose for coming to the counsellor’s office.  The client may or may not present his problem during this stage. The counsellor should not be in a hurry to make him/her disclose his mission.

During this stage, the counsellor needs to display in his behaviour all the qualities of an effective counsellor by being patient listening carefully, showing empathy, showing unconditional positive regard that is treating his clients with respect, and warmth, irrespective of his age, sex, race, colour, religion and socio-economic status. This is very important as counsellors are not expected to be segregational or discriminative.

Working Stage/Phase:
This is the second stage/phase of the counselling process. As the title suggests, it is the stage where the counsellor fully engages the client in a discussion about what to do and how it will be done concerning the problem of the client. If the client has not disclosed his/ her mission in the first stage, the counsellor now asks the client. He uses questioning techniques to make the client open up.

Questions such as:
Are you okay? Can I help you? What is the matter? What has brought you to my office? The client now responds. The counsellor having listened, to the client will suggest different techniques depending on the nature of the problem presented on how the problem can be handled. The counsellor uses techniques such as responding, exploring, restatement, interpretation, confrontation, unconditional positive regard, empathy, silence and catharsis to diagnose the problem.

Also, it is during this stage that the goals for counselling are set by the client and counsellor. The counsellor here tells the client that counselling aids such as cassettes, radio, video and tape recorders may be used and the purpose for using them will be explained to the client. The counsellor should also tell the client the number of sessions that the counselling relationship may cover. This will depend on the nature of the problem.

If the problem is a simple one, it may take fewer sessions but if it is a complicated one, it may take a longer period to solve especially problems bordering on a change of behaviour or breaking of habit. If the counsellor needs to contact an “outsider” who may be responsible for the 4 problems faced by the client, the permission and consent of the client must be sought. The counsellor also takes the client through the methods to be used in solving the problem. All these are dope in the working stage of the counselling process.

Termination Stage/Phase:
This stage is the third stage in the counselling process. Termination means bringing an end to the counselling relationship between the counsellor and the client. Different reasons have been given by many authors on why a counselling relationship may end or terminate. Some of these reasons are given below for you to understand. It is important to stress here that the termination of a counselling relationship may be a temporary or permanent one. The following reasons are given by different authors.

Counselling Goals are achieved:
As discussed earlier in this unit, you were told that the client and the counsellor would set the goals for counselling. When these goals have been realised to the satisfaction of the client and counsellor, the relationship can be called off temporarily or permanently. Temporarily because the counsellor may want to follow up the client to see if he is doing well or putting into practice what has been discussed and suggested. Permanently if the client’s: problem is solved and may not need to see the counsellor again. The client should be told that if he has a problem in future, he should be free to see the counsellor.

Un-cooperative Attitude from the Client:
The counsellor may discover that the client he or she is dealing with is not cooperating with him, especially when the client is a referred person, the counsellor should still try his or her best to make the client understand why he or she needs counselling. If after several attempts nothing good is coming out of the relationship, the counsellor can terminate the relationship temporarily and ask the client to think over his behaviour and may decide to come back if convinced to continue.

The client may decide not to continue:
The counsellor and client may enter into a counselling relationship without any problem. After some time, the client may decide not to continue for reasons best known to him. Sometimes it may be due to the fact that the client is not honest in the relationship and when his attention is drawn to this fact he may decide to stay away and remain with his problem. The reasons for the behaviour may not be given to the counsellor. The best thing to do is to allow the client go as counselling is not by force.

Referral to an Expert/Specialist:
The counsellor may discover that the client has a problem that is beyond his competence, area and experience, when this happens the client should be referred to the appropriate quarters for specialized treatment. For instance, the client may approach the counsellor with a problem that is both medical and educational, such as having had eye vision and his inability to read comprehension passages during English language lessons.

The counsellor should handle the educational aspect if he is competent in English or makes a referral to an English teacher and a medical doctor. He should not start to prescribe glasses or drugs for the client because that is not his area of specialization. The counsellor should get the client prepared before referring him or her. The client should know why he is being sent to another person.

Practicum/Internship may end before the Counselling Goals are achieved:
There are instances when the counselee in question is a student, either undergraduate or post-graduate, posted to a school for practicum exercise. There may be instances when the practicum period will end without the counsellor achieving his purpose or the school may close for the holiday, when this happens the relationship can be terminated temporarily or permanently. As far as the school calendar is concerned, that may be permanent termination, but if the counsellor picks interest in a student’s case and wants to help in solving the  problem, he may decide to visit the student at home and continue on a personal basis.

Death of Counsellor or Client:
A counselling relationship may be terminated permanently when the counsellor or client dies. If it is the counsellor that dies, the client may seek counsel from another counsellor. There may be other reasons for terminating a counselling relationship not mentioned here. You should read other books for more information on processes and techniques of counselling.

Follow-Up Stage/Phase:
This is the stage in a counselling process where you the counsellor will want to know what is happening to your client after termination. Hie follow-up aims at finding out whether the client is carrying out the decisions arrived at before you ended the session for every client-so you the counsellor determine with the client whether the stage of follow-up will be necessary.

Counselling Strategy:
Strategy in counselling is basically the technique or method used during counselling to understand and find a solution to a problem presented by the client. Strategies are tools used by the counsellor to handle problems. For instance, a medical doctor may use a stethoscope to diagnose a disease, a fisherman uses fishing nets while a mechanic uses spanners and hammers.

So also the counsellor uses tools such as listening, responding, interpretation, probing, exploring, restatements, confrontation, disclosure, unconditional positive regard, empathy and summarization as techniques or strategies during counselling; all these strategies are emphasis skills that the counsellor uses while counselling. The ability of a counsellor to solve a client’s problem depends on how he uses the strategies.

