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Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Education Solutions Chapter 1 Mahatma Gandhi Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Education Chapter 1 Question Answer Mahatma Gandhi

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
When and where was Mahatma Gandhi born, and what role did he play in the Indian independence movement?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi was born on October 02-1869, in Porbandar, British India. He played a prominent role in the Indian independence movement, becoming a symbol of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience.

Question 2.
What were the immediate aims of education according to Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
The immediate aims of education, according to Gandhi, included providing individuals with the ability to earn a livelihood for self-sufficiency, promoting Indian culture, and building character through ethical conduct.

Question 3.
What was the ultimate aim of education according to Mahatma Gandhi, and how did he define it?
Answer:
The ultimate aim of education, according to Gandhi, was self-realization. He defined education as an all-round drawing out of the best in a child and man body, mind, and spirit

Question 4.
What subjects did Mahatma Gandhi propose to include in the school curriculum for Basic Education?
Answer:
Gandhi proposed the inclusion of subjects such as basic craft (agriculture, spinning, weaving, woodwork), mother tongue, arithmetic, social studies, general science, music, drawing, and Hindustani language.

Question 5.
Describe Mahatma Gandhi’s method of teaching as emphasized in his educational philosophy.
Answer:
Gandhi stressed education through craft, emphasized the activity method, learning by self-experience, correlation method, and a combination of lecture and questioning methods. He advocated for using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction.

Question 6.
What did Gandhi believe about the concept of discipline, and how did he define it in the context of education?
Answer:
Gandhi believed in a discipline that extended beyond external control, emphasizing self-control in mind, thought, feeling, and action. He saw education as a means to foster personal and social discipline, creating responsible citizens.

Question 7.
What attributes and qualities did Mahatma Gandhi envision in teachers, according to his educational philosophy?
Answer:
Gandhi envisioned teachers as well-trained, knowledgeable, faithful, enthusiastic, action- oriented, and devoted individuals with a strong sense of character and nationalistic sentiments. Teachers were seen as friends, philosophers, and guides to students.

Question 8.
How did Mahatma Gandhi perceive the role and purpose of a school in his educational vision?
Answer:
Gandhi saw a school not just as an educational institution but as a dynamic space for inquiries, discoveries, and experiments. He envisioned schools as community centers nurturing future citizens, focusing on holistic development in physical, intellectual, social, moral, and spiritual dimensions.

Question 9.
What were Mahatma Gandhi’s views on women’s education, and how did he believe. women could contribute to the educational system?
Answer:
Gandhi believed in the emancipation of women and saw them as crucial in educating young children. He advocated for tailored education aligning with women’s natural inclinations, empowering them to undertake responsibilities in education.

Question 10.
How did Mahatma Gandhi’s educational philosophy contribute to his broader vision for social progress and justice?
Answer:
Gandhi’s educational philosophy aimed at holistic development, emphasizing truth, non-violence, and simple living. His focus on character formation, vocational training, and efficiency aligned with his broader vision for a just and socially progressive society, promoting values essential for well-rounded citizenship.

Question 11.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi criticize the British Government’s education policies during the Round Table Conference in London in 1931?
Answer:
Gandhi criticized the British Government’s education policies for creating a permanent divide between the highly educated few and the uneducated many, establishing a detrimental barrier. He considered English education as the source of this division, emphasizing its harmful impact on Indian society.

Question 12.
What key principles were adopted during the Wardha Educational Conference in 1937 regarding Basic Education, according to Gandhiji?
Answer:
The Wardha Educational Conference adopted four resolutions: free and compulsory education for seven years nationwide, the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction, incorporation of manual and productive work in education, and the gradual generation of remuneration for teachers.

Question 13.
How did Gandhiji envision the relationship between theoretical knowledge and practical activities in Basic Education?
Answer:
Gandhiji’s Basic Education emphasized “learning by doing,” fostering a harmonious correlation between theoretical knowledge and practical activities like gardening, weaving, spinning, and carpentry. The goal was to integrate education with the physical and social environment, aligning with the predominantly village-centric nature of India.

Question 14.
According to Gandhiji, what was the age range for free and compulsory education in Basic Education?
Answer:
Gandhiji advocated for free and compulsory education for all children aged seven to fourteen. This initiative aimed to make education accessible to every child, focusing on mental, physical, and spiritual faculties.

Question 15.
Why did Gandhiji emphasize the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction in Basic Education?
Answer:
Gandhiji believed that using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction would bridge cultural and linguistic gaps, fostering a deeper understanding and positive attitude towards learning. This approach aimed to create a more inclusive and culturally sensitive educational environment.

Question 16.
What was the significance of craft-centered education in Gandhiji’s Basic Education philosophy?
Answer:
Craft-centered education in Basic Education was crucial for making education self-supporting. It aligned with the Indian context, providing practical skills through crafts like weaving and carpentry, breaking down barriers between manual and intellectual work.

Question 17.
How did Gandhiji envision the development of creativity and critical thinking in Basic Education?
Answer:
Gandhiji’s philosophy of Teaming by doing’ in Basic Education stimulated creative and critical thinking. Practical work from an early age was believed to develop disciplined minds, contributing to a holistic education.

Question 18.
What role did collaborative learning play in Gandhiji’s Basic Education model?
Answer: Gandhiji
emphasized collaborative learning in Basic Education, fostering cooperation, tolerance, and a sense of responsibility. Craft work played a role in developing collaborative learning skills and an appreciation for honest labor.

Question 19.
According to Gandhiji, why was moral education essential in Basic Education?
Answer:
Gandhiji underscored the significance of ethics and morality in Basic Education, believing that true peace could only be achieved through moral and ethical principles. Education, therefore, should be rooted in these values.

Question 20.
How did Gandhiji envision Basic Education contributing to self-reliance and patriotism?
Answer:
Basic Education aimed to make individuals self-supporting by teaching crafts or occupational skills for livelihood. Gandhiji desired that education ensures employment, making individuals self-sufficient. Patriotism was instilled through practical engagement and a focus on contributing positively to the nation.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
How did Mahatma Gandhi’s educational philosophy reflect his broader principles of life?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s educational philosophy was deeply intertwined with his broader principles of life, emphasizing peace, truth, and non-violence. Viewed as an “experiment with truth,” Gandhi’s commitment to moral and ethical values formed the foundation of his educational ideals. His belief in God as truth and the ultimate goal of realizing truth in human life guided his educational vision. Gandhi saw education as an all-round development of an individual, encompassing body, mind, and spirit, aligning with his holistic approach to life.

Question 2.
What were the immediate aims of education according to Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
According to Mahatma Gandhi, the immediate aims of education were multifaceted. The “Bread and Butter Aim” focused on enabling individuals to earn a livelihood, ensuring self-sufficiency and serving as insurance against unemployment. The “Cultural Aim” emphasized the preservation and promotion of Indian culture, reflected in dress, speech, conduct, and behavior. Additionally, the “Character Aim” underscored the importance of education in building ethical and spiritual character. The “Perfect Development Aim” aimed at the all-round growth of the individual, fostering comprehensive development of the head, heart, and hand.

Question 3.
How did Mahatma Gandhi envision the ultimate aim of education?
Answer:
According to Mahatma Gandhi, the ultimate aim of education was self-realization. He believed that education should guide individuals towards understanding themselves and achieving spiritual freedom. This pursuit of self-realization was intricately linked to the concept of spiritual freedom, providing knowledge of both God and self. Gandhi envisioned education as a transformative journey that transcended worldly concerns, leading individuals towards a deeper understanding of their true selves and spiritual liberation.

Question 4.
What subjects did Mahatma Gandhi propose to be included in the curriculum of his educational framework?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi proposed the inclusion of several subjects in his educational framework, reflecting a holistic and practical approach. These subjects included Basic Craft (such as agriculture, spinning, weaving, and woodwork), Mother Tongue, Arithmetic, Social Studies (history, civics, geography), General Science (covering various scientific disciplines), Music and Drawing, and Hindustani Language. The curriculum aimed to provide practical, hands-on learning experiences and foster a well-rounded education aligned with the cultural and practical aspects of students’ lives.

Question 5.
What were the key methods of teaching advocated by Mahatma Gandhi in his educational philosophy?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi advocated several key methods of teaching in his educational philosophy. These included education through craft, emphasizing practical skills and hands-on experiences in crafts like agriculture and weaving. He stressed the importance of the activity method, promoting learning by doing and self-experience. The correlation method was encouraged, presenting education in different subjects as correlated knowledge. Gandhi acknowledged the use of both the lecture method and questioning method, combining essential information delivery with active engagement and critical thinking. Additionally, he emphasized the use of the mother tongue as the primary medium of instruction.

Question 6.
How did Mahatma Gandhi perceive the concept of discipline in education?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi embraced a comprehensive concept of discipline that extended beyond external control to encompass the realms of mind, thought, feeling, and action. Central to his idea was the practice of self-control, emphasizing both inner-discipline and self-discipline. While personal discipline was a focus, Gandhi also recognized the importance of aligning individual discipline with social discipline.. He believed that education played a vital role in fostering a collective spirit, Oil creating a sense of “we-feeling” and transforming individuals into responsible citizens. Gandhi’s concept of discipline harmonized personal self-control with broader social discipline.

Question 7.
How did Mahatma Gandhi envision the role of teachers in his educational philosophy?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi envisioned teachers as dedicated individuals committed to their profession and serving the illiterate masses. In his vision, teachers were expected to be well- trained, proficient, possessing knowledge, faith, zeal, enthusiasm, action-oriented spirit, and unwavering devotion. Character and nationalistic sentiments were deemed essential attributes for educators. Gandhi emphasized that teachers held the responsibility of sculpting the character of their students and should be a friend, philosopher, and guide. His vision of a teacher extended beyond the traditional role, emphasizing a holistic approach combining knowledge, character-building, and a sense of national duty.

Question 8.
How did Mahatma Gandhi perceive, the role of a school in his educational vision ? Answer: In Mahatma Gandhi’s perspective, a school was envisioned as a dynamic space where individuals engaged in inquiries, made discoveries, and conducted experiments. Beyond an educational institution, a school was seen as a community center, nurturing future citizens. The purpose extended beyond academics to encompass the holistic development of individuals in physical, intellectual, social, moral, and spiritual dimensions. A school was viewed as a cradle shaping not only academic knowledge but also cultivating values essential for well-rounded citizenship. Gandhi’s vision emphasized the transformative power of education in creating responsible, contributing members of society.

Question 9.
What was Mahatma Gandhi’s vision regarding free and compulsory education under the concept of Basic Education, and why did he consider it crucial?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi advocated for free and compulsory education for all children aged seven to fourteen as a fundamental aspect of Basic Education. He believed that education should be a universal right, accessible to every child, regardless of socio-economic background. Gandhi considered education as a means to cultivate mental, physical, and spiritual faculties, emphasizing its importance for holistic development. By making education free and compulsory, Gandhi aimed to break down barriers to access, ensuring that every child had the opportunity to benefit from the transformative power of education.

Question 10.
How did Mahatma Gandhi address linguistic and cultural aspects in his Basic Education philosophy, specifically regarding the medium of instruction ?
Answer:
In his Basic Education philosophy, Mahatma Gandhi emphasized the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction. This approach aimed to bridge cultural and linguistic gaps, fostering a deeper understanding and positive attitude towards learning. Gandhi believed that learning in one’s native language was crucial for effective expression and communication of ideas. By prioritizing the mother tongue, he aimed to preserve cultural identity, promote linguistic unity, and create a learning environment that resonated with the cultural ethos of the Indian society.

Question 11.
What was the significance of craft-centered education in Mahatma Gandhi’s Basic Education system, and how did it contribute to the self-supporting nature of education?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi stressed the significance of craft-centered education in his Basic Education system. This approach involved practical activities such as gardening, weaving, spinning, and carpentry, aligning with the predominantly village-centric nature of India. Craft-based learning served as a means to make education self-supporting by providing employment opportunities. Gandhi aimed to break down barriers between manual and intellectual work, emphasizing the importance of aligning education with the physical and social environment. The self-supporting nature of Basic Education minimized the need for extravagant financial investments, making education more sustainable and accessible to a broader population.

Question 12.
How did Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of ’learning by doing’ contribute to the development of creativity and critical thinking in Basic Education?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of ‘learning by doing’ was integral to his Basic Education approach, stimulating creative and critical thinking. Gandhi believed that practical work from an early age would contribute to the development of disciplined minds and a holistic education. By engaging in activities such as gardening, weaving, spinning, and carpentry, students learned through hands-on experiences. This experiential learning fostered creativity as students actively applied theoretical knowledge to practical situations. Gandhi envisioned Basic Education as a trans formative tool that not only imparted information but also encouraged students to think critically, problem- solve, and develop a deeper understanding of the subjects through active engagement.

Question 13.
How did Mahatma Gandhi envision collaborative learning in the context of Basic Education, and what role did craft work play in this aspect?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi emphasized collaborative learning in Basic Education, fostering cooperation, tolerance, and a sense of responsibility among students. Craft work played a significant role in developing collaborative learning skills. Students engaged in activities such as gardening, weaving, spinning, and carpentry collectively, learning from each other and working towards common goals. Gandhi believed that collaboration was essential for instilling values of teamwork and community spirit. Through craft-based learning, students not only acquired practical skills but also developed a sense of camaraderie and mutual support, contributing to the overall ethos of collaborative learning within the Basic Education system.

Question 14.
According to Mahatma Gandhi’s Basic Education philosophy, what role did ethics and morality play in the educational system, and how did he envision character building through education?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi underscored the significance of ethics and morality in the Basic Education system. He believed that true peace could only be achieved through moral and ethical principles, and education should be rooted in these values. The goal of education, according to Gandhi, was character-building. He emphasized the development of personality, compassion, kindness, fair-mindedness, and dedication as essential aspects of education.

Gandhi’s vision for Basic Education went beyond academic knowledge, aiming to mold individuals with strong moral foundations. By instilling values of truth, non-violence, and social responsibility, he envisioned Basic Education as a transformative force that not only equipped individuals with skills but also shaped their character and contributed to the betterment of society.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What were the key principles and objectives underlying Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Basic Education, and how did he envision its role in transforming Indian society?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Basic Education, also known as ‘Nai Talim, ’ was rooted in fundamental principles aimed at holistic development and societal transformation. Envisioned as a response to the inadequacies of the existing education system, Gandhi’s Basic Education philosophy sought to create individuals capable of contributing positively to society and fostering a self-sustaining and morally grounded community.