Question 2.
Meaning Of Listening Skill.
Answer:
The entire counselling process begins with listening to the client. Listening is the ability of the counsellor to pay attention to the verbal and non-verbal expressions of the client. It involves hearing words, receiving the sound made by the client and gaining insight into whatever is uttered. Attentive listening is a skill that must be developed and used by any counsellor. Some counsellors may listen to the client but not hear what he or she has said.

When the counsellor listens attentively he is conveying to the client that he understands him, this he may do by nodding and not speaking as the client talks. Okun (1982) observed that the skill of listening may surface as the only strategy needed in a helping relationship. In fact, listening skill is the foundation stone on which other skills depend. If a counsellor has not listened attentively, he may not be able to use techniques such as responding, restatement, questioning, confrontation and self-disclosure.

All these depend on how well the Counsellor has listened to the client. Kolo (1997) also observed that techniques like “minimal encourager” may not be used if the counsellor had not listened attentively. These minimal encourager-s include, “yes”, “tell me more” “is that so”? “hum! “I am listening”. Kolo (1997) also highlighted some factors that could hinder effective listening by the counsellor. They are:

• The inability of the client to hear the counsellor.
• Lack of trust between the client and the counsellor.
• When the client is shy or timid.
• Inner rules that inhibit self-disclosure.
• Tension and anxiety on the part of the client.
• Gender influence, socio-economic status, and religious background.
  The counsellor should, as much as possible, find a way of handling these factors so that there

Interviewing Skills:
Cast your mind back to our discussion on the counselling process. As earlier mentioned, interviewing skill is very important for any effective counselling to develop. It takes about 50 per cent of the counselling time. A good interviewing skill demonstrated by a counsellor only shows his or her competence as a counsellor and may win the confidence of his/her client. It shows that the counsellor has concern and empathy for the client. A hypothetical case is cited for the readers’ study. A counsellor and a client. A client in SSII reading Arts subjects comes to the counsellor for guidance on the possible courses to study at the university.

The counsellor is sitting in his office reading a textbook on counselling.
The student knocks at the door.
Counsellor: Yes come right in.
Client: She enters the office.
Counsellor: How are you today? Please sit down.
Client: She is hesitant but the counsellor encourages her to feel free and sit down.
Counsellor: What is your name and what class are you in?
Client: I am Amina in SSII.
Counsellor: Can I help you? Or what has brought you to my office?
Client: I saw a notice on the bulletin board to see the counsellor when we have a problem, so I decided to come.
Counsellor: Yes you are right, you are in the right place. What can I do for you?
Client: I bought the JAMB form I don’t know how to fill it and I don’t know what course to read In the University.
Counsellor: What subjects are you reading? And what do you intend to read later in life?
Client: I am offering Arts subjects and I want to read Law.
Counsellor: Most of the Universities offer Law.
Client: I will rather go to the University in the North because I have never been to the South or East.
Counsellor: There is nothing bad in trying other places since you are from the north. You need to go out and interact with people from other places, but your choice is final.
Client: I will think about it and discuss it with my parents because they will be responsible for my upkeep there.
Counsellor: Concerning the subjects you are offering, you need to be good in English, History, Government, Literature and other Arts subjects. You also need to consider the hazards in the job, like travelling to get information about a case, attack from opponents, etc. to mention a few. Are you the outgoing and outspoken type?
Counsellor: You should come to the office at your free period to fill out the form together so that you can submit it on time.
Client: Thank you, Sir, for your time and assistance.
At die, next meeting the counsellor and client will explore the Universities and the client will pick one.

Question 3.
Group Dynamic Process In Counselling Introduction.
Answer:
Group dynamic process in counselling is another method of providing guidance. Counselling services to a group of students or clients. Although information, observations and studies have shown that some problems experienced by clients are better handled when treated individually, the process of using a group process in solving some problems cannot be overemphasized. In this unit, an attempt is made to describe groups in the context of counselling relationships, purposes of group formation, forming a group for counselling intervention and stages of the group process.

Group Dynamics:
Group may be described as any collection of human beings who are brought into a social relationship with one another, while group dynamics is all that it takes to form a group. It should be noted that man’s life, to some extent, consists of group life. When a man is born, he is brought into a group made up of his parents, father and mother himself inclusive making it a group of three that continues to enlarge with the arrival of other siblings.

He leaves home and goes to school, he associates with his classmates, and another group of individuals in the class, and he goes to secondary and university the same is the case even in the working place he may need to work in a group of people. So group dynamics is very important in determining the social relationships of individuals. Group counselling is an important aspect of counselling activities. There are instances where the counsellor must just see the students in the group.

The counsellor may not achieve much progress and success if he adopts the individual counselling strategy. Thus for the formation of a group for counselling purposes,’ some group dynamics procedure must be put in place. For instance, in some schools depending on how prevalent these behaviour problems are, such as excessive fighting, chronic tiredness or fatigue, violent outbursts, aggressiveness, extreme withdrawals (isolates) inability to get along with other peers, shabby dressing, drug abuse, sexual harassment, telling lies etc. these can be approached using group counselling strategy.

When the groups are small, individuals find it easy to express their feelings about a wide range of personal problems. Individuals who have similar problems when put together for counselling intervention, identify with others and realise that they are not alone and that, there are other people who share similar problems. This makes them open up so as to share experiences and find a way of finding solutions to their problems.

Because of the opportunity for interaction in groups, the members can express their concerns and difficulties and believe they can be gently heard, they, therefore, help one another gain increased self-acceptance. A counselling group must have a purpose depending on the nature of the problem.

Some of the purposes and goals of forming a group according to UNESCO (2000) include the following:

• To grow in self-acceptance and learn not to demand perfection.
• To learn how to trust oneself and others.
• To foster self-knowledge and the development of a unique self-identity.
• To lessen fears of intimacy, and learn to reach out to those who would like to be closer to you.
• To become aware of choices and to make choices wisely.
• To become more sensitive to the needs and feelings of others.
• To clarify values and decide whether, and how to modify them to find ways of understanding and resolving personal problems.

Formation Qf The Group:
In forming a counselling group, students should realise that the place to start is by clarifying the rationale and purpose for forming it. It is very important to note that adequate time should be spent in planning for its formation. If proper planning is not made and if the members are not carefully selected and prepared the entire process can flounder. The step to take is announcing the counsellor’s intentions and recruiting members. The counsellor needs to announce what the group is for and what it intends to do for the members that will be recruited and participate.

How a group is announced influence the way it will be received by potential members, as well as the kind of people that will join the group. Personal contact with potential members has been found to be one of the best methods of recruiting members. For instance, when the writer of this unit conducted a study on three modes of treatment for anxiety and improving English comprehension skills amongst secondary school students, he personally visited the school, met the school counsellors told them her mission and solicited their support to use the students in that school.

All the SS II students were gathered and informed of the purpose of the study and how they stand to benefit from the study in terms of reducing their anxiety level and increasing their performance in the English language through study skills counselling, rational emotive therapy and a combination of the two strategies. Volunteers indicated and forty (40) of them were randomly chosen from the 92 volunteers and were assigned to experimental and control groups.

The next process in forming a group for counselling involves screening and selecting members. The counsellor who is the group leader would conduct a pre-group interview and give them inventory to fill or answer the questionnaire given to them. He then selected group members whose needs, goals, and problems are compatible or similar to the established goals of the group. The counsellor may ask each participant these questions:

• Why does this person want to join the group?
• How ready is the person to become actively involved in the process of self-examination that will be part of the group?
• Does the person have a dear understanding of the nature and purpose of the group? Do they have a view of what is expected of them?
• Is there any indication that a person may be counterproductive to the „’ development of cohesion in the group? Or will the group be counterproductive to the person?

Some practical considerations in group formation: In selecting members for a particular group, these factors are to be considered.
Size of the Group:
In forming a counselling group, the size of the group matters a lot for the effectiveness of the process. In an ideal situation, the size is determined by the age of the members, the experiences of the counsellor, the type and purpose of the group and whether there is a co-counsellor or co-leader. Children in elementary school maybe 4-5 members in a group, while adolescents may be 8-10 members UNESCO (2000).

For adults, 2-4 hour weekly sessions might be preferable. The frequency and duration of the session are dependent on the style of leadership and the type of people in the group. For instance, in the study on anxiety conducted which was referred to earlier, the members were adolescents, we met once a week for one hour and for ten weeks with the first week as the pre-treatment session and the tenth (10th) week as the post-treatment session.

Duration and Time for Meeting:
In determining the duration and time for the meeting, frequent short sessions may be used. This suits their attention span. If the group is taking place in the school setting, the session can be after the regular class period. This is to avoid clashing with the school timetable and creating unnecessary conflict between the counsellor, students and the school authority.

For the adults, having 2-4 hours may be ideal. However, being civil servants or businessmen and women they may not be changed to spare. 2-4 hours during the week, but this session can take place during the weekends. The duration time is because they have greater or higher attention spans than adolescents or children.

Place of Meeting:
The next pertinent question is where should this meeting take place. Wherever is chosen as the place for the meeting, the leader should ensure adequate physical arrangement, and good ventilation and the place must guarantee some degree of privacy and freedom from distraction. That is why it is not good to have such sessions in the classroom, staffroom or in the counsellor’s office if the space is enough to accommodate all the members.

Nature of Membership:
The counsellor needs to determine if the membership will be on a voluntary or involuntary basis. Voluntary members have been found to be the best because they
voluntarily avail themselves of counselling unlike those referred. Sometimes it may be that the counsellor wants to address a particular issue but can not do it on an individual basis so he adopts the group method. The counsellor must orientate the members and prepare them to become part of the group. Also, the counsellor should tell the group what they would gain by participating in the group.

Nature of the Group:
An open group is one characterized by changing membership while a closed group adds no new members during the lifetime of the group. Sometimes, closed groups have advantages that are distinct, because trust, and openness can be developed and work accomplished. If members are allowed to drop from the group and new ones join at random, it may be difficult to determine the success of the therapy used in the group.

Pre-Group Session:
It is absolutely necessary for the counsellor or leader to conduct a pre-group session. This could be an extension of the screening process. Also, important information is given to members to

Groupdynamicprocess:
This process starts with giving the members certain rules that will guide their participation in the group. It could be verbal or written. Each member has to be committed to this guide as it serves as the guiding rule.

• Members are to avoid any drugs during or before the meeting.
• Members are expected to be punctual and regular to meetings.
• Members should not engage in any illicit sexual relationship with the opposite sex in the group.
• Members must avoid smoking during sessions.
• Confidentiality must be maintained by all members.
• Physical violence must be guided and verbally abusive language should be avoided.
• Members are given list of their rights and responsibilities and what is expected of them before they join the group.
• Children and adolescents must produce written consent from their parents and guardians.

Before anyone drops out of the group, he should notify the leader and discuss in the group before leaving. The next step in group process dynamics are the stages involved in the process. Four stages are identified here.