1. Universal Access to Education : Gandhi strongly advocated for free and compulsory education for all children aged seven to fourteen. His vision was to make education a fundamental right accessible to every child, regardless of socio-economic background. By emphasizing universal access, Gandhi aimed to break down barriers that limited educational opportunities, ensuring that every individual had the chance to develop their mental, physical, and spiritual faculties.

2. Mother Tongue as the Medium of Instruction : A crucial aspect of Gandhi’s educational philosophy was the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction. This approach aimed to bridge cultural and linguistic gaps, fostering a deeper understanding and positive attitude towards learning. Gandhi recognized the cultural and emotional richness embedded in languages and sought to create an educational environment that resonated with the cultural ethos of Indian society.

3. Craft-Centered Education : Craft-centered education was a cornerstone of Gandhi’s Basic Education philosophy. Gandhi stressed the significance of practical skills and hands-on experiences in activities such as gardening, weaving, spinning, and carpentry. This approach was not only about imparting vocational skills but also about making education self-supporting. By aligning education with the physical and social environment, Basic Education aimed to break down barriers between intellectual and manual labor, fostering a more integrated and self-sustaining society.

4. Development of Creativity and Critical Thinking : The philosophy of ‘learning by doing’ was integral to Gandhi’s approach, stimulating creative and critical thinking. Gandhi believed that practical work from an early age would develop disciplined minds and contribute to a holistic education. By actively applying theoretical knowledge to practical situations, students were encouraged to think critically, problem-solve, and develop a deeper understanding of the subjects.

5. Collaborative Learning and Moral Education: Gandhi emphasized collaborative learning, fostering cooperation, tolerance, and a sense of responsibility. Craft work played a role in developing collaborative learning skills and an appreciation for honest labor. Moreover, Gandhi underscored the significance of ethics and morality in education. He believed that true peace could only be achieved through moral and ethical principles, and education should be rooted in these values.

6. Character Budding and Self-Reliance : The ultimate aim of education, according to Gandhi, was character-building. He emphasized the development of personality, compassion, kindness, fair-mindedness, and dedication as essential aspects of education. Basic Education aimed a at making individuals self-supporting by learning crafts or occupational skills for livelihood. Gandhi desired that education ensures employment, making individuals self-sufficient. Patriotism was instilled through practical engagement.

7. Social Services and Cleanliness : Encouraging students to engage in community services was essential for Gandhi. He believed that education must focus on social welfare, and students should actively contribute to the well-being of their communities. Additionally, Gandhi was a staunch advocate for cleanliness and the eradication of untouchability. He sensitized students on the merits of cleanliness and actively worked towards breaking down caste barriers.

8. Transformation of Indian Society : Gandhi envisioned Basic Education as a powerful tool for transforming Indian society at its core. By imparting practical skills, moral values, and a deep connection to one’s cultural roots, Basic Education aimed to create responsible citizens capable of addressing societal challenges. The emphasis on self-sufficiency and vocational skills sought to break the cycle of dependence and poverty, fostering economic empowerment at the grassroots level.

The holistic development of individuals was seen as a means to build a harmonious and self- sustaining community. Gandhi’s Basic Education philosophy aligned with the predominantly village centric nature of India, aiming to create a society where intellectual and manual labor were seamlessly integrated. The emphasis on local languages and crafts aimed to preserve cultural identity, fostering a sense of pride and unity among diverse communities.

In conclusion, Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Basic Education was characterized by its emphasis on universal access, the mother tongue as the medium of instruction, craft-centered education, the development of creativity and critical thinking, collaborative learning, character building, and a focus on social services. Gandhi envisioned Basic Education as a transformative force, empowering individuals to contribute meaningfully to society while preserving cultural values and fostering self-sufficiency at both individual and community levels.

Question 2.
How did Mahatma Gandhi’s emphasis on the mother tongue as the medium of instruction contribute to his vision of Basic Education, and what significance did it hold in preserving cultural identity and fostering a positive attitude towards learning?
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s emphasis on the mother tongue as the medium of instruction was central to his vision of Basic Education, reflecting his deep understanding of the importance of language in preserving cultural identity and fostering a positive attitude towards learning. By prioritizing the use of the mother tongue in education, Gandhi sought to create an educational environment that was not only linguistically accessible but also culturally enriching and emotionally resonant.

1. Preservation of Cultural Identity : One of the key objectives of Gandhi’s Basic Education philosophy was to preserve and promote India’s rich cultural heritage. Gandhi recognized language as an integral part of culture, serving as a repository of traditions, values, and collective memory. By advocating for the use of the mother tongue in education, Gandhi aimed to ensure that students remained connected to their cultural roots and identity.

The mother tongue served as a medium through which cultural knowledge and wisdom could be transmitted from one generation to the next Through literal me. folklore, and oral traditions passed down in the mother tongue, students were exposed to the depth and diversity of Indian culture. This intimate connection to their linguistic and cultural heritage instilled a sense of pride and belonging among students, reinforcing their identity as members of a vibrant and diverse society.

2. Fostering a Positive Attitude Towards Learning : Gandhi believed that learning should be a joyful and empowering experience, accessible to all students regardless of their background or socio-economic status. By using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction, Gandhi sought to create a learning environment that was familiar, comfortable, and conducive to active engagement.

When students are taught in their mother tongue, they arc more ikely to feel confident and motivated to participate in the learning process. Language barriers are reduc ed, allowing students to express themselves more freely and articulate their thoughts and ideas with greater clarity. This „ enhanced communication fosters meaningful interactions between teachei s and students, facilitating deeper learning and comprehension.

Moreover, learning in the mother tongue promotes linguistic proficiency and fluency, enabling students to develop strong foundational skills in reading, writing, and communication. As students become more proficient in their mother tongue, they are better equipped to engage with complex concepts and ideas across different subject areas.

3. Empowerment and Inclusivity : For Gandhi, education was a tool for empowerment and social inclusion. By using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction, Gandhi sought to empower students from diverse linguistic backgrounds, ensuring that they had equal access to educational opportunities.

Prioritizing the mother tongue in education also had implications for social justice and equity. In a multilingual and multicultural country like India, language can be a source of exclusion and marginalization for minority communities. By affirming the value of every student’s mother tongue. Gandhi challenged linguistic hierarchies and promoted a more inclusive and egalitarian educational system.

4. Resistance to Colonial Influence : Gandhi’s emphasis on the mother tongue as the medium of instruction also represented a form of resistance to colonial influence and cultural imperialism. During British i ule. English was promoted as the language of education and administration, often at the expense of indigenous languages and cultures.

By advocating for the use of the mother tongue m education. Gandhi sought to reclaim India’s linguistic and cultural sovereignty. He recognized the importance of decolonizing the educational system and restoring indigenous knowledge systems that had been marginalized under colonial rule. By promoting linguistic diversity and linguistic pride, Gandhi sought to build a more inclusive and culturally vibrant society.

In conclusion, Mahatma Gandhi’s emphasis on the mother tongue as the medium of instruction was instrumental in his vision of Basic Education. By prioritizing the mother tongue, Gandhi aimed to preserve cultural identity, foster a positive attitude towards learning, promote empowerment and inelusivity, and resist colonial influence. Through his advocacy for the mother tongue, Gandhi sought to create an educational system that honored India’s linguistic diversity and empowered students to embrace their cultural heritage with pride and confidence.

Question 3.
What were the major challenges and shortcomings that led to the failure of Mahatma Gandhi’s Basic Education model, and how did factors like resistance to change, economic constraints, and educational inequality contribute to its limitations?
Answer:
The failure of Mahatma Gandhi’s Basic Education model can be attributed to a combination of challenges and shortcomings that hindered its effective implementation. Factors such as resistance to change, economic constraints, and educational inequality played crucial roles in limiting the success of this innovative educational approach;

1. Implementation Issues : One of the primary challenges faced by the Basic Education model was the difficulty in translating its
theoretical principles into practical, on-the-ground strategies. The model emphasized a holistic approach to education, integrating theoretical knowledge with practical skills through activities like gardening, weaving, and carpentry. Implementing such- an integrated curriculum required significant planning, training, and resources at the grassroots level, making it challenging to achieve widespread success.

2. Resistance to Change : The traditional educational system and societal norms resisted the shift towards Basic Education. The prevailing mindset favored conventional methods of teaching and learning, and there was reluctance to embrace a model that deviated from established norms. Deep-rooted perceptions and resistance to change hindered the acceptance and widespread adoption of this innovative approach, particularly among educational institutions and policymakers.

3. Economic Constraints : The self-supporting nature of Basic Education faced economic challenges. While the model aimed to minimize the need for extravagant financial investments in education, sustainable funding mechanisms were essential for its success. Economic constraints at both individual and governmental levels posed significant obstacles. The model required financial support for training teachers, providing infrastructure, and ensuring the availability of resources for craft-based learning.

4. Lack of Infrastructure : Inadequate infrastructure, especially in rural areas, posed a significant barrier to the effective implementation of Basic Education. The model called for facilities that could support craft-based learning, such as workshops and laboratories. However, the lack of appropriate infrastructure, insufficient resources, and a shortage of qualified teachers hindered the practical execution of the Basic Education principles, particularly in remote and underserved communities.

5. Mismatch with Modernization : As India underwent socio-economic changes and modernization, the emphasis on traditional crafts and vocational skills in the Basic Education model seemed less aligned with emerging industrial and technological needs. The evolving economic landscape created a mismatch between the skills imparted through Basic Education and the demands of a rapidly changing society. This misalignment contributed to the model’s struggle to remain relevant in the face of modernization.

6. Limited Reach and Accessibility : The ambitious goal of providing free and compulsory education for seven years on a nationwide scale faced limitations in reach and accessibility. Remote areas and marginalized communities often lacked the resources and infrastructure needed to implement Basic Education effectively. The model struggled to address the diverse needs of different regions, resulting in uneven access to quality education.

7. Educational Inequality : The Basic Education model faced challenges in addressing inherent inequalities in the educational system. Disparities in access to quality education, especially for marginalized groups, persisted and were not adequately mitigated. The model struggled to bridge the gap between urban and rural education, and certain socio-economic groups continued to face barriers in accessing Basic Education.

8. Complexity in Generating Remuneration : The idea of generating remuneration for teachers through the proposed self-supporting system faced complexity. Dependence on this approach proved challenging, especially when economic realities and administrative issues came into play. Ensuring fair and sustainable remuneration for teachers became a hurdle in the effective execution of the Basic Education model.

9. Shift in Educational Paradigm: The shift from a conventional educational paradigm to one focused on holistic development, spirituality, and practical skills faced resistance. The model challenged existing norms and was often perceived as divergent from mainstream educational goals. This resistance from within the educational establishment and broader society contributed to the model’s inability to gain widespread acceptance.

10. Insufficient Training and Awareness : Teachers and stakeholders often lacked the necessary training and awareness to effectively implement Basic Education. The success of the model depended on a deep understanding of its principles, yet insufficient training programs and awareness campaigns hindered its adoption. This lack of preparation at the grassroots level impeded the successful execution of Basic Education in various educational institutions.

In conclusion, the failure of Mahatma Gandhi’s Basic Education model can be attributed to a complex interplay of challenges and shortcomings. Resistance to change, economic constraints, educational inequality, and a mismatch with modernization were among the key factors that contributed to its limitations. While the model embodied noble ideals, its practical execution faced formidable obstacles that prevented it from realizing its full potential in transforming the Indian education system.

Question 4.
Examine Mahatma Gandhi’s educational curriculum, encompassing subjects like basic craft, mother tongue, arithmetic, social studies, general science, music and drawing, and Hindustani language. Discuss how this curriculum aligns with his vision of education and contributes to the holistic development of individuals.
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s educational curriculum was a reflection of his vision for holistic development and self-sufficiency. The curriculum encompassed a diverse range of subjects, each contributing to the well-rounded growth of individuals. Basic craft was a cornerstone of Gandhi’s educational framework, emphasizing hands-on learning in areas such as agriculture, spinning, weaving, and woodwork. This craft-centered education aligned with the Indian context, providing practical skills that were relevant to local conditions. Gandhi believed that this approach would not only make education self-supporting but also create employment opportunities.

The inclusion of the mother tongue as a subject was a crucial aspect of Gandhi’s curriculum. Recognizing the cultural and linguistic importance of learning in one’s native language, Gandhi emphasized the study of the mother tongue as an effective instrument for the expression and communication of ideas. This contributed to preserving cultural identity and fostering a positive attitude towards learning.

Arithmetic in Gandhi’s curriculum was correlated with real-life situations, focusing on practical applications and relevance to the individual’s immediate context. This approach aimed to mak arithmetic a useful subject for day-to-day life, aligning with the broader goal of education as a tooi for self-sufficiency.

Social studies covered subjects such as history, civics, geography, and current events. The emphasis was on promoting individual and social virtues, cultivating a sense of civic responsibility and awareness. This holistic approach aimed to create informed and responsible citizens.

General science covered a wide range of subjects, fostering an intelligent and scientific outlook. Gandhi proposed domestic science for girls, ensuring a well-rounded education that includec nature study, zoology, physiology, hygiene, chemistry, botany, and astronomy. This approach aimed to provide practical knowledge and skills relevant to daily life.

The inclusion of music and drawing in the curriculum aimed to spark a genuine interest i t education among boys and girls. These subjects were considered integral to nurturing creativity and aesthetic sensibilities, contributing to the overall development of individuals.

Gandhi also advocated for the inclusion of Hmdustani language in the school curriculum. This move aimed to foster a sense of national identity and promote linguistic unity, aligning wit, Gandhi’s broader vision of a united and culturally rich India.

In conclusion, Gandhi’s curriculum reflected his commitment to practical, experiential learning that aligned with the cultural and practical aspects of students’ lives. The inclusion of craft, mothc tongue, arithmetic, social studies, general science, music and drawing, and Hindustani languae contributed to the holistic development of individuals, aligning with Gandhi’s vision of education as a tool for self-sufficiency and societal transformation.

Question 5.
“How did Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of education prioritize holistic development, and what were the key principles that guided his vision for transforming individuals and society through the educational process?”
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of education was deeply rooted in the principles of holistic development, emphasizing the transformation of individuals and society through a unique educational process guided by key principles. The core tenets of Gandhi’s educational philosophy were designed to foster not only intellectual growth but also physical, moral, and spiritual development, contributing to the overall well-being of individuals and society.

Holistic Development in Gandhi’s Educational Philosophy :
Gandhi’s philosophy prioritized the holistic development of individuals, recognizing that education should extend beyond the mere acquisition of academic knowledge. For Gandhi, literacy alone did not constitute true education; rather, he envisioned a comprehensive approach that drev. out the best in a person’s body, mind, and spirit. This holistic perspective aimed at nurturing well rounded individuals capable of contributing meaningfully to society.