The initial stages:
The central process involved in this stage involves orientation and exploration. Members get to know each other by age, name, class, and family background and also learn how the group functions. They also discuss fears and hopes pertaining to the group’s identified personal goals and determine the safety of the group. They also choose amongst themselves the group monitor. Each of the members assesses himself or herself and ask pertinent questions.

The transition stage:
This is the second stage in the group process and is characterized by the expression of feelings regarding interaction in the group, as well as an individual personal group. Since the group comprises of people from different family backgrounds, cultures, religions, socio-economic status of parents, ages, each member may be sceptical or hesitant to open up. As time goes on and as they realise that sessions are held to help them out, they open up and free themselves from unnecessary anxiety and fear.

The working stage:
The working stage is characterized by the commitment of members to explore significant problems they have brought to the session. Group cohesion is used during this stage, members become transparent with one another, this is shown by the level of cooperation shown by members in the group. Also, each show some degree of initiative behaviour and are punctual to meetings, attendance rate is high, trust for one another is shown, they support and encourage one another after listening to the experiences of each other. Cohesion is ascertained after negative feelings expressed by members have been dealt with. This ensures trustworthiness.

The final stage:
The final stage is characterized by the successful accomplishment of the difficult process of consolidation and termination. This is when the purpose of initiating the group is achieved, if the sessions had been handled adequately, the members may have a feeling of sadness that they are parting with friends and the leader. They may also wonder if they will be able to put into practice what they have learned without the help of group members and leaders.

The leader may suggest having a follow-up session to encourage members put into practice what they have learned or the need to change. The final stage is very important because it gives the members the opportunity to clarify their experiences, consolidate the gains they have made and revisit their decisions about the newly acquired behaviour they want to implement in their everyday life.

The counsellor can use these follow-up devices to check his members.

• In Follow-up interviews, the leader may try and arrange an interview with each member a few weeks or months after the termination of the group.
• Members can contact one another periodically after termination to give support.
• The counsellor can organize a follow-up group session for the entire members after Termination.

Question 4.
Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test.
Answer:
The set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test are as follows:
Ability to select and implement multiple methods and means of evaluation in ways that are responsive to, and respectful of diverse individuals, couples, families and groups.

• Ability to utilise systematic approaches to gather data required for taking decisions.
• Knowledge of psychometric issues and bases of assessment methods.
• Knowledge of issues related to the integration of different data sources.
• Ability to integrate assessment data from different sources for diagnostic purposes.
• Ability to formulate and apply diagnoses to understand the strengths and limitations of current diagnostic approaches.
• Capacity for effective use of supervision to implement and enhance skills.

Question 5.
What is the typical format of a counselling interview?
Answer:
The format of a counselling interview is as follows:
Opening of the Interview:
The opening of the interview involves establishing rapport between two communicators. The purpose is to make the interviewee comfortable. Generally, the interviewer starts the conversation and does most of the talking at the outset. This serves two functions, i.e, it establishes the goal of the interview and gives the interviewee time to become comfortable with the situation and the interviewer.

Body of the Interview:
The body of the interview is the heart of the process. In this stage, the interviewer asks questions in an attempt to generate information and data that are required for the purpose.

The sequence of Questions:
To accomplish the purpose of an interview, the interviewer prepares a set of questions, also called a schedule, for different domains, or categories s/he wants to cover. To do this, the interviewer must first decide on the domains/ categories under which information is to be generated.

For example, in the questions used in job interviews, die interviewer selected several categories such as the nature of the organisation they last worked for, satisfaction with the past job, views on the product, etc. These categories and the questions within them are framed ranging from easy-to-answer to difficult-to-answer. Questions are also formulated to assess facts as well as subjective assessments.

Question 6.
What do you understand by the term counselling? Explain the characteristics of an effective counsellor.
Answer:
Counselling provides a system for planning the interview, analysing the counsellor’s and client’s behaviour and determining the developmental impact on the client. In this section, we will discuss skills, concepts and methods that are designed to help develop concrete competencies. A counsellor is most often interested in building an understanding of the client’s problem by focusing on what understanding the client has of her/his problem and how s/he feels about it.

The actual or objective facts of the problems are considered less important, and it is considered more important to work on the feelings and their acknowledgement by the clients. The focus is more on the person and how s/he defines the problem.

The following elements about counselling are common to the major theoretical approaches to counselling:

• Counselling involves responding to the feelings, thoughts and actions of the clients.
• Counselling involves a basic acceptance of the client’s perceptions and feelings, without using any evaluative standards.
• Confidentiality and privacy constitute essential ingredients in the counselling setting. Physical facilities that preserve this quality are important.
• Counselling is voluntary. It takes place when a client approaches a counsellor. A counsellor never uses any kind of coercion for obtaining information.
• Counsellors and clients both transmit and receive verbal and non-verbal messages during the process. Therefore, awareness and sensitivity to the nature of the message is an important prerequisites for a counsellor’s effectiveness.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is a Group?
Answer:
The preceding introduction illustrates the importance of groups in our lives. One question that comes to mind is: “How are groups (e.g. your family, class and the group with which you play) different from other collections of people ?” For example, people who have assembled to watch a cricket match or your school function are at one place but are not interdependent on each other. They do not have defined roles, statuses and expectations from each other.

In the ease of your family, class and the group with which you play, you will realise that there is mutual interdependence, each member has roles, there are status differentials and there are expectations from each other. Thus, Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions you have. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your family members; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers and classmates and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends.

In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only provides you the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth and development as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place where you were without your family, school and friends? How did you feel? Did you feel there was something vital missing in your life? Our lives are influenced by the nature of the group members we have.

It is, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence us positively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shall try to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour. At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do others influence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing others and society.