Key Principles Guiding Gandhi’s Vision :
Education, according to Gandhi, was the “all-round drawing out of the best” in an individual. It encompassed physical fitness, intellectual acumen, and spiritual enlightenment. Gandhi emphasized physical activities, including craft-based education, to ensure a balance between mental and manual skills. This approach aimed at developing a harmonious and integrated personality. Gandhi’s educational philosophy was deeply grounded in spiritual principles. He believed that education should lead individuals towards self-realization and spiritual freedom. The curriculum included subjects that fostered a spiritual outlook, and the method of teaching incorporated the values of truth and non-violence. The ultimate aim was to guide students on a path of self-discovery and enlightenment.

Gandhi introduced the concept of Basic Education or Nai Talim, focusing on practical skills and learning by doing. This approach aimed at making education relevant to daily life and fostering self-sufficiency. Craft-centered education, use of the mother tongue, and an emphasis on manual work were integral components of Basic Education. These principles aimed at connecting education with the practical aspects of individuals’ lives.

Gandhi stressed the importance of preserving and promoting Indian culture through education. The cultural aim aimed at instilling pride in one’s heritage. The curriculum included the study of the mother tongue, Hindustani language, and an emphasis on traditional crafts. These elements were intended to bridge cultural gaps and nurture a positive attitude towards indigenous values. Gandhi regarded character as the expression of the whole personality, including ethical and spiritual aspects. Education should focus on building character, emphasizing purity and ethical conduct.

The curriculum included subjects that emphasized moral values, and teachers were expected to play a pivotal role in shaping the character of their students. Practical work and collaborative learning were seen as means to develop character traits like compassion and fair-mindedness.

The ultimate aim of education, according to Gandhi, was self-realization and spiritual freedom. Education should guide individuals towards understanding themselves and transcending worldly concerns. The curriculum and teaching methods were designed to encourage introspection and self-discovery. Gandhi believed that true freedom could only be achieved through knowledge of oneself and adherence to moral and ethical principles.

Conclusion : Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of education was a visionary approach that sought to transform individuals and society through a holistic and spiritually grounded educational process. The key principles of all-round development, spiritual foundation, Basic Education, cultural preservation, character building, and self-realization guided Gandhi’s vision. His philosophy remains a source of inspiration for educators and policymakers, highlighting the profound impact that education can have in shaping individuals and contributing to the betterment of society.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
What is Mahatma Gandhi’s full name?
(i) Mohanlal Karamchand Gandhi
(ii) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
(iii) Mahesh Karamchand Gandhi
(iv) Madhav Karamchand Gandhi
Answer:
(ii) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

Question 2.
When was Mahatma Gandhi bom?
(i) September 2, 1869
(ii) October 2, 1869
(iii) November 2, 1859
(iv) December 2, 1865
Answer:
(ii) October 2, 1869

Question 3.
What does the title “Mahatma” mean?
(i) Great Warrior
(ii) Great Soul
(iii) Wise Leader
(iv) Mighty Ruler
Answer:
(ii) Great Soul

Question 4.
In which country did Gandhi study law and develop his principles of Satyagraha?
(i) India
(ii) England
(iii) South Africa
(iv) USA
Answer:
(iii) South Africa

Question 5.
What philosophy did Gandhi emphasize in his fight against British colonial rule?
(i) Violent Resistance
(ii) Nonviolent Resistance
(iii) Military Intervention
(iv) Diplomatic Negotiation
Answer:
(ii) Nonviolent Resistance

Question 6.
When did Gandhi return to India?
(i) 1905
(ii) 1915
(iii) 1925
(iv) 1935
Answer:
(ii) 1915

Question 7.
What tragic event led to Mahatma Gandhi’s death?
(i) Plane Crash
(ii) Assassination
(iii) Natural Causes
(iv) Car Accident
Answer:
(ii) Assassination

Question 8.
What is the significance of January 30, 1948, in Gandhi’s life?
(i) Birth Date
(ii) Independence Day
(iii) Assassination Date
(iv) Marriage Anniversary
Answer:
(iii) Assassination Date

Question 9.
According to Gandhi, what is the ultimate aim of education?
(i) Wealth Accumulation
(ii) Self-Realization
(iii) Cultural Preservation
(iv) Career Advancement
Answer:
(ii) Self-Realization

Question 10.
What did Gandhi consider as the immediate aim of education related to livelihood?
(i) Cultural Aim
(ii) Bread and Butter Aim
(iii) Character Aim
(iv) Perfect Development Aim
Answer:
(ii) Bread and Butter Aim

Question 11.
What is the meaning of education according to Gandhi?
(i) Memorization of Facts
(ii) All-round Development
(iii) Mastery of Skills
(iv) Accumulation of Degrees
Answer:
(ii) All-round Development

Question 12.
Which language did Gandhi emphasize as the medium of instruction in education?
(i) English
(ii) Hindi
(iii) Mother Tongue
(iv) Sanskrit
Answer:
(iii) Mother Tongue

Question 13.
What did Gandhi advocate for the inclusion of in the school curriculum to foster a sense of national identity?
(i) Foreign Language
(ii) Regional Dialects
(iii) Hindustani Language
(iv) Ancient Scripts
Answer:
(iii) Hindustani Language

Question 14.
What method of teaching did Gandhi stress, involving practical skills like agriculture and weaving?
(i) Lecture Method
(ii) Activity Method
(iii) Correlation Method
(iv) Questioning Method
Answer:
(ii) Activity Method

Question 15.
According to Gandhi, what is the concept of discipline based on?
(i) External Control
(ii) Inner-Discipline and Self-Discipline
(iii) Punishment and Rewards
(iv) Strict Rules and Regulations
Answer:
(ii) Inner-Discipline and Self-Discipline

Question 16.
What role did teachers play in Gandhi’s vision of education?
(i) Authoritarian Figures
(ii) Sculptors of Character
(iii) Administrative Authorities
(iv) Skill Instructors
Answer:
(ii) Sculptors of Character

Question 17.
How did Gandhi view a school in terms of its purpose?
(i) Academic Institution Only
(ii) Community Center for Future Citizens
(iii) Sports and Recreation Facility
(iv) Vocational Training Center
Answer:
(ii) Community Center for Future Citizens

Question 18.
What did Gandhi believe about women’s education and their role in educating children?
(i) Women should not be educated
(ii) Women are best suited to educate children.
(iii) Women should focus only on domestic duties.
(iv) Women should pursue higher education.
Answer:
(ii) Women are best suited to educate children.

Question 19.
What term did Gandhi use to describe his educational philosophy?
(i) Modem Education
(ii) Basic Education
(iii) Advanced Learning
(iv) Technical Education
Answer:
(ii) Basic Education

Question 20.
In Gandhi’s educational vision, what was the emphasis in the curriculum on subjects like agriculture, weaving, and woodwork?
(i) Theoretical Knowledge
(ii) Practical and Hands-on Learning
(iii) Scientific Concepts
(iv) Historical Narratives
Answer:
(ii) Practical and Hands-on Learning

Question 21.
How did Gandhi describe his life in the context of truth?
(i) Experiment with Lies
(ii) Experiment with Fiction
(iii) Experiment with Truth
(iv) Experiment with Deception
Answer:
(iii) Experiment with Truth

Question 22.
What major event symbolized Gandhi’s leadership in the fight against British colonial rule?
(i) Quit India Movement
(ii) Boston Tea Party
(iii) French Revolution
(iv) Russian Revolution
Answer:
(i) Quit India Movement

Question 23.
What principles did Gandhi emphasize in his philosophy?
(i) Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
(ii) Satyagraha, Truth-force, Nonviolent Protest
(iii) Survival of the Fittest
(iv) Authoritarian Rule
Answer:
(ii) Satyagraha, Truth-force, Nonviolent Protest

Question 24.
Which campaign involved Gandhi’s famous Salt March?
(i) Tea Tax Protest
(ii) Salt Satyagraha
(iii) Women’s Suffrage Movement
(iv) Civil Rights March
Answer:
(ii) Salt Satyagraha

Question 25.
What global impact did Gandhi’s commitment to nonviolence have?
(i) Limited to India
(ii) Influenced Civil Rights Movements
(iii) No Impact on Global Movements
(iv) Advocated Violence
Answer:
(ii) Influenced Civil Rights Movements

Question 26.
What did Gandhi emphasize for the eradication of untouchability?
(i) Separate Schools
(ii) Economic Sanctions
(iii) Social Reforms
(iv) Religious Isolation
Answer:
(iii) Social Reforms

Question 27.
What was the focus of Gandhi’s educational vision regarding vocational training?
(i) Office Jobs
(ii) Industrial Skills
(iii) Academic Excellence
(iv) Artistic Pursuits
Answer:
(ii) Industrial Skills

Question 28.
What did Gandhi believe about the economic sustainability of his proposed education system?
(i) Dependent on Foreign Aid
(ii) Self-supporting
(iii) He did not address economic aspects
(iv) Funded by the Government
Answer:
(ii) Self-supporting

Question 29.
Which aspect of education did Gandhi believe could provide spiritual freedom?
(i) Scientific Knowledge
(ii) Vocational Skills
(iii) Economic Prosperity
(iv) Spiritual Education
Answer:
(iv) Spiritual Education

Question 30.
What qualities did Gandhi highlight as essential for teachers in his educational system?
(i) Academic Excellence Only
(ii) Character, Nationalistic Feelings, Knowledge, Faith
(iii) Administrative Skills
(iv) Strict Discipline
Answer:
(ii) Character, Nationalistic Feelings, Knowledge, Faith

Question 31.
What term did Mahatma Gandhi use to describe his educational philosophy?
(i) Modem Education
(ii) Traditional Education
(iii) Advanced Learning
(iv) Basic Education
Answer:
(iv) Basic Education

Question 32.
When did Mahatma Gandhi propose his scheme of Basic Education (Nai Talim)?
(i) 1920
(ii) 1931
(iii) 1937
(iv) 1945
Answer:
(iii) 1937

Question 33.
Where was the Wardha Educational Conference held to discuss aspects of the Basic Education scheme?
(i) New Delhi
(ii) Mumbai
(iii) Wardha
(iv) Kolkata
Answer:
(iii) Wardha

Question 34.
According to Gandhi, what did he find problematic in the present system of education?
(i) Lack of English language
(ii) Overemphasis on manual work
(iii) Wastefulness and harmfulness
(iv) Excessive focus on literature
Answer:
(iii) Wastefulness and harmfulness

Question 35.
What did Gandhi propose as the fundamental principle of Basic Education?
(i) Learning by Reading
(ii) Learning by Memorization
(iii) Learning by Doing
(iv) Learning by Observation
Answer:
(iii) Learning by Doing

Question 36.
According to Gandhi, what did the Basic Education system aim to cultivate hr students?
(i) Academic Excellence
(ii) Patriotism and Self-Reliance
(iii) Athletic Abilities
(iv) Artistic Talents
Answer:
(ii) Patriotism and Self-Reliance

Question 37.
What age group did Gandhi propose should receive free and compulsory education under Basic Education?
(i) 3-8 years
(ii) 7-14 years
(iii) 10-16 years
(iv) 15-20 years
Answer:
(ii) 7-14 years

Question 38.
What language did Gandhi emphasize as the medium of instruction in Basic Education?
(i) English
(ii) Sanskrit
(iii) Mother Tongue
(iv) French
Answer:
(iii) Mother Tongue

Question 39.
What did Gandhi suggest should be integrated into the scheme of Basic Education along with craft and industry?
(i) Music
(ii) Science
(iii) Health
(iv) Sports
Answer:
(iii) Health

Question 40.
What did Gandhi mean by the term “Nai Talim”?
(i) New Thought
(ii) New Revolution
(iii) New Education
(iv) New Technology
Answer:
(iii) New Education

Question 41.
What was the main focus of education in Gandhi’s Basic Education scheme?
(i) Reading and Writing
(ii) Manual Work and Craft
(iii) Theoretical Knowledge
(iv) Sports and Recreation
Answer:
(ii) Manual Work and Craft

Question 42.
According to Gandhi, what is the primary aim of education?
(i) Economic Prosperity
(ii) Molding of Character
(iii) Academic Excellence
(iv) Social Recognition
Answer:
(ii) Molding of Character

Question 43.
What role did Gandhiji envision for teachers in the Basic Education system?
(i) Strict Disciplinarians
(ii) Supporters of Caste System
(iii) Producers of Goods
(iv) Sculptors of Character
Answer:
(iv) Sculptors of Character

Question 44.
What concept did Gandhi emphasize to stimulate creativity and critical thinking in students?
(i) Learning by Reading
(ii) Learning by Observing
(iii) Learning by Doing
(iv) Learning by Memorization
Answer:
(iii) Learning by Doing

Question 45.
How did Gandhi view the relationship between craft and education in Basic Education?
(i) Craft as a separate entity
(ii) Craft as a hindrance to education
(iii) Craft as a medium for education
(iv) Craft as a luxury in education
Answer:
(iii) Craft as a medium for education

Question 46.
What did Gandhi believe should be the source of running expenses for Basic Education?
(i) Government Funding
(ii) Parent Contributions
(iii) Educational Process Itself
(iv) Foreign Aid
Answer:
(iii) Educational Process Itself

Question 47.
What principle did Gandhi consider essential for education based on his philosophy?
(i) Truth and Non-violence
(ii) Competition and Ambition
(iii) Caste Discrimination
(iv) Westernization
Answer:
(i) Truth and Non-violence

Question 48.
According to Gandhi, what does true education lead to?
(i) Physical Fitness
(ii) Mental and Spiritual Development
(iii) Economic Prosperity
(iv) Social Recognition
Answer:
(ii) Mental and Spiritual Development

Question 49.
What did Gandhi emphasize in terms of cleanliness and untouchability in Basic Education?
(i) Ignoring Cleanliness
(ii) Promoting Untouchability
(iii) Sens itizing on Cleanliness and Opposing Untouchability
(iv) Focusing on Cleanliness only
Answer:
(iii) Sensitizing on Cleanliness and Opposing Untouchability

Question 50.
What did Gandhi believe was the only education that is ‘self-supporting’?
(i) Traditional Education
(ii) Modern Education
(iii) Basic Education
(iv) Vocational Education
Answer:
(iii) Basic Education

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
Mahatma Gandhi pointed out the ineffectiveness of the primary education system of India at the Round Table Conference in London in the year _____ .
Answer:
1931

Question 2.
According to Gandhi, the present system of education is not only wasteful but positively harmful because it creates a permanent bar between the highly educated few and the uneducated many. He proposed his scheme of Basic Education (Nai Talim) in the year _____.
Answer:
1937