The benefits of cooperation and competition and how they influence our personal and social lives will also be examined. We will also see how identity develops—how we come to know ourselves. Similarly, we would try to understand why sometimes group conflicts arise; examine the perils of group conflict and apprise ourselves of various conflict resolution strategies so that we are able to contribute towards making a, harmonious and cohesive society.

Introduction:
Family, class and playgroup are examples of groups and are different from other collections of people. A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, who have a set of role relationships among its members and who have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.

Groups have the following salient characteristics:

A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group from the other and gives the group its unique identity. A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups function either working towards a given goal or away from certain threats facing the group.

A collection of individuals who are interdependent, i.e. what one is doing may have consequences for others. Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket team drops an important catch during a match—this will have consequences for the entire team. Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their joint association also influence each other.

A gathering of individuals who interact with one another either directly or indirectly. A collection of individuals whose interactions are structured by a set of roles mid norms. This means that the group members perform the same functions every time the group meets and the group members adhere to group norms. Norms tell us how we ought to behave in the group and specify the behaviours expected from group members.

Groups can be differentiated from other collections of people. For example, a crowd is also a collection of people who may be present at a place/situation by chance. Suppose you are going on the road and an accident takes place. Soon a large number of people tend to collect. This is an example of a crowd. There is neither any structure nor a feeling of belongingness in a crowd. The behaviour of people in crowds is irrational and there is no interdependence among members.

Teams are special kinds of groups. Members of teams often have complementary skills and are committed to a common goal Or purpose. Members are mutually accountable for their activities. In teams, there is a positive synergy attained through the coordinated efforts of the members. The main difference between groups and teams are: In groups, performance is dependent on the contributions of individual members.

In teams, both individual contributions and teamwork matter. In groups, the leader or whoever is heading the group holds responsibility for the work. However in teams, although there is a leader, members hold themselves responsible. An audience is also a collection of people who have assembled for a special purpose, maybe to watch a cricket match or a movie.

Audiences are generally passive but sometimes they go into a frenzy and become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite sense of purpose. There is polarization in attention and the actions of persons are in a common direction. Mob behaviour is characterised by the homogeneity of thought and behaviour as well as impulsivity.

Question 2.
Why Do People Join Groups?
Answer:
All of you are members of your family, class and groups with which you interact or play. Similarly, other people are also members of a number of groups at any given time. Different groups satisfy different needs and therefore, we are simultaneously members of different groups. This sometimes creates pressure for us because there may be competing demands and expectations. Most often we are able to handle these competing demands and expectations. People join groups because these groups satisfy a range of needs. In general, people join groups for the following reasons :

Security:
When we are alone, we feel insecure. Groups reduce this insecurity. Being with people gives a sense of comfort and protection. As a result, people feel stronger, and are less vulnerable to threats.

Status :
When we are members of a group that is perceived to be important by others, we feel recognised and experience a sense of power. Suppose your school wins in an interinstitutional debate competition, you feel proud and think that you are better than others.

Self-esteem :
Groups provide feelings of self-worth and establish a positive social identity. Being a member of prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept.

Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs:
Groups satisfy one’s social and psychological needs such as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving attention, love and power through a group. .

Goal achievement:
Groups help in achieving such goals which cannot be attained individually. There is power in the majority.

Provide knowledge and information:
Group membership provides knowledge and information and thus broadens our view. As individuals, we may not have all the required information. Groups supplement this information and knowledge.

Group Formation
In this section, we will see how groups are formed. Basic to group formation is some contact and some form of interaction between people. This interaction is facilitated by the following conditions:

Proximity:
Just think about your group of friends. Would you have been friends if you were not living in the same colony, or going to the same school, or may be playing in the same playground? Probably your answer would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions with the same set of individuals give us a chance to know them and their interests and attitudes. Common interests, attitudes and background are important determinants of your liking for your group members.

Similarity:
Being exposed to someone over a period of time makes us assess our similarities and paves the way for the formation of groups. Why do we like people who are similar? Psychologists have given several explanations for this. One explanation is that people prefer consistency and like relationships that are consistent. When two people are similar, there is consistency and they start liking each other.

For example, if you like playing football and another person in your class also loves playing football; there is a matching of your interests. There are higher chances that you may become friends. Another explanation given by psychologists is that when we meet similar people, they reinforce and validate our opinions and values, we feel we are right and thus we start liking them.

Suppose you are of the opinion that too much watching of television is not good, because it shows too much violence. You meet someone who also has similar views. This validates your opinion, and you start liking the person who was instrumental in validating your opinion.

Common motives and goals :
When people have common motives or goals, they get together and form a group which may facilitate their goal attainment. Suppose you want to teach children in a slum area who are unable to go to school. You cannot do this alone because you have your own studies and homework. You, therefore, form a group of like-minded friends and start teaching these children. So you have been able to achieve what you could not have done alone.

Stages of Group FormationRcmember that, like everything else in life, groups develop. You do not become a group member the moment you come together. Groups usually go through different stages of formation, conflict, stabilisation, performance and dismissal. Tuckman suggested that groups pass through five developmental sequences. These are: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

When group members first meet, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the group, the goal and how it is to be achieved. People try to know each other and assess whether they will fit in. There is excitement as well as apprehension. This stage is called the forming stage. Often, after this stage, there is a stage of intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming.

In this stage, there is conflict among members about how the target of the group is to be achieved, who is to control the group and its resources and who is to perform what task. When this stage is complete, some sort of hierarchy of leadership in the group develops and a clear vision as to how to achieve the group goal. The storming stage is followed by another stage known as norming. Group members by this time develop norms related to group behaviour.