Question 3.
The All India education conference to discuss different aspects of Gandhi’s scheme of education was held in _____ on 22nd and 23rd October, 1937.
Answer:
Wardha

Question 4.
According to the resolutions passed in the Wardha Educational Conference, free and compulsory education is to be provided for _____ years on a nationwide scale.
Answer:
Seven

Question 5.
Gandhi proposed that the medium of instruction in basic education should be the _____ .
Answer:
Mother tongue

Question 6.
According to Gandhiji, the primary aim of basic education was to utilize ____,_____ and rather than concentrating on reading or writing only.
Answer:
Head, heart, hand

Question 7.
Gandhiji emphasized on _____ centered education, which had great importance in the Indian scenario.
Answer:
Craft

Question 8.
Gandhiji believed in the principle of ‘learning by doing,’ which stimulates the individual’s mind to think ______ and _____.
Answer:
Creatively, critically

Question 9.
True education, according to Gandhi, is a lifelong process that helps in cultivating the spirit of _____, _____, _____ and a sense of responsibility.
Answer:
Cooperation, tolerance, collaboration

Question 10.
According to Gandhiji, education must be based on _____ and _____ .
Answer:
Ethics, morality

Question 11.
Gandhiji considered  _____ as an important and essential part of education, and basic education was also based upon the principle of truth and non-violence.
Answer:
Non-violence

Question 12.
The main purpose of basic education, according to Gandhi, was to achieve an integral development of children and to create a sense of _____ through the practice of handicraft.
Answer:
Patriotism

Question 13.
Gandhiji desired that the basic education system should be _____ for every child by learning a craft or occupational skill for livelihood.
Answer:
Self-supporting

Question 14.
According to Gandhiji, education should shed its fragrance in the surroundings and students should be involved in practical _____ to serve the people.
Answer:
Community services

Question 15.
Students should be sensitized on the merits and demerits of cleanliness and the evils of _____, according to Gandhiji.
Answer:
Untouchability

Question 16.
Gandhiji opposed untouchability and caste system, and he tried his best to break the centuries- old caste system and remove the mark of _____ from Hinduism.
Answer:
Untouchability

Question 17.
At the age of twelve, Gandhiji disagreed with his mother’s warnings on not to touch an untouchable who used to clean their latrines in their house, emphasizing the importance of _____.
Answer:
Equality

Question 18.
According to Gandhiji, the basic education system should sensitize students on the importance of hygiene and sanitation, and he proposed the concept of _____ .
Answer:
Samagra Gramaseva

Question 19.
Gandhiji wanted education to ensure _____ , and he believed that the only education is that which is ‘self-supporting.’
Answer:
Employment

Question 20.
Gandhiji’s philosophy of basic education was based on the fundamental principle of ______.
Answer:
Learning by doing

Question 21.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, widely known as Mahatma Gandhi, was bom on _____ 1869, in Porbandar, British India.
Answer:
October 2

Question 22.
Gandhi studied law in _____ and later practiced in South Africa, where he developed his principles of Satyagraha and nonviolent protest.
Answer:
London

Question 23.
Gandhi emerged as a key figure in the fight against British colonial rule upon returning to India in ______.
Answer: 1915

Question 24.
The title “Mahatma,” meaning “Great Soul,” was bestowed upon Gandhi for his leadership in campaigns like the _____ and Quit India Movement.
Answer:
Salt March

Question 25.
Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, _____ , in New Delhi, by a Hindu nationalist.
Answer:
1948

Question 26.
Gandhi’s educational philosophy aimed at the holistic development of individuals  _____ and _____ .
Answer:
body, mind, and spirit

Question 27.
According to Gandhi, literacy in itself is no education; he defined education as an all-round drawing out of the best in _____ and _____ .
Answer:
child, man

Question 28.
Gandhi’s immediate aims of education included the “Bread and Butter Aim,” which focused on ensuring _____ atid serving as a form of insurance against unemployment.
Answer:
livelihood

Question 29.
The cultural aim of education, according to Gandhi, emphasized obtaining ______ culture, reflected in dress, speech, conduct, and behavior.
Answer:
Indian

Question 30.
Gandhi regarded character as the expression of the whole personality, including _____and _______ aspects.
Answer:
ethical, spiritual

Question 31.
The ultimate aim of education, according to Gandhi, is _____ .
Answer:
self-realization

Question 32.
Gandhi proposed the inclusion of basic crafts such as ______, _____ and ______ in his educational framework.
Answer:
agriculture, spinning, weaving

Question 33.
The study of the _____ was considered essential, serving as an effective instrument for the expression and communication of ideas.
Answer:
mother tongue

Question 34.
Arithmetic was to be correlated with _____, making it a useful subject for day-to-day life.
Answer:
real-life situations

Question 35.
Gandhi advocated for the inclusion of  _____ in the school curriculum to foster a sense of national identity and linguistic unity.
Answer:
Hindustani

Question 36.
Gandhi stressed the importance of integrating education with _____ or production work.
Answer:
craft

Question 37.
According to Gandhi, education should focus on building _____ and efficiency to enable individuals to earn their living independently.
Answer:
character

Question 38.
Gandhi’s method of teaching emphasized _____ learning, correlation of knowledge, and the use of the mother tongue.
Answer:
practical, experiential

Question 39.
Gandhi’s concept of discipline extended beyond external control to encompass the realms of ______, _____ and ______ in daily life.
Answer:
mind, thought, action

Question 40.
Gandhi envisioned teachers as individuals possessing knowledge, faith, zeal, enthusiasm, action-oriented spirit, and unwavering _____.
Answer:
devotion

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Returning to India in 1915, Gandhi emerged as a key figure in the fight against British colonial rule.
Answer:
Returning to India in 1915, Gandhi emerged as a key figure in the struggle against British colonial rule.

Question 2.
His leadership in campaigns like the Salt March and Quit India Movement earned him the title of “Mahatma,” meaning “Great Soul.”
Answer:
His leadership in campaigns like the Salt March and Quit India Movement earned him the title of “Mahatma,” signifying “Great Soul.”

Question 3.
Throughout his life, Gandhi advocated for social reforms, including the eradication of untouchability, women’s rights, and religious harmony.
Answer:
Throughout his life, Gandhi advocated for social reforms, including the abolition of untouchability, women’s rights, and religious harmony.

Question 4.
Tragically, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1948, in New Delhi, by a Hindu nationalist.
Answer:
Tragically, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1948, in New Delhi, by a Hindu extremist.

Question 5.
Gandhi’s teachings continue to inspire movements for civil rights, freedom, and social justice worldwide.
Answer:
Gandhi’s teachings continue to inspire movements for civil rights, freedom, and social justice globally.

Question 6.
Mahatma Gandhi, a revered leader and philosopher, made significant contributions to the realms of politics, social service, and spiritual dynamics, embodying principles of peace, truth, and non-violence.
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi, a revered leader and philosopher, made significant contributions to the realms of politics, social service, and spiritual dynamics, embodying principles of peace, truth, and nonviolence.

Question 7.
Gandhi emphasized the transformative power of education, considering it essential for social progress, moral development, and economic growth.
Answer:
Gandhi emphasized the transformative power of education, deeming it essential for social progress, moral development, and economic growth.

Question 8.
The salient features of Gandhi’s Basic Education included meeting basic societal needs, being useful and productive for villagers, and emphasizing education in the mother tongue. Answer: The salient features of Gandhi’s Basic Education included meeting basic societal
needs, being useful and productive for villagers, and emphasizing education in the mother tongue.

Question 9.
Gandhi’s educational vision aimed to cultivate a well-rounded individual, promoting health, cleanliness, play, and citizenship.
Answer:
Gandhi’s educational vision aimed to cultivate a well-rounded individual, pronx mg health, cleanliness, play, and civic responsibility.

Question 10.
According to Gandhi, literacy in itself is no education.
Answer:
According to Gandhi, literacy in itself is not education.

Question 11.
Bread and Butter Aim: Education must enable every individual to earn a livelihood, ensuring self-sufficiency and serving as a form of insurance against unemployment.
Answer:
Bread and Butter Aim: Education must enable every individual to earn a livelihood, ensuring self-sufficiency and serving as a form of insurance against unemployment.

Question 12.
Gandhi regarded character as the expression of the whole personality, including ethical and spiritual aspects.
Answer:
Gandhi regarded character as the expression of the whole personality, including ethical and spiritual dimensions.

Question 13.
The immediate aim involves the perfect development of the child, emphasizing all-round growth of the head, heart, and hand.
Answer:
The immediate aim involves the perfect development of the child, emphasizing all¬round growth of the head, heart, and hands.

Question 14.
Gandhiji views of making mother-tongue as the medium of instruction and providing freedom to the child reflect his naturalism.
Answer:
Gandhiji’s views of making the mother tongue the medium of instruction and providing freedom to the child reflect his naturalism.

Question 15.
His emphasis on education through the mother-tongue is the accepted principle by all thinkers.
Answer:
emphasis on education through the mother tongue is the accepted principle by all thinkers.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
When was Mahatma Gandhi bom?
Answer:
October 2, 1869.

Question 2.
What principles did Gandhi develop during his time in South Africa?
Answer:
Satyagraha (truth-force) and nonviolent protest.

Question 3.
What earned Gandhi the title “Mahatma” ?
Answer:
His leadership in campaigns like the Salt March and Quit India Movement.

Question 4.
In what year did Mahatma Gandhi return to India?
Answer:
1915.

Question 5.
What were the three principles deeply rooted in Gandhi’s philosophy?
Answer:
Truth, nonviolence, and simple living

Question 6.
When was Mahatma Gandhi assassinated?
Answer:
January 30, 1948.

Question 7.
What is the meaning of education according to Gandhi?
Answer:
All-round development of an individual – body, mind, and spirit.

Question 8.
What are the immediate aims of education, according to Gandhi?
Answer:
Bread and Butter Aim, Cultural Aim, Character Aim, Perfect Development Aim.

Question 9.
What is the ultimate aim of education, according to Gandhi?
Answer:
Self-realization and spiritual freedom.

Question 10.
What subjects did Gandhi propose for the school curriculum?
Answer:
Basic Craft, Mother Tongue, Arithmetic, Social Studies, General Sciences Music and Drawing, Hindustani Language.

Question 11.
What is the method of teaching advocated by Gandhi?
Answer:
Education through Craft, Emphasis on Activity Method and Learning by Self-Experience, Correlation Method, Lecture and Questioning Method, Mother Tongue as the Medium of Instruction.

Question 12.
How did Gandhi define discipline in education?
Answer:
Practice of self-control in mind, thought, feeling, and action, aligning personal discipline with social discipline.

Question 13.
What attributes did Gandhi envision for teachers?
Answer:
Well-trained, proficient, knowledgeable, faithful, zealous, action-oriented, and devoted with strong character and nationalistic sentiments.

Question 14.
What is the vision of a school according to Mahatma Gandhi?
Answer:
A dynamic space for inquiries, discoveries, and experiments; a community center urturing future citizens beyond academic pursuits.

Question 15.
What was Gandhi’s perspective on women’s education?
Answer:
Women’s education should be tailored to their aptitudes and life demands, empowering o take on responsibilities, especially in educating young children.

Question 16.
What did Mahatma Gandhi propose at the Round Table Conference in 1931 regarding India’s primary education system ?
Answer:
Gandhiji highlighted the inadequacies and harmful impact of the British Government’s policies, condemning the division created by English education.

Question 17.
When was the concept of Basic Education (Nai Talim) introduced by Gandhiji, and through which medium did he present it ?
Answer:
Gandhiji introduced Basic Education in 1937 through his newspaper ‘Harijan.’

Question 18.
What were the four resolutions adopted at the Wardha Educational Conference regarding Basic Education?
Answer:
Free and compulsory education for seven years nationwide, the use of the mother tongue, incorporation of manual and productive work, and gradual remuneration for teachers.

Question 19.
How did Gandhiji differentiate Basic Education from the Western model, and what was its focus?
Answer:
Basic Education focused on holistic development, distinguishing itself from the Western model that prioritized militarism over balanced growth.

Question 20.
What is the fundamental principle of Basic Education according to Gandhiji, and how is it different from the Western model?
Answer:
The fundamental principle is “learning by doing,” emphasizing a harmonious correlation between theoretical knowledge and practical activities, unlike the Western model.

Question 21.
According to Gandhiji, what age group should receive free and compulsory education in Basic Education?
Answer:
All children aged seven to fourteen should receive free and compulsory education.

Question 22.
What was the significance of using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction in Basic Education?
Answer:
It aimed to bridge cultural and linguistic gaps, fostering a deeper understanding and positive attitude towards learning.

Question 23.
What was the central idea behind Gandhiji’s stress on craft-centered education in Basic Education?
Answer:
Craft-based learning aimed to make education self-supporting, providing employment opportunities and breaking down barriers between manual and intellectual work.

Question 24.
According to Gandhiji, how did ‘learning by doing’ contribute to education in Basic Education?
Answer:
It stimulated creative and critical thinking, developing disciplined minds and contributing to holistic education.

Question 25.
What values did Gandhiji emphasize through collaborative learning in Basic Education?
Answer:
Collaborative learning fostered cooperation, tolerance, and a sense of responsibility, along with an appreciation for honest labor.

Question 26.
What was the ultimate goal of education, as per Gandhiji’s philosophy in Basic Education?
Answer:
The ultimate goal was character-building, emphasizing the development of personality, compassion, kindness, fair-mindedness, and dedication.

Question 27.
How did Basic Education aim to make individuals self-supporting, according to Gandhiji?
Answer:
Basic Education aimed to make individuals self-supporting by learning crafts or occupational skills for livelihood.

Question 28.
What were the fundamental principles rooted in Gandhiji’s concept of Basic Education?
Answer:
The fundamental principles were truth and non-violence, which were integral to both his broader philosophy and Basic Education.

Question 29.
What role did Gandhiji envision for students in Basic Education regarding social services?
Answer:
Students were encouraged to engage in community services, actively contributing to the well-being of their communities.

Question 30.
What societal issues did Gandhiji address through Basic Education, particularly in terms of cleanliness and untouchability?
Answer:
Gandhiji addressed issues of cleanliness and untouchability, sensitizing students on the merits of cleanliness and actively working towards breaking down caste barriers.

Introduction:

• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, widely known as Mahatma Gandhi, was bom on October 02,1869, in Porbandar, British India. A prominent leader in the Indian independence movement, Gandhi became a symbol of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience. He studied law in London and later practiced in South Africa, where he developed his principles of Satyagraha (truth-force) and nonviolent protest.