This leads to the development of a positive group identity. The fourth stage is performing. By this time, the structure of the group has evolved and is accepted by group members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some groups, this may be the last stage of group development. However, for some groups, for example, in the case of an organising committee for a school function, there may be another stage known as adjourning stage.

In this stage, once the function is over, the group may be disbanded. However, it must be stated that all groups do not always proceed from one stage to the next in such a systematic manner. Sometimes several stages go on simultaneously, while in other instances groups may go back and forth through the various stages or they may just skip some of the stages. During the process of group formation, groups also develop a structure.

We should remember that group structure develops as members interact Over time this interaction shows regularities in the distribution of task to be performed, responsibilities assigned to members and the prestige or relative status of members. Four important elements of group structure are : Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context.

You have the role of a son or a daughter and with this role, there are certain role expectations, i.e. including the behaviour expected of someone in a particular role. As a daughter or a son, you are expected to respect elders, listen to them and be responsible towards your studies. Norms are expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon, and enforced by group members. They may be considered as a group’s ‘unspoken rules’.

In your family, there are norms that guide the behaviour of family members. These norms represent shared, ways of viewing the world. Status refers to the relative social position given to group members by others. This relative position or status may be either ascribed (given may be because of one’s seniority achieved the person has achieved status because of expertise or hard work. By being members of the group, we enjoy the status associated with that group.

All of us, therefore, strive to be members of such groups which are high in status or are viewed favourably by others. Even within a group, different members have different prestige and status. For example, the captain of a cricket team has a higher status compared to the other members, although all are equally important for the team’s success. Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group members.

As the group becomes more cohesive, group members start to think, feel and act as a social unit and less like isolated individuals. Members of a highly cohesive group have a greater desire.to remain in the group in comparison to those who belong to low cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense of belongingness to the group.

It is difficult to leave a cohesive group or to gain membership of a group which is highly cohesive. Extreme cohesiveness, however, may sometimes not be in a group’s interest. Psychologists have identified the phenomenon of groupthink (see Box 7.1) which is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness.

Type Of Groups:
Groups differ in many respects some have a large number of members (e.g., a country), some are small (e.g., a family), some are short-lived (e.g., a committee), some remain together for many years (e.g., religious groups), some are highly organised (e.g., army, police, etc.) and others are informally organised (e.g., spectators of a match). People may belong to different types of groups. Major types of groups are enumerated below:

• primary and secondary groups
• formal and informal groups
• ingroup and outgroup.

Primary and Secondary Groups:
A major difference between primary and secondary groups is that primary groups are pre-existing formations which are usually given to the individual whereas secondary groups are those that the individual joins by choice. Thus, family, caste and religion are primary groups whereas membership of a political party is an example of a secondary group. In a primary group, there is face-to-face interaction, members have close physical proximity and they share warm emotional bonds.

Primary groups are central to an individual’s functioning and have a very major role in developing the values and ideals of the individual during the early stages of development. In contrast, secondary groups are those where relationships among members are more impersonal, indirect and less frequent. In the primary group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e. members do not have the option to choose its membership as compared to secondary groups where it is easy to leave and join another group.

Formal and Informal Groups:
These groups differ in the degree to which the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an official organisation. The roles to be performed by group members are stated in an explicit manner. The formal and informal groups differ on the basis of structure.

The formation of formal groups is based on some specific rules or laws and members have definite roles. There are a set of norms which help in establishing order. A university is an example of a formal group. On the other hand, the formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws and there is a close relationship among members.

Ingroup and Outgroup:
Just as individuals compare themselves with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have and what others have, individuals also’ compare the group they belong to with groups of which they are not a member. The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own group and ‘outgroup’ refers to another group. For ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used.

By using the words they and we, one is categorising people as similar or different. It has beefy-found that persons in the ingroup are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favourably and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the ingroup members. Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our social lives.

These differences can be easily understood by studying Tajfel’s experiments given in Box 7.2. Although it is common to make these categorisations, it should be appreciated that these categories are not real and are created by us. In some cultures, plurality is celebrated as has been the case in India. We have a unique composite culture which is reflected not only in the lives we live but also in our art, architecture and music.

Influence Of Group On Individual Behaviour:
We have seen that groups are powerful as they are able to influence the behaviour of individuals. What is the nature of this influence? What impact does the presence of others have on our performance? We will discuss two situations:

• an individual performing an activity alone in the presence of others (social facilitation) and
• an individual performing an activity along with others as part of a larger group (social loafing).
  Since social facilitation has been briefly discussed in Chapter 6, we would try to understand the: phenomenon of social loafing in this section.

Social Loafing:
Social facilitation research suggests that the presence of others leads to arousal and can motivate individuals to enhance their performance if they are already good at solving something. This enhancement occurs when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated. What would happen if the efforts of an individual in a group are pooled so that you look at the performance of the group as a whole?

Do you know what often happens? It has been found that individuals work less hard in a group than they do when performing alone. This points to a phenomenon referred to as ‘social loafing’. Social Loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective, task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. An example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war.

It is not possible for you to identify how much force each member of the team has been exerting. Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become free riders. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by Latane and his associates who asked a group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in knowing how much noise people make in social settings.

They varied the group size; individuals were either alone, or in groups of two, four and six. The results of the study showed that although the total amount of noise rose up, as size increased, the amount of noise produced by each participant dropped. In other words, each participant put in less effort as the group size increased. Why does social loafing occur?