• Returning to India in 1915, Gandhi emerged as a key figure in the fight against British colonial rule. His leadership in campaigns like the Salt March and Quit India Movement earned him the title of “Mahatma,” meaning “Great Soul.” Gandhi’s philosophy was deeply rooted in his Hindu beliefs, emphasizing truth, nonviolence, and simple living.

• Throughout his life, Gandhi advocated for social reforms, including the eradication of untouchability, women’s rights, and religious harmony. His commitment to nonviolence inspired similar movements globally. Despite facing imprisonment multiple times, Gandhi remained dedicated to his principles, influencing political leaders and civil rights activists worldwide.

• Tragically, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated on January 30, 1948, in New Delhi, by a Hindu nationalist. His legacy endures as a symbol of peaceful resistance, moral leadership, and the pursuit of justice. Gandhi’s teachings continue to inspire movements for civil rights, freedom, and social justice worldwide.

• Mahatma Gandhi, a revered leader and philosopher, made significant contributions to the realms of politics, social service, and spiritual dynamics, embodying principles of peace, truth, and non-violence. His life was viewed as an “experiment with truth,” highlighting his commitment to moral and ethical values. Gandhi’s philosophy centered around his belief in God as truth and the ultimate goal of realizing truth in human life.

• Gandhi emphasized the transformative power of education, considering it essential for social progress, moral development, and economic growth. His educational philosophy, encompassing the concept of “Basic Education,” aimed at the holistic development of individuals—body, mind, and spirit. He advocated for character formation, vocational training, and efficiency in education to enable individuals to earn their living independently.

• The salient features of Gandhi’s Basic Education included meeting basic societal needs, being useful and productive for villagers, and emphasizing education in the mother tongue. It promoted cultural heritage, citizenship training, and self-supporting learning. The curriculum prioritized practical activities such as spinning, weaving, and agriculture, fostering a hands- on approach to learning. Gandhi’s approach encouraged learning by doing, experience-based education, and the mastery of useful basic crafts.

• Gandhi’s educational vision aimed to cultivate a well-rounded individual, promoting health, cleanliness, play and citizenship. His emphasis on productive crafts and vocations, coupled with a focus on experiential learning, remains a lasting legacy in educational philosophy, addressing the needs and aspirations of emerging societies.

Meaning of Education :
According to Gandhi, literacy in itself is no education. It is one of the means whereby man and woman can be educated. For Gandhi Ji, education means an all – round development of an individual. In the words of Gandhi, “By education I mean all round drawing out of the best in child and man – body, mind and spirit.”

Aims of Education : Immediate Aims of Education According to Mahatma Gandhi.

Bread and Butter Aim : Education must enable every individual to earn a livelihood, ensuring self-sufficiency and serving as a form of insurance against unemployment.

Cultural Aim : Emphasis on obtaining Indian culture, reflected in dress, speech, conduct, and behavior. This cultural aim aims to preserve and promote the rich cultural heritage of India.

Character Aim : Gandhi regarded character as the expression of the whole personality, including ethical and spiritual aspects. Education should focus on building character, emphasizing purity and ethical conduct.

Perfect Development Aim : The immediate aim involves the perfect development of the child, emphasizing all-round growth of the head, heart, and hand. This holistic approach ensures a comprehensive development of the individual.

Ultimate Aim of Education According to Mahatma Gandhi :
Self-Realization : The ultimate aim of education, according to Gandhi, is self-realization. Education should guide individuals towards understanding themselves and achieving spiritual freedom.

Spiritual Freedom : Gandhi believed that spiritual freedom provides knowledge of God and self-realization. Education, therefore, should lead individuals towards spiritual freedom, transcending worldly concerns.

Mahatma Gandhi’s aims of education reflect a dual perspective, with immediate aims focusing on practical aspects of daily life, such as livelihood, culture, and character development. Simultaneously, the ultimate aim revolves around self-realization and spiritual freedom, aligning with Gandhi’s broader philosophy of life.

Curriculum :
Mahatma Gandhi proposed the inclusion of the following subjects in his educational framework:
Basic Craft : Gandhi emphasized a craft-centered education, advocating for the inclusion of basic crafts such as agriculture, spinning, weaving, and woodwork. These crafts should align with the local conditions of life and society, providing practical and hands-on learning experiences.

Mother Tongue : The study of the mother tongue was considered essential, serving as an effective instrument for the expression and communication of ideas. Gandhi recognized the cultural and linguistic importance of learning in one’s native language.

Arithmetic : Arithmetic was to be correlated with real-life situations, making it a useful subject for day-to-day life. The emphasis was on practical applications and relevance to the individual’s immediate context.

Social Studies : Social studies, encompassing subjects like history, civics, geography, and current events, were recommended to promote individual and social virtues. This holistic approach aimed to cultivate a sense of civic responsibility and awareness.

General Science : General science,- covering nature study, zoology, physiology, hygiene, chemistry, botany, and astronomy, was proposed to foster an intelligent and scientific outlook. Domestic science was suggested for girls in the fourth and- fifth grades, ensuring a well-rounded education.

Music and Drawing : The inclusion of music and drawing aimed to spark a genuine interest in education among boys and girls. These subjects were considered integral to nurturing creativity and aesthetic sensibilities.

Hindustani Language : Gandhi advocated for the inclusion of Hindustani, a national language, in the school curriculum. This move aimed to foster a sense of national identity and promote linguistic unity.

Method of Teaching :
• Education through Graft : Gandhi stressed the importance of integrating education with craft or production work. He believed that practical skills and hands-on experiences in crafts like agriculture, spinning, and weaving should form the foundation of education.

• Emphasis on Activity Method and Learning by Self-Experience : Gandhi advocated for the activity method in teaching, emphasizing learning by doing and learning through self-experience as highly effective approaches. This hands-on learning style aimed to make education practical and applicable to real-life situations.

• Correlation Method : The method of correlation was encouraged by Gandhi. He proposed that education in different subjects should be presented as correlated knowledge rather than as separate and isolated subjects. This approach aimed to provide a holistic understanding of various concepts.

• Lecture and Questioning Method : Gandhi acknowledged the use of both the lecture method and the questioning method in teaching. While lectures could convey essential information, questioning allowed for active engagement and critical thinking, fostering a dynamic and participatory learning environment.

• Mother Tongue as the Medium of Instruction : Gandhi advocated for the use of the mother tongue as the primary medium of instruction. He believed that learning in one’s native language was crucial for effective expression and communication of ideas, as well as for preserving cultural and linguistic identity.

• Mahatma Gandhi’s methods of teaching focused on practical, experiential learning, correlation of knowledge, and the use of the mother tongue. These approaches aimed to make education relevant, engaging, and closely connected to the cultural and practical aspects of students’ lives.

Gandhiji as an idealist, naturalist and pragmatic educationist:

• Idealism: Gandhiji emphasis on truth, non-violence and character development clearly indicates that he was an idealist.

• Naturalism: Gandhiji views of making mother-tongue as the medium of instruction and providing freedom to the child reflect his
naturalism.

• Pragmatism: Gandhiji had an experimental approach to educational and other issues. He also emphasized learning through real life activities.

Relevance of gandhiji’s views on education in modern times:

1. The most important point in Gandhi’s scheme of education is its emphasis on relating school education to theneeds of the society. He wanted to achieve this objective through a system of‘Learning while earning’. He gave an important place to the learning of craft, ft will be seen from the curriculum of the present day schools that work experience and socially useful productive work find an important place.

2. His emphasis on education through the mother-tongue is the accepted principle by all thinkers.

3. Gandhiji stress on inculcating dignity of labour is the need of the hour. There is the dire need to develop elements of spirituality in our life which is dominated by materialism.

Conclusion :
To Gandhi education that aims at moulding the pupil as ‘whole person’, rather than concentrating on one aspect of his/her personality is the real education. He viewed education as a highly moral activity. Gandhi envisaged the building of five human values which in 1986 came to be known as ‘National PanchsheeTwhen it was included in the National Policy on Education.

These values are (1) Cleanliness (2) Truthfulness (3) Hardwork (4) Equality and (5) Co-operation.Gandhi’s thoughts on education assume enormous significance in the light of major shifts that are taking place both in the content and management of education in the liberalisation era.

Odisha State Board BSE Odisha 7th Class Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 17 ଆତ୍ମ-ନ-ବା ପ୍ରୟୋଗଃ Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

BSE Odisha Class 7 Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 17 ଆତ୍ମ-ନ-ବା ପ୍ରୟୋଗଃ

१. कोष्ठकस्थं चिह्नं पश्यतु, उचितवाक्यानि लिखतु।
(କୋଷ୍ଠକରଂ ଚିହ୍ନ ପଶ୍ୟତୁ, ଉଚିତବାକ୍ୟାନି ଲିଖନ୍ତୁ।)

उदाहरण –
१. गोपबन्धु: देशभक्त: वा ? आम् स: देशभक्त:। स: सत्र्यासी न ।

ଉତ୍ତରମ୍

१. गोपबन्धुः देशभक्त: वा ? आम् स: देशभक्तः। स: सन्य्यासी न ।
ଗୋପବନ୍ଧୁ ଦେଶଭକ୍ତ ବା ? ଆମ୍, ଡଃ ଦେଶଭକ୍ତ । ଡଃ ସନ୍ନ୍ୟାସୀ ନ ।

२. श्रीधर: छात्र: वा ? आम् स: छात्र:। स: वैद्य: न ।
ଶ୍ରୀଧରଃ ଛାତ୍ରୀ ବା ? ଆମ୍ ସ ଛାତ୍ରୀ। ଡଃ ବୈଦ୍ୟ ନ ।

३. प्रतिमा समाजसेविका वा ? न, सा समाजसेविका न । सा शिक्षिका ।
ପ୍ରତିମା ସମାଜସେବିକା ବା ? ନ, ସା ସମାଜସେବିକା ନ। ସା ଶିକ୍ଷିକା।

४. सुरेश: चित्रकार: वा ? आम्, स: चित्रकार:। स: कर्मकार: न।
ସୁରେଶଃ ଚିତ୍ରକାରଃ ବା ? ଆମ୍, ଡଃ ଚିତ୍ରକାରଃ । ଡଃ କର୍ମକାରଃ ନ ।

५. नरेन्द्र: शिक्षक: वा ? न, स: शिक्षक: न। स: सेवक:।
ନରେନ୍ଦ୍ର ଶିକ୍ଷକ ବା ? ନ, ଡଃ ଶିକ୍ଷକ ନ । ୟଃ ସେବକଃ ।

६. अबदुलकालाम वैज्ञानिक: वा ? आम्, स: वैज्ञानिक:। स: सैनिक: न।
ଅବଦୁଲକାଲାମ ବୈଜ୍ଞାନିକ ବା ? ଆମ୍, ଡଃ ବୈଜ୍ଞାନିକ । ଡଃ ସୈନିକଃ ନ ।

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१．मातृभाषया अनुवादं कुरुत।
(क) स：गज：वा ？
उत्तर :
ସେ ହାତୀ କି ?

(ख) आम्，एतानि पुष्पाणि।
उत्तर :
ହଁ, ଏଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଫୁଲ ।

(ग) ते वृक्षा：वा ？
उत्तर :
ସେଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଗଛ କି ?

(घ) एतत्मुष्पं वा ？
उत्तर :
ଏହା ଫୁଲ କି ?

(ङ) न，तत् विमानम्।
उत्तर :
ନା, ତାହା ଉଡାଜାହାଜ ।

(च) आम्，छात्र：पठति।
उत्तर :
ହଁ, ଛାତ୍ର ପଢୁଛି ।

(छ) बालिका नृत्यति।
उत्तर :
ବାଳିକା ନାଚୁଛି ।

२. विक्षिप्तवर्णानां मेलनेन शुद्धपदं रचयत।

(क) मा न वि म्
उत्तर :
ବିମାନମ୍

(ख) ज：ग
उत्तर :
ଗଜଃ

(ग) नि ता ए
उत्तर :
ଏତାନି

(घ) र्म का क र：
उत्तर :
କର୍ମକାରଃ

(ङ) क ला नि म
उत्तर :
କମଳାନି

३. स्तम्भमेलनं कुरूत।

‘क’ स्मम्भः — ‘ख’ स्तम्भ:
एष: — पुष्पाणि
स: — विमानम्
एषा — बालक:
तत् — गज:
एतानि — धेनु:
उत्तर :

४. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।
(क) गज:
उत्तर :
ହାତୀ

(ख) कैरवम्
उत्तर :
କଇଁ

(ग) कमलानि
उत्तर :
ପଦ୍ମଗୁଡ଼ିକ

(घ) नृत्यति
उत्तर :
ନାଚୁଛି

(ङ) पठति
उत्तर :
ପଢୁଛି

आम्-न-वा प्रयोग:
ଆମ୍ବ-ନ-ବା ପ୍ରୟୋଗ (ବ୍ୟବହାର)

एषः बालक: वा ?
(ଏଷ ବାଳକଃ ବା ?)
ଇଏ ବାଳକ କି ?
आम्, एष: बालक:।
(ଆମ୍, ଏଷୀ ବାଳକଃ ।)
ହଁ ଇଏ ବାଳକ।

स: गज: वा ?
(ସ୍ୱ ଗଜଃ ବା ?)
ସେ ହାତୀ କି ?
आम्, स: गज:।
(ଆମ୍, ଡଃ ଗଜଃ । )
ହଁ ସେ ହାତୀ।

एषा अजा वा ?
(ଏଷା ଅଜା ବା ?)
ଇଏ ମାଈଛେଳି କି ?
न एषा धेनु : ।
(ନ, ଏଷା ଧେନୁଃ ।)
ନା, ଏଇ ଗାଈ ।

तत् लोकयानं वा ?
ତାହା ବସ୍ କି ?
न, तत् विमानम् ।
(ନ, ତତ୍ ବିମାନମ୍ ।)
ନା, ତାହା ଉଡ଼ାଜାହଜ।

एतत् पुष्पं वा ?
(ଏତତ୍ ପୁଷ୍ପ ବା ?)
ଏହା ଫୁଲ କି ?
न, एतत् पत्रम् ।
(ନ, ଏତତ୍ ପତ୍ରମ୍ ।)
ନା, ଏହା ପତ୍ର।

एते गजा: वा ?
(ଏତେ ଗଜାଃ ବା ? )
ଏଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଛେଳି କି ?
न, एते अश्वा: ।
(ନ, ଏତେ ଅଶ୍ଵ।)
ନା, ଏଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଘୋଡ଼ା।

ते वृक्षाः वा ?
(ତେ ବୃକ୍ଷା ବା ?)
ସେଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଗଛ କି ?
आम्, ते वृक्षा:।
(ଆମ୍, ତେ ବୃକ୍ଷା ।)
ହଁ, ସେଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଗଛ।

एता: माला: वा?
(ଏତା ମାଳା ବା ?)
ଏଗୁଡ଼ିକ ମାଳ କି ?

आम्, एता: माला:।
(ଆମ୍, ତେ ବୃକ୍ଷା ।)
ହଁ, ସେଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଗଛ।

ता: गदा: वा ?
(ତାଃ ଗଦା ବା ?)
ସେଗୁଡ଼ାକ ଗଦା କି ?
आम्, ता गदाः।
(ଆମ୍, ତାଃ ଗଦା ।)
ହଁ, ସେଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଗଦା।

एतानि पुष्पाणि वा ?
(ଏତାନି ପୁଷ୍ପାଣି ବା ?)
ଏଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଫୁଲ କି ?
आम्, एतानि पुष्पाणि ।
(ଆମ୍ବ, ଏତାନି ପୁଷ୍ପାଣି।)
ହଁ, ଏଗୁଡ଼ିକ ଫୁଲ। ।

तानि कैरवाणि वा ?
(ବାଳକ ନ୍ୟତ୍ୟତି ବା ?)
ବାଳକଟି ନାଚୁଛି କି ?
न, तानि कमलानि ।
(ତାନି କୈରବାଣି ବା ?)
ସେଗୁଡ଼ିକ କଇଁଫୁଲ କି ?

बालक: नृत्यति वा ?
(ନ, ବାଳକଃ ନ ନୃତ୍ୟତି।)
ନା, ବାଳକ ନାଚୁ ନାହିଁ।
न, बालक: न नृत्यति ।
(ନ, ତାନି କମଳାନି।)
ନା,ସେଗୁଡ଼ିକ ପଦ୍ମଫୁଲ।

बालिंका नृत्यति ।
(ବାଳିକା ନୃତ୍ୟତି।)
ବାଳିକା ନାଚୁଛି।

छात्र: पठति वा ?
(ଛାତ୍ରୀ ପଠତି ବା ?)
ଛାତ୍ରଟି ପଢ଼ୁଛି କି ?
आम्, छात्र: पठति ।
(ଆମ୍, ଛାତ୍ରୀ ପଠତି।)
ହଁ, ଛାତ୍ର ପଢୁଛି।

 

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 9 Doctrine of Karma Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 9 Question Answer Doctrine of Karma

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
Name the classification of Karma according to its nature.
Answer:
From the standpoint of nature, Karma may be classified into four types. These are
(a) Arjita Karma,
(b) Sancita Karma,
(c) Prarabdha Karma,
(d) Kriyamana Karma.

Question 2.
What is called Sancita Karma?
Answer:
Sancita Karma refers to all those accumulated good and bad karmas in the past or present life that are due for reward or punishment respectively. In ever moment of our lives, there is an addition or subtraction of these karmas depending on the nature of our actions.

Question 3.
What is karma of Bhagavad Gita?
Answer:
Ordinarily, the word Karma means deliberate action. But according to Gita, Karma means action prescribed by the scriptures. The performance of Yagana, tapa, dana etc. in accordance with the vedic scriptures constitute right actions.

Question 4.
What is Akarma?
Answer:
Akarma means inaction. But it should not be taken in the negative sense as that which is opposed to action. In this action the agent performs his action without expecting for any fruits of his action. This type of action may be called as Yajhakarma, or Niskama Karma.

Question 5.
What is called Sakama Karma?
Answer:
Sakama Karma means attached action or desireful action. It is an action in which the agent desires or seeks for the fruits of his action. This action binds man to enjoy the objects of the world as a result of which man suffers in this world.

Question 6.
What is Vikarma?
Answer:
Vikarma means wrong action from the standpoint of scriptures. An action that violates the norms as enjoyed in the scriptures is called Vikarma. Here the agent intends to attain his own objectives.

Question 7.
Wha is Sattvika Karma of Bhagavad Gita?
Answer:
In the Chapter XVIII, verse-23 of the Bhagavad Gita it has been said about the Sattvika Karma. Sattvika karma is that karma which is performed freely without attachment, without love or hatred and without any desire for the fruits of action.

Question 8.
What is Rajasika Karma of the Bhagavad Gita?
Answer:
In Chapter XVIII -verse-24 of the Bhagavad Gita it has been said about the Rajasika Karma. Rajasika Karma is that Karma which is done with certain desires in mind to be fulfilled or the action done with much effort due to the craving for the fruits of action or the action done egoistically for meeting one’s own ends.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
Niskama Karam:
Answer:
Niskama Karma is a selfless desireless action without a thirst for the result. It is otherwise known as detached action. Niskama Karma does not mean Naisakarma or renunciation of action but performance of action in a detached spirit. It teaches us to live in the midst of storm and social life. It advocates that an action has to be performed for the purposes of self-purification.

Question 2.
Distinguish between Prarabdha karma and Kriyamana Karma.
Answer:
Prarabdha Karma means the Karma of the past action whose result or consequence is to be enjoyed or suffered in this life or in the next life or in the next life after death. But Kriyamana Karma means the Karma refers to the present actions whose fruit is to be enjoyed or suffered in the future.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Arjita Karma and Sancita Karma.
Answer:
Arjita Karma refers to all those actions whose impressions are stored in the chitta or mind. But Sancita Karma refers to all those accumulated an bad karmas in the past or present life that are due for reward or punishment respectively. In every moment of our lives, there is an addition or subtraction of these Karmas depending on the nature of our actions.

Question 4.
Distinguish between Karma and Vikarma.
Answer:
According to the Gita, Karma means action which is performed by the holy text or scriptutres. The performance of Yajna, tapa, dana etc. in accordance with the vedic scriptures constitute right actions. But vikarma means wrong action from the standpoint of scriptures. An action that violates the norms as enjoyed in the scriptures is called vikarma.

Question 5.
What is Sakama Karina?
Answer:
Sakama Karma means desirous action. It is an action in which the agent desires or seeks for the fruits of his action. It has certain ends to attain. It also considered as ordinary action. The Sakama Karma always binds us to enjoy the material objects of the world.

Group – C

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss in detail the ideal of Niskama karma of in the Bhagavad Gita.
Answer:
Niskama Karma is the central teaching of Bhagavad Gita. Lord Krishna Putsforth Niskama Karma as the ideal path for the realisation of truth. It is the middle path between an action appropriate to one’s own Svadharma on the one hand and the attitude of withdrawal from the wordly activities on the other.

According to the Gita man canot live even for a single moment without action. But that action must be detached or Niskama. The people belonging to each of the four vamas have specific duties to perform. The Brahmanas have the duties of teaching, learning, performing yagnas, showing the path of God-realisation etc. Power, courage, bravery, rulership etc. are the duties of Kshatriyas, cultivation, rearing of cattle trade and commerce etc. are the duties of Vaishayas. The sudras remain at the service of the upper three vemas. But without one’s specific duty, man cannot attain God realisation.

Everybody is under a moral obligation to perform his duties. But the duties should be performed without any sort of attachment. The ideal of Niskama Karma is detached and distinterested action It means the action without attachment or without any consideration for rewards or fruits is the moral ideal of Niskama Karma of the Bhagavad Gita.

In the Gita, we find two important ideas of pravrti and Nivrtii, Pravrtii means involvement and nivritii means renunciation. Pravritii makes the agent to performs his duties through vedic or ritual ways. But Nivritti calls the agent to withdraw from the wordly life. But however, may be Bhagavad Gita makes the golden means between two contradictory views Pravritii and Nivritii. This golden mean teaches that one has right over his action but not to its fruits. This is beautifully in the activities of the great hero Arjuna in the warfield in the context of Gita.

In Mahabharat when Arjuna was not interested to fight against his relatives at that time Lord Krishna advised him that you are a Kshatriya and your duty is to fight others that may be your relatives or enemies. After realising his duties Arjuna fighted with his relatives. So the Karma of Arjuna was merely the means but not an end. So Gita states that the concern is-solely with action but never with its fruits. In this context a sloka has given in the Gita- “Karmanye Vadhikaraste ma phalesu Kadachana, ma karma phala heturbhuma tat sangastva karmani” According to Gita, the main aim of human being is God realisation and it is possible only by performing of duties. So it is said that duty is God.

Criticism: The doctrine of Niskama has been criticised from the various grounds :

1. The view of Niskama Karma may be a theory but it cannot be put in practice.
2. This view may develop the personality of a man but there is no binding that each one will follow it.
3. It seems that the ideal of Niskama Karma is ambigous in character. It leads to paradoxical conclusion, because without desiring the performance of the action canot be implied.

Question 2.
Explain the different kinds of Karma.
Answer:
The word ‘Karma’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Kri’ which means action. This action may be of the past, present or future. In the Bhagvad Gita, Karma may mean conscious action or thought speech, and action or sacrifice or duty or self-surrender. The Chapter III, verse – V of the Bhagavad Gita makes it clear that nobody can ever remain actionless even for a single moment. But inaction implies death. It means when the body dies, the action ceases. But as long as there is a living body, there is some or the other action, good or bad.

Kinds of Karma: According to its nature karma may be of four kinds. These are –
(1) Arjita Karma
(2) Sancita Karma
(3) Prarabdha Karma
(4) Kriyamana Karma

1. Arjita Karma : Arjita Karma refers to all those actions whose impressions are stored in the chitta or mind.
2. Sancita Karma : It refers to all those accumulated good or bad karma in the past or present life. For these karmas man gets reward or punishment respectively.
3. Prarabdha Karma : It refers to all the past actions whose results or consequences are to be enjoyed or suffered in this life or in the next life after death.
4. Kriyamana Karma : It refers to all those present actions, whose fruits are to be enjoyed or suffered in the future.

From the standpoint of the nature of trigunas, karma is classified into three types, such as –
(1) Sattvika karma
(2) Rajasika Karma
(3) Tamasika Karma

1. Sattvika Karma : In the Chapter XVIII, verse-23 of the Bhagavad Gita, it has been said that Sattvika Karma is that action which is performed freely without attachment, without love or hatred and without any desire for the fruits of action.
2. Rajasika Karma : In the Chapter XVIII, verse-24 of the Bhagavad Gita it has been said that action is that Rajasik action which is done with certain desires in mind to be fulfilled or the action done egoistically for meeting one’s own ends.
3. Tamasika Karma : In the Chapter XVIII, verse-25 of the Bhagavad Gita, it has been said that Tamasika Karma is that karma which is carries on in delusion without thinking of the loss, injury, suffering or the consequences that follow from the action.

Again ‘Karma’ is divided into three types in the Gita, such as (1) Karma, (2) Vikarma and (3) Akarma.

1. Karma : Ordinarily, the word ‘karma’ is understood in the sense of deliberate action. But in the Bhagavad Gita it means an action which is performed by the rules prescribed in the scriptures. The performance of Yajna, tapa, dana etc.
2. Vikarma : Vikarma means wrong action violating the rules of scriptures. It means the action which is done by the violation of the rulees of scripture is called vikarma.
3. Akarma : Akarma means inaction. But inaction is also kind of action. Hence akarma is of a negative concept.

Lastly ‘karma’ is of two types in the Bhagavad Gita, such as (1) Sakama Karma and (2) Niskama Karma.
(1) Sakama Karma : Sakama Karma means desirous action. It is an action in which the agent desires aor seeks for the fruits of his action. It has certain ends to attain. This action is sometimes considered as ordinary action. This action binds us to enjoy the material world of objects as a reslult of which we suffers in our life.

(2) Niskama Karma : The action which is performed with sincerity and devotion without desiring for the fruits of our actions is called Niskama Karma.

Question 3.
Discuss the doctrine of Karma.
Answer:
The word ‘Karma’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Kri’ which means action. The action may be of the past, present or future. In the context of the Bhagavad Gita, Karma may mean conscious action or thought, speech and action, or sacrifice or duty or self-surrender. In the Gita it has been that man performs his action by the trigunas of prakriti.lt means man cannot live even for a moment without action.

In Hindu mythology it is believed that we lived a number of lives before this present life. Our present life is the consequence of our past life. We have homed in this life due to the actions’of our past lives. It means our entire life is operated by the law of Karma which states. As you sow, so shall you reap, As the soul is immortal, so it moves from one body to the other from life to life to enjoy or suffer the consequences of Karma.

Man alone is, responsible for his actions and the consequences that follow from his actions. He cannot make anybody other responsible for his action and consequences. He creates his own destiny and he makes his character and conduct. The doctrine of Karma has two aspects, such as retrospective and prospective aspects. Retrospectively it says that our prospectively it says that our future life will be determined by our present actions. It means man becomes good by his good deeds and becomes bad by his bad deeds.

The Hindus, the Jainas and the Buddhists believe in the doctrine of Karma. The doctrine of karma does not deny human freedom, rather it presupposes the freedom of will. For Jainism, Buddhisim, Samkhya and mimasa schools of India philosophy. The doctrine of Karma is an autonomous law operating independently of the control of God. The vedas speak of God as the master of all karmas. According to vedas good actions lead to Liberation. According to Buddha, the law of Karma is based on the law of dependent origination.

Question 4.
Explain the doctrine of Niskama karma of the Bhagavad Gita.
Answer:
The Bhagavad Gita, a revered scripture in Hindu philosophy, contains profound teachings on various aspects of life,-duty, and spirituality. One of the key doctrihes expounded in the Bhagavad Gita is the concept of Nishkama Karma, which addresses the idea of selfless or desireless action. Nishkama Karma is a central theme in the Gita and holds significant implications for ethical conduct, personal growth, and the path to spiritual realization.

Nishkama Karma in the Bhagavad Gita :
1. Definition : Nishkama Karma can be translated as “selfless action” or “action without attachment to the fruits.” It advocates performing one’s duties and responsibilities without being driven by personal desires, cravings, or expectations of specific outcomes.

2. Teaching Context : The Bhagavad Gita is set in the form of a dialogue between Lord Krishna and the warrior Arjuna on the battlefield ofKurukshetra. Arjuna is facing a moral dilemma about participating in the battle, and Lord Krishna imparts spiritual wisdom to guide him through this challenging situation.

3. Key Verses on Nishkama Karma : The teachings on Nishkama Karma are prominently found in Chapter 2, Verse 47 of the Bhagavad Gita, where Lord Krishna states, “Your right is to perform your prescribed duties only, but you are not entitled to the fruits of your actions.”

4. Detachment from Results : Nishkama Karma emphasizes the detachment of the doer from the fruits of their actions. It encourages individuals to focus on performing their duties diligently and with dedication but without being overly attached to the outcomes or results.