The explanations offered are:

• Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed and therefore exert less effort.
• The motivation of members decreases because they realise that their contributions will not be evaluated on an individual basis.
• The performance of the group is not to be compared with other groups.
• There is improper coordination (or no coordination) among members.
• Belonging to the same group is not important for members. If is only an aggregate of individuals. Social loafing may be reduced by:
• Making the efforts of each person identifiable.
• Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group members committed to successful task performance).
• Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task.
• Making people feel that their individual contribution is important.
• Strengthening group cohesiveness increases the motivation for successful group outcomes.

Group Polarisation:
We all know that important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals Kelman distinguished three forms of social influence, viz. compliance, identification, and internalisation. In compliance, there are external conditions that force the individual to accept the influence of the significant other. Compliance also refers to behaving in a particular way in response to a request made by someone.

Thus, in the example described above, you may sign the letter with the thought that you were accepting to a request, not because you agree with other students, but because you have been requested to do so by a significant member. This would be a case of compliance also called ‘external/public conformity’. Compliance could take place even without a norm.

For example, a member of a community group for ‘clean environment’ requests you to put a sticker on your bike that reads, ‘Say No to Plastic Bags’. You agree to do so, not because of a group norm, or even because you personally believe in banning plastic bags, but because you see no harm or problem in putting such a sticker on your bike. At the same time, you find it easier to say ‘yes’ rather than ‘no’ to such a harmless (and eventually meaningful) request.

Identification, according to Kelman, refers to the influence process based on agreement-seeking or identity¬seeking. Internalisation, on the other hand, is a process based on information-seeking. Yet another form of behaviour is ‘obedience ’. A distinguishing feature of obedience is that such behaviour is a response to a person in authority. In the example given above, you may sign the letter more readily if a senior teacher or a student leader asks you to do so.

In such a situation, you are not necessarily following a group norm but rather carrying out an instruction or an order. The presence of an authority figure immediately makes this behaviour different from conformity. For instance, you may stop talking loudly in the classroom when the teacher asks you to keep quiet, but not when your classmate tells you to do the same thing.

We can see that there are some similarities between conformity, compliance and obedience, but there are also some differences. All three indicate the influence of others on an individual’s behaviour. Obedience is the most direct and explicit form of social influence, whereas compliance is less direct than obedience because someone has requested and thus you comply (here, the probability of refusal is there). Conformity is the most indirect form (you are conforming because you do not want to deviate from the norm).

Question 3.
What is The Autokinetic Effect?
Answer:
Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms, and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a dark room and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved.

This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials. After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members. It was observed that on subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all.

The light was only seen as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’). Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the distance the light moved but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants were not given any information regarding the nature of change if any, in their judgments over trials.

Group Pressure and Conformity: The Asch Experiment 7.4
Asch examined how much conformity there would be when one member of a group experiences pressure from the rest of the group to behave in a specific way or to give a particular judgment. A group of seven persons participated in an experiment that was a ‘vision test’. There was actually only one true subject. The other six participants were associates of the experimenter or ‘confederates’ as they are called in social psychology.

These confederates were given instructions to give specific responses. Of course, this was not known to the true subject. All participants were shown a vertical line (standard line) that had to be compared with three vertical lines of different lengths, A, B and C (comparison lines). Participants had to state which of the comparison lines, A, B or C was equal to the standard line.

Standard Line	Comparison Lines
	ABC

When the experiment began, each participant, by turn, announced her/his answer. The first five persons gave wrong answers (as they had been instructed to do so). The true subject’s turn came last but one in each round. So the true subject had the experience of 5 persons giving incorrect answers before her/him. The last person (also a Confederate) gave the same incorrect answer as the first five persons.

Even if the true subject felt that these answers were incorrect, a norm had been presented to her/him. There were twelve trials. Did the true subject conform to the majority answer, or did she/he give her/his own judgments? It was observed that 67 per cent of subjects showed conformity, and gave the same incorrect answer as the majority. Remember that this was a situation in which the answers were to be given publicly.

Compliance:
It was stated earlier that compliance refers simply to behave in response to a request from another person or group even in the absence of a norm. A good example of compliance is the kind of behaviour shown when a salesperson comes to our door. Very often, this person comes with some goods that we really do not wish to buy.

Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we find that the salesperson has spoken to us for a few minutes and the conversation has ended with a purchase of what he or she wished to sell. So why do people comply? In many situations, this happens because it is an easy way out of the situation. It is more polite and the other party is pleased. In other situations, there could be other factors at work. The following techniques have been found to work when someone waits for another person to comply.

The foot-in-the-door technique :
The person begins by making a small request that the other person is not likely to refuse. Once the other person carries out the request, a bigger request is made. Simply because the other person has already complied with the smaller request, he or she may feel uncomfortable refusing the second request. For example, someone may come to us on behalf of a group and give us a gift (something free), saying that it is for promotion. Soon afterwards, another member of the same group may come to us again and ask us to buy a product made by the group.

The deadline technique :
In this technique, a ‘last date’ is announced until which a particular product or ‘an offer’ will be available. The aim is to make people ‘hurry’ and make the purchase before they miss the rare opportunity. It is more likely that people will buy a product under this deadline condition than if there is no such deadline.

The door-in-the-face technique:
In this technique, you begin with a large request and when this is refused a later request for something smaller, the one that was actually desired, is made, which is usually granted by the person.

Obedience :
When compliance is shown to instruction or order from a person in authority, such as parents, teachers, leaders, or policemen, that behaviour is called obedience Why people show obedience is easy to understand. Most often it is because if we disobey, some punishment might follow. Sometimes, it is because we believe that persons in authority must be obeyed. People in authority have effective means of enforcing their orders.