5. Freedom from Desires : The doctrine advocates freedom from desires as a means to attain inner peace and spiritual liberation. By relinquishing attachment to the fruits of actions, individuals can break free from the cycle of desire and aversion, leading to a more balanced and harmonious life.

6. Duty and Dharma : Nishkama Karma does not imply inactivity or renunciation of one’s duties. On the contrary, it emphasizes the fulfillment of one’s responsibilities ami duties in accordance with Dharma (righteousness) while maintaining an attitude of selflessness.

7. Overcoming Selfish Motives : The doctrine addresses the challenge of overcoming selfish motives and ego-driven actions. By performing actions without personal desires, individuals can purify their minds and cultivate a sense of selflessness, humility, and service.

8. Equanimity in Success and Failure : Nishkama Karma encourages individuals to maintain equanimity in the face of success and failure. When actions are performed without attachment to outcomes, both success and failure are accepted with a balanced and composed mind.

Significance of Nishkama Karma:
1. Path to Spiritual Liberation : Nishkama Karma is considered a key element in the path to spiritual liberation (Moksha). By performing selfless actions and detaching from the results, individuals can overcome the bondage of karma (action) and attain a state of inner freedom.

2. Reduction of Ego and Selfishness : The doctrine addresses the human tendency towards egoism and selfishness. Nishkama Karma guides individuals to act with a sense of duty and service, reducing the ego’s donimance and fostering a spirit of selflessness.

3. Stress Reduction and Mental Peace : By releasing attachment to the outcomes of actions, individuals practicing Nishkama Karma experience a reduction in stress and mental agitation. The focus shifts from anxiety about success or failure to the joy of performing one’s duties with dedication.

4. Harmonizing Personal and Social Life : Nishkama Karma harmonizes personal and social life by emphasizing the importance of fulfilling one’s responsibilities while maintaining an altruistic and selfless attitude. This integration promotes a sense of interconnectedness and communal well-being.

5. Ethical Conduct: The doctrine contributes to ethical conduct by encouraging individuals to act in alignment with righteousness and moral principles. Nishkama Karma promotes actions that are beneficial for oneself and society without the pursuit of personal gain at the expense of others.

6. Applicability to Various Walks of Life: Nishkama Karma is not limited to any particular occupation or social role. It can be practiced by individuals in various walks of life, whether as professionals, householders, or ascetics. The emphasis is on the quality of selflessness in action.

Practical Application :
1. Work with Dedication : Individuals can apply the principle of Nishkama Karma in their professional and personal lives by working with dedication and commitment, irrespective of personal desires for recognition or reward.

2. Service-oriented Attitude : Adopting a service-oriented attitude in daily interactions and responsibilities fosters selflessness. By contributing to the well-being of others without expectation of personal gain, individuals embody the spirit of Nishkama Karma.

3. Mindfulness in Actions : Practicing mindfulness in actions involves being fully present and engaged in the current moment without preoccupation with future outcomes. This enhances the quality of actions and aligns with the essence of Nishkama Karma.

4. Philanthropy and Volunteering : Engaging in philanthropy and volunteering with a genuine desire to contribute to the welfare of others exemplifies Nishkama Karma. Such activities are performed for the greater good rather than personal recognition.

5. Cultivation of Detachment : Cultivating a sense of detachment from the results of one’s efforts requires introspection and self-awareness. By consciously relinquishing attachment, individuals can experience a sense of inner freedom and peace.

Conclusion :
The doctrine of Nishkama Karma in the Bhagavad Gita stands as a timeless and universal teaching that addresses the complexities of human actions, desires, and the pursuit of spiritual realization. By advocating selfless action and detachment from the fruits of one’s efforts, Nishkama Karma provides a practical and. transformative approach to harmonizing duty, personal growth, and spiritual evolution. This profound teaching continues to inspire individuals on their journey towards ethical conduct, mental peace, and the realization of higher spiritual truths.

Group -C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
In the Bhagavad Gita, Karma may mean :
(i) Consciousness action
(ii) Duty
(iii) Self surrender to God Aits,
(iv) All of these

Question 2.
As one sows, so he reaps is the law of:
(i) Karma
(ii) Dharma
(iii) Kama
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(i) Karma

Question 3.
The consequences of one’s action are to be enjoyed or suffered :
(i) In this life
(ii) In the next life
(iii) Either (a) or (b)
(iv) Neither (a) or (b)
Answer:
(iii) Either (a) or (b)

Question 4.
Man is responsible for:
(i) His actions
(ii) Consequences of his actions
(iii) His actions and the consequences
(iv) Either his actions or the consequences
Answer:
(iii) His actions and the consequences

Question 5.
What type of action should be done in man’s life?
(i) Prarabdha Karina
(ii) Detached action
(iii) Attached action
(iv) Niskama Karma
Answer:
(ii) Detached action

Question 6.
On which law the theory of Karma is based?
(i) Newton’s first Law
(ii) Law of causation
(iii) Law of Pratityasamutpada
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Law of causation

Question 7.
How many type of karmas are there in the Gita?
(i) One
(ii) Two
(iii) Three
(iv) Five
Answer:
(iii) Three

Question 8.
In which chapter the ‘Karma Yoga’ has been mentioned?
(i) First
(ii) Second
(iii) Seven
Answer:
(ii) Second

Question 9.
Which of the following is the main aim of human being recording to Gandhi?
(i) Truth
(ii) Hindu Religion
(iii) lsbmic Religion
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Truth

Question 10.
If truth is the end then what is the means of it?
(i) Prayer
(ii) Non-violence
(iii) Power
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(ii) Non-violence

Question 11.
How many types of truth are there according to Gandhi?
(i) One
(ii) Two
(iii) Three
(iv) Four
Answer:
(i) One

Question 12.
Picktheoddoneout:
(i) Arjita Karma
(ii) Sanchita Karma
(iii) Prarabdha Karma
(iv) Sattvika Karma
Answer:
(iv) Sattvika Karma

Question 13.
Which of the following is it a Karma from the standpoint of the rturC of trigunas?
(i) Arjita Karma
(ii) Sattvika karma
(iii) Rajasika Karma
(iv) Tamasika Kaîn*
Answer:
(i) Arjita Karma

Question 14.
Vikarma means:
(i) Wrong action
(ii) Right action
(iii) Conscious action
(iv) Inaction
Answer:
(i) Wrong action

Question 15.
Akarma means:
(i) Wrong action
(ii) Right action
(iii) Conscious action
(iv) Inaction
Answer:
(iv) Inaction

 

Question 16.
Sakarma Karma means:
(i) Conscious action
(ii) Desirous action
(iii) Desireless action
(iv) Right action
Answer:
(ii) Desrious action

Question 17.
Niskama Karma mea us:
(i) Renunciation of action
(ii) Renunciation in action
(iii) Both (a) and (b)
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Renunciation in action.

Question 18.
Niakarma means:
(i) Inaction
(ii) I)esirous action
(iii) Disinterested action
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Distinterested action

Question 19.
Niskarma Karma advocates the right action:
(i) Produces good results
(ii) Is a means to good end
(iii) Is an end in itself
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) is an end in itself.

Question 20.
The central teaching of the Bhagavad Gita is:
(i) Dharma
(ii) Karma
(iii) Niakama Karma
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iii) Niakama Karma

Question 21.
Who among the following believe in the doctrine of Karma?
(i) Hindus
(ii) Jamas
(iii) Buddhists
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
Inaction implies _______ .
Answer:
Death

Question 2.
Nobody can ever remain  _______ .
Answer:
Actionless.

Question 3.
As one sows, so he _______ .
Answer:
Reaps

Question 4.
The law of Karma has bearing on past _______ and _______ lives.
Answer:
Present, Future.

Question 5.
_______ alone is responsible for his actions and the consequences.
Answer:
Man

Question 6.
We have some _______ to care our future.
Answer:
Freedom

Question 7.
Good actions yeild _______ results.
Answer:
Good.

Question 8.
_______ actions liberate.
Answer:
Unselfishness

Question 9.
_______ Karma leave impressions on the mind.
Answer:
Arjita

Question 10.
_______ Karma is action done egoistically to meet one’s own ends..
Answer:
Rajasika

Question 11.
Inaction is also a kind of _______ .
Answer:
Action

Question 12.
Niskarma Karma is _______ Yoga.
Answer:
Karma

Question 13.
Pravrti means _______ .
Answer:
Involvement .

Question 14.
Nivriti means _______ .
Answer:
Renunciation

Question 15.
_______ is the middle path between pravrti and nivrti.
Answer:
Niskama Karma

Question 16.
_______ is often compared with Kants categorical imperative.
Answer:
Niskama Karma

Question 17.
The _______ doctrine of karma is based on the law of dependent origination. .
Answer:
Buddhist.

Question 18.
Karma with a thirst for the result is called _______ .
Answer:
Sakama karma

Question 19.
Karma wich has already begun to bear fruits is called _______ .
Answer:
Prarabdha

Question 20.
An action supported by sastras is called _______ .
Answer:
Karma

Question 21.
An action which is not supported by scriptures is called _______ .
Answer:
Vikarma

Question 22.
An action performed without any desire for the result is called _______ .
Answer:
Niskama Karma

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
The doctrine of Karma applies to the present life.
Answer:
The doctrine of Karma applies to the past, present and future life.

Question 2.
Good actions may produce good result.
Answer:
Good actions may produce good result sooner or later.

Question 3.
Nobody is responsible for his actions.
Answer:
One is responsible for his actions.

Question 4.
Ararma is wrong action.
Answer:
Ararma is inaction.

Question 5.
Vikarma is inaction
Answer:
Vikarma is wrong action

Question 6.
Sakama karma is detached action.
Answer:
Samaka karma is attached action.

Question 7.
Niskama Karma is attached action.
Answer:
Niskama Karma is detached action.

Question 8.
Niskama Karma preaches renuciation of action.
Answer:
Niskama Karma preaches renunciation in action.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
Can anybody remain actionless?
Answer:
No

Question 2.
The doctrine of Karma has two aspects, one is retrospective and other is what?
Answer:
Prospective.

Question 3.
Can we change our past-actions?
Answer:
No

Question 4.
Does the doctrine of Karma accept past and future lives?
Answer:
Yes

Question 5.
Can good actions yeild bad results?
Answer:
No

Question 6.
Can we shape the course of the future?
Answer:
Yes

Question 7.
What are accumulated actions of the past and present life called?
Answer:
Sanchita Karma

Question 8.
What is the action that goes against the scriptures called?
Answer:
Vikarma

Question 9.
Whether Bhagavad Gita is a treatise on karma or Bhakti or Jhana?
Answer:
Karma

Question 10.
What is the stock of merits and demerits occurring from our actions for Nyaya called?
Answer:
Adrsta

Question 11.
Name any one school that believe, law of karma as autonomous?
Answer:
Jainism

Question 12.
The action which is supported by shastras is called what?
Answer:
Karma

Question 13.
The action which is not performed by shastras is called what?
Answer:
Vikarma

Question 14.
The action which is performed without any desire is called what?
Answer:
Niskamakarma

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 10 Gandhi: Truth and Non-Violence Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 10 Question Answer Gandhi: Truth and Non-Violence

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
1. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
Who says that truth is God and God is truth?
Answer:
According to Gandhi, Truth is God and God is truth.

Question 2.
State the two pillars of Ahimsa.
Answer:
According to Gandhi, Ahimsa is based on two pillars such as .
(a) Truth fulness and,
(b) Fearlessness.
According to Gandhi, if we want to follow the law of truth the fearlessness is absolutely necessary.

Question 3.
How non-violence can change the heart of the cruelest evil doer according to Gandhi?
Answer:
As Gandhi was very much influenced by chiristinism, so he says that love your enemies, do good to them who hate you, bless them who curse you and pray them who despite you. He always says, hate the sin but not the sinner. Hence he believes that non-violence can change the heart of the cruelest evil doer.

Question 4.
State the five vows Given by Gandhi.
Answer:
According to Gandhi, a satyagrahi must observe the five vows like truthfulness, non-violence, non-thieving, non-possession, and sex-control. He also says that realisation of God is not possible for that person who is not guided by these five vows.

Question 5.
What is the deep sense of ahimsa according to Gandhi?
Answer:
For Gandhiji, ahimsa in a deeper sense means not offending anybody, not hurting anybody’s sentiments, not breeding any uncharitable thought even for the enemy and doing something good to others.

Question 6.
What is the main spring of ahimsa?
Answer:
The main spring of ahimsa is love. It is the true essence of morality. No force can accomplish what ahimsa can.

Question 8.
Which power is much greater than violence according to Gandhi?
Answer:
According to Gandhi, the power of non-violence is much greater than violence; Though violent methods make the use of force; yet the non-violent methods assume more power since they carry with them the force of the soul.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
How does Gandhiji wante to win over the evil?
Answer:
According to Gandhiji, Non-violence is the love and its strength and power is much more than the sharpest of weapons. The path of Non-violence is always marked by victory. It attempts to win even brue and evil by love and understanding.

Question 2.
State the nature of Non-violence:
Answer:
Gandhi considers non-violence as a truth force or soul-force. He suggests some characteristics of non-violence as follows :
(a) Non-violence is natural to man.
(b) It is dynamic in character.
(c) It involves sacrifice and suffering.
(d) It is for strong but not for weak.
(e) It is a love force, not a weapon against the opponent.

Question 3.
State the Negative and positive aspects of Ahimsa.
Answer:
The word ahimsa has both positve and Negative aspects. In its negative aspect, ahimsa means non-killing and non-injury but in its positive aspects ahimsa means love or service to living beings. The positve aspect of its meaning is more fundamental for Gandhi, because it comprehends the negative aspect also and represents its essence.

Question 4.
How Gandhi believes that Non-violence is natural to man?
Answer:
According to Gandhi, non-violence is natural to man. He believes that man is not only a physical being, but also a mental and spiritual being. As man is physical and mental being, so he may cause harm to others but as a spiritual being, he loves all living beings. He says, Man as animal is violent, but as spirit he is non-violent. Hence Ahimsa in considered to be the law of human beings.

Question 5.
Explain Gandhi’s concept at means and ends.
Answer:
According to Gandhi, Ahimsa is the means and truth is the end. Ahimsa is our supreme duty. Ahimsa and truth one so related with each other that it is practically impossibe to separate them. According to him, God is truth and love. By loving the whole animal world we can love God and realise God.

Question 6.
Why Gandhi believes that Truth is God?
Answer:
Gandhi believes that truth is God instead of God is Truth in the following reasons.
(a) Truth is not an ambiguous term.
(b) Truth must be one.
(c) No one can deny the existence at truth.
(d) According to Gandhi even atheist and sceptic believe in the existence at truth.
(e) He believes that the object of worship is not God but truth.

Question 7.
State the implications of Gandhiji’s notion of truth.
Answer:
The following ore some of the implications at Gandhi’s ntion of truth.
(i) Truth must be one.
(ii) Truth must be expressed in a simple clear and pleasant manner.
(iii) Everybody must attempt to practice the truth and it leads a man for the development his morality.
(iv) The aim of truth is good will and it central to life.

Group – C

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain Gandhiji’s concept of Non-violence of Ahimsa.
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi was a true Karma Yogin and a practical idealist. He was very much influenced by the story of King Harischandra who sacrificed everything for upholding the cause of truth. His ethics may be described as an ethics of non-vilence. Non-violence was preached also by Buddha and Mahavir. But the difference is while they preached it for the attainment of liberation and Nirvana. But Gandhi revived it an tried to apply it in the field of politics in order to love the social, politcal and economic problems. He applied the concept of non-violence or Ahimsa not only for God realisation but also for self-purification and the general welfare of the people of the world. Therefore he has given Ahimsa a new outlook, new meaning and new interpretation.

Gandhi says that ahimsa is based on two pillars (1) Truthfulness and (2) Fearlessness. According to Gandhi* if we want to follow the law of truth, then fearlessness is absolutely necessary. For Gandhi, Ahimsa is the means and truth is the end. Ahimsa is our supreme duty. Ahimsa and truth are interrelated with each other that it is practically impossible to separate theory. Ahimsa is a means of attaining God. It is a power of love. We should always try to overcome evil by good, anger by love, untruth by truth, himsa by ahimsa. It means we can win over the opponent only by love, never by hate.

Again Gandhi says that, the practice of Ahimsa requires the greatest courage. As he was very much influenced by jesus christ so he influenced by Jesus Christ so he says that “Love your enemies, do good to them who hate you, bless them who curse you and pray them who despite. He says, hate the sin but not the sinner. Hence he belives that non-violence can change the heart of the crudest evildoer.
Non violence is not flight from wickedness. It is not passive submission to the will of the evildoer.

It is not a method of coercion but it is one of conversion. According to Gandhi, a satyagrahi must observe the five vows of truthfulness, non-violence, non-thieving, non-possession and sex- control. He says that the realisation of god is impossible for that person who is not guided by these five vows. Non-violence is not only a moral weapon against all kinds of evils. It is a rule of conduet, not only in individual life but also in political, social and economic life.

Question 2.
Explain Gandhi’s doctrine of Truth is God.
Answer:
The Gandhian practical philosophy is based on two principles of satya and Ahimsa. of the two, truth is more basic as Gandhiji arrived at the philosophy of non-violence in his pursuit for truth. From the very beginning he has said that God is truth, but now he says that truth is God.

Firstly Gandhigi held that God alone is real, sin god alone is real God is Truth. Secondly, sin description can ever grasp the nature or reality of God Gandhiji in his search of theism made him to assert the God is truth.

Gandhi says, Truth is God for the following reasons. Firstly the word truth is non-ambiguous, has a definite significance. But the word ‘God’ ambiguous. God may be interpreted in many ways. Secondly one may deny the existence of God but or cannot deny the existence of truth. Truth is universal and is not subject to doubt. Even the sceptics cannot reject the truth. Hence truth is primary. Thirdly Gandhi was strongly led by the feeling that is something has the truth then that something is God.

One of the important, implications of Gandhijis assertion “Truth is God” is that the object of worship is not God, but Truth. This line brings everybody. On to a common platform irrespective of caste, creed, colour and sex. Gandhiji was successful in this new transformation in his thought and philosophy as truth appeared before him as a weapon or force to unit the conflicting ideals and to fight against all evils and odds.

The following are some of the implications of Gandhiji’s notion of truth.

1. Truth surfaces up despite al odds.
2. Truth must be one.
3. Truth must be expressed in a simple clear, and pleasant manner. But if truth will be expressed in an arrogant, rough and unpleasant manner may be socially harmful.
4. It is true that every body cannot practice truth, but it is desired that everybody must attempt to be on the path of truth.
5. The practice of truth puts one on the path of morality.
6. The aim of truth is good of all.
7. Where thereis truth, there is true knpwledge and this true knowledge gives ananda.
8. Devotion to truth is the sole reason for our existence.
9. Truth is central to life.
10. The quest of truth requires self-interest, devotion and deep penance, it leads one nearer to God and provides him liberation.

Question 3.
Distinguish between non-injury and non-violence according to Gandhian.
Answer:
Mahatma Gandhi, a prominent leader in the Indian independence movement, was a staunch advocate of nonviolence and peaceful resistance. His philosophy of nonviolence, known as “Ahimsa,” played a central role in his approach to social and political change. Gandhi distinguished between non-injury and non-violence, emphasizing the broader ethical and spiritual dimensions of Ahimsa. To understand this distinction, it is essential to delve into the nuances of Gandhi’s philosophy and how he applied these principles in various contexts.

Non-Injury (Ahimsa) :
1. Definition : Non-injury, or Ahimsa, is the principle of avoiding harm or causing as little harm as possible to all living beings, including humans, animals, and even plants. It is a foundational concept in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophies, and Gandhi embraced it as a core tenet of his moral and political philosophy.

2. Scope : Ahimsa extends beyond physical violence and encompasses all forms of harm, including verbal, mental, and emotional harm. It emphasizes refraining from actions, words, or thoughts that may cause pain, suffering, or distress to others.

3. Positive Action : Non-injury is not merely the absence of harm; it also involves positive actions that contribute to the well-being and upliftment of others. Acts of kindness, compassion, and service are integral to the practice of Ahimsa.

4. Individual Practice : Gandhi emphasized that non-injury begins at the individual level, requiring self-discipline and self-control. It involves cultivating empathy, understanding, and a deep sense of interconnectedness with all living beings.

5. Truth and Fearlessness : Ahimsa is closely linked to truth (Satya) and fearlessness (Abhaya) in Gandhi’s philosophy. The commitment to non-injury requires a truthful and fearless approach to life, where one confronts challenges with courage and honesty.

6. Inner Transformation : Gandhi believed that practicing non-injury necessitates inner transformation. It requires individuals to overcome anger, hatred, and the desire for revenge, fostering a state of inner harmony and peace.

7. Applied to Diet: Gandhi extended the practice of non-injury to dietary choices, promoting vegetarianism as a means of reducing harm to animals. He advocated for conscious and ethical choices in food consumption.

Non-Violence (Satyagraha) :
1. Definition : Non-violence, or Satyagraha, is a broader concept that encompasses more than the absence of physical harm. Satyagraha is the force of truth and the pursuit of justice through nonviolent meAnswer: It involves actively resisting injustice without resorting to violence.

2. Strategic Resistance : Non-violence, as practiced in Satyagraha, involves strategic resistance against oppressive forces. It is a powerful tool for social and political change that seeks to transform the adversary rather than defeat them.

3. Confronting Injustice : Satyagraha requires individuals to confront injustice fearlessly, standing against oppressive systems through acts of civil disobedience, non-cooperation, and peaceful protest.

4. Collective Action : While non-injury is often viewed as an individual practice, non-violence, as embodied in Satyagraha, is a collective endeavor. It mobilizes communities and movements to challenge injustice and promote social reform.

5. Courage and Sacrifice : Satyagraha demands immense courage and a willingness to endure suffering for the sake of a just cause. It involves a readiness to make personal sacrifices for the greater good.

6. Appeal to Conscience : The essence of Satyagraha lies in appealing to the moral conscience of the oppressor. Instead of using force, non-violent resistance seeks to touch the humanity within the adversary, inspiring a change of heart.

7. Constructive Program : Gandhi emphasized the importance of a Constructive Program alongside Satyagraha. This involves building alternative, just, and equitable systems that serve as models for the society one envisions.

Distinguishing Between Non-Injury and Non-Violence :
1. Scope of Application : Non-injury primarily addresses individual conduct and the avoidance of harm in thought, word, and deed. It is a personal ethic that extends to daily life choices. Non-violence, on the other hand, is a collective and strategic approach to social and political transformation, involving active resistance against injustice.

2. Level of Engagement: Non-injury is more about individual morality and self-discipline, whereas non-violence engages with the broader socio-political context. Non-violence involves confronting systems of injustice and seeking structural change through collective action.

3. Positive Action vs. Resistance: Non-injury involves positive actions aimed at promoting the well-being of others. Non-violence, while also rooted in positive principles, emphasizes resistance against oppression and the refusal to cooperate with unjust systems.

4. Individual vs. Collective Dimension : Non-injury is primarily an individual practice that contributes to the cultivation of inner virtues. Non-violence, especially as expressed in Satyagraha, is a collective force for social and political transformation.

5. Means and Ends : Non-injury focuses on the means individuals adopt in their personal lives. Non-violence, as practiced in Satyagraha, considers both the means and ends, emphasizing that the means must be consistent with the desired ends.

Practical Application in Gandhi’s Life :

1. Individual Practice : Gandhi personally embodied non-injury in his vegetarian lifestyle, commitment to truthfulness, and dedication to service.
2. Collective Action : Through non-violent resistance, Gandhi led numerous movements against British colonial rule, advocating for India’s independence through non-cooperation, civil disobedience, and constructive programs.
3. Philosophical Integration: For Gandhi, non-injury was a fundamental part of his spiritual philosophy, while non-violence provided the practical framework for addressing social and political issues.
4. Tolstoy Farm and Sabarmati Ashram : Gandhi established Tolstoy Farm in South Africa and Sabarmati Ashram in India as communities where non-injury and non-violence were integral to daily life, emphasizing simplicity, self-sufficiency, and communal living.

Conclusion :
In Gandhi’s philosophy, non-injury (Ahimsa) and non-violence (Satyagraha) are interconnected but distinct concepts. Non-injury encompasses individual ethics, personal conduct, and positive actions, while non-violence involves collective resistance against injustice, strategic engagement with oppressive systems, and a commitment to truth and justice. The two concepts complement each other, forming the foundation of Gandhi’s transformative vision for personal and societal change. Gandhi’s life and teachings continue to inspire movements worldwide, emphasizing the enduring relevance of Ahimsa and Satyagraha in the pursuit of justice, peace, and human dignity.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
Gandhiji’s practical philosophy is based on;
(i) Truth
(ii) Non-violence
(iii) Truth and Non-violence
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Truth and Non-violence

Question 2.
Truthis:
(i) One
(ii) Dual in nature
(iii) Infinite
(iv) Limited
Answer:
(i) One

Question 3.
For Gancisiji truth is:
(i) Realistic
(ii) Idea hstic
(iii) Pragmatic
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Pragmatic

Question 4.
For Gansiji, Non-violence means:
(i) Not huning and offending anybody
(ii) Not breeding any uncharitabk thought
(iii) Doing something good Lo othas
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 5.
Gandhiji trimslaics Non-siolence as
(i) Truth
(ii) Moraliy
(iii) Goodwill
(iv) Love
Answer:
(iv) Lave

Question 6.
Ahitma is a weapon of the:
(i) Physically strong
(ii) Mentally strong
(iii) Both phytiicaUy and mentally strong
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Mentally strong

Question 7.
The method of Non-violence yeilds:
(i) Temporary resuJi
(ii) Long-lasting result
(iii) No results
(iv) Poor result
Answer:
(ii) Long lasting result

Question 8.
Non-violence is:
(i) A virtue
(ii) Love
(iii) A weapon of the brase
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 9.
The method of non-violence is
(i) A swiftest path
(ii) A surest path
(iii) A swiftest and surest path
(iv) A s4ove.t path
Answer:
(iii) A swiftest and surest path

Question 10.
How many axioma of non-violence did Gandhiji put forth?
(i) Four
(ii) Five
(iii) Soi
(iv) Seven
Answer:
(ii) Five

II. Fill In the blanks

Question 1.
In the positive sente ahimaa means ______.
Answer:
Love

Question 2.
In the negative sense non-violence means ______.
Answer:
Non killrngor flofl-iftZY

Question 3.
Accortng to Gandhiji, truth is ______.
Answer:
Go

Question 4.
Non-violence is ______ to ,ntn.
Answer:
Natural

Question 5.
Truth connotes ______ at the sense of value.
Answer:
Justice

Question 6.
Truth and ______ are the two sides of the same coin.
Answer:
Non-violence.

Question 7.
Gandhiji wants us to ______ resist evil
Answer:
Actively

Question 8.
The mmm spring of Ahimsa is ______.
Answer:
Love

Question 9.
The power of ______ is greater than violence.
Answer:
Non-violence

Question 10.
Non-violence cames the force of the ______.
Answer:
Soul

Question 11.
Violence breeds ______.
Answer:
Violence

Question 12.
Non-violelice iniphes a coniplete ______ as is hummnly possible.
Answer:
Self-purification.

Question 13.
Non-violence is without exception ______ to violence.
Answer:
Superior

Question 14.
There i no such thing as______ in non-violence.
Answer:
Defeal

Question 15.
Gandiiji believes ibet evil an be own over by ______.
Answer:
Love

III. Correct the Sentences:

Question 1.
Mahatmm Gandhi was a metaphysician-
Answer:
Mahatma Ganih was a practical philosopher.

Question 2.
We can csttblisb pace by violaxe,
Answer:
We can establish pace by non-violence.

Question 3.
Non-violece is seine.
Answer:
Non-violence is inferior than violenc.

Question 4.
Non-violence is inferior than violence.
Answer:
Non-violence ¡s supenot than violence.

Question 5.
Gandhi’s view on non-violence is theontical.
Answer:
Gsndli?s view on non-violence is practical.

Question 6.
Gandhi’s philosophy is basal on violence.
Answer:
Gandh’s philosophy is based on Non-violence.

Question 7.
Gandhiji calls for suhnission to evil.
Answer:
Gandhiji calls for active resistance to evil.

Question 8.
Gandiji wants to wm over the evil by evil.
Answer:
Gandhiji wants to win over the evil by Love.

Question 9.
Non-violence is the method the weak and passive people.
Answer:
Non-violence is the method of the strong, courageous and active people.

Question 10.
The method of non-violence is very hard.
Answer:
The method of non-violence is very swift.

Question 11.
GanJiis motto is the greatest good of the greatest number.
Answer:
Gandhi’s motto is the greatest good of all.

Question 12.
Gandhi’s non-violence canies the force of the body and mind.
Answer:
Gandhi’s non-violence carnes the force of the soul.

II. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
What is the positive sense of ahimsa?
Answer:