Milgram conducted an experiment to show that individuals obey commands from people who are strangers. The experimenter informed the respondents in the study that they were participating in an experiment to study the effects of punishment on learning. The experiment was conducted in pairs. One person in each pair was the “learner”, whose work was to memorise pairs of words.

The other participant was the “teacher”, who would read these words aloud and punish the learner when she/he made errors by giving her/him a shock. The learner would make errors according to prearranged instructions. The teacher was asked to deliver a shock each time the learner made errors. The teacher was further told to increase the strength of the shock each time the learner made an error.

In reality, no shocks were given. The instructions were so arranged that the teacher was faced with a dilemma — should she/he continue shocks even when they were increasingly painful? The experimenter kept on motivating the teacher to continue. In all, 65 per cent showed total obedience. Some participants, however, protested and asked the session to end. Milgram’s study suggests that even ordinary people are willing to harm an innocent person if ordered by someone in authority.

Question 4.
Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour is harming others?
Answer:
Psychologists have identified several reasons for this. Some of these reasons are:

• People obey because they feel that they are not responsible for their own actions, they are simply carrying out orders from the authority.
• Authority generally possesses symbols of status (e.g., uniform, title) which people find difficult to resist.
• Authority gradually increases commands from lesser to greater levels and initial obedience binds the followers for commitment. Once you obey small orders, slowly there is an escalation of commitment for the person who is in authority and one starts obeying bigger orders.

Determinants of Cooperation and Competition:
What factors determine whether people will cooperate or compete? Some of the important ones are given below:

Reward structure:
Psychologists believe that whether people will cooperate or compete will depend on the reward structure. A cooperative reward structure is one in which there is promotive interdependence. Each is a beneficiary of the reward and the reward is possible only if all contribute. A competitive reward structure is one in which one can get a reward only if others do not get it.

Interpersonal communication:
When there is good interpersonal communication, then cooperation is the likely consequence. Communication facilitates interaction and discussion. As a result, group members can convince each other and learn about each other.

Reciprocity:
Reciprocity means that people feel obliged to return what they get. Initial cooperation may encourage more cooperation. Competition may provoke more competition. If someone helps, you feel like helping that person; on the other hand, if someone refuses to help you when you need help, you would not like to help that person also.

Social Identity:
Have you ever asked the question “who am I ?” What was your answer to this question? Probably your answer was that you are a hard-working, happy-go-lucky girl/ boy. This answer tells you about your social identity which is one’s self-definition of who she/he is. This self-definition may include both personal attributes, e.g. hard working, happy-go-lucky, or attributes which you share with others, e.g. girl or boy.

Although some aspects of our identity are determined by physical characteristics, we may acquire other aspects as a consequence of our interaction with others in society. Sometimes we perceive ourselves as unique individuals and at other times we perceive ourselves as members of groups. Both are equally valid expressions of self. Our personal identities derived from views of ourselves as a unique individuals, and social identities derived from groups we perceive ourselves to be members of, are both important to us.

The extent to which we, define ourselves either at personal or at social levels is flexible. From your own experience; you would realise that identification with social groups can have a great deal of importance for your self-concept. How do you feel when India wins a cricket match? You feel elated and proud. You feel so because of your social identity as an Indian. Social identity is, thus, that aspect of our self-concept which is based on our group membership.

Social identity places us, i.e. tells us what and where we are in the larger social context and thus helps us to locate ourselves in society. You have a social identity of a student of your school. Once you have this identity as a student of your school, you internalise the values emphasised in your school and make these values your own. You strive to fulfil the motto of your school.

Social identity provides members with a shared set of values, beliefs and goals about themselves and about their social world. Once you internalise the values of your school, this helps to coordinate and regulate your attitudes and behaviour. You work hard for your school to make it the best school in your city/state. When we develop a strong identity with our own group, the categorisation as ingroup and outgroup become salient.

The group with which you identify yourself becomes the ingroup and others become the outgroup. The negative aspect of this ownership group and outgroup categorisation is that we start showing favouritism towards our ingroup by rating it more favourably in comparison to the outgroup and begin devaluating the outgroup. This devaluation of the outgroup is the basis of a number of intergroup conflicts.

Intergroup Conflict: Nature And Causes:
Conflict is a process in which either an individual or a group perceives that others (individual or group) have opposing interests and both try to contradict each other. There is this intense feeling of an ‘other’ (also referred to as ‘they’). There is also a belief by both parties that the other will protect only its own interests; their (the other side’s) interests will, therefore, not be protected.

There is not only opposition of each other, but they also try to exert power on each other. Groups have been found to be more aggressive than individuals. This often leads to the escalation of conflict. All conflicts are mostly as there is a human price for them. In wars, there are both victories and defeats, but the human cost of war is far beyond all this. Various types of conflict are commonly seen in society, which turns out to be costly for both sides as well as for society. Mentioned below are some of the major reasons for group conflicts.

One major reason is the lack of communication and faulty communication by both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e. there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict results. Another reason for intergroup conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when members of a group compare themselves with members of another group and perceive that they do not have what they desire to have, which the other group.

In other words, they feel that they are not doing well in comparison to other groups. This may lead to feelings of deprivation and discontentment, which may trigger off conflict. Another cause of conflict is one party’s belief that it is better than the other and that what it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other.

One may often witness a tendency to magnify even smaller differences, thereby conflict gets escalated because every member wants to respect the norms of her/his group. A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group and actually violates those norms because of malevolent intent. The desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for conflict. Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts.

As already mentioned earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to biased perceptions. Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well as more aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over scarce resources, both material resources, e.g, territory and money as well as social resources, e.g. respect and esteem. Perceived inequity is another reason for conflict. Equity refers to the distribution of rewards in proportion to an individual’s contributions, if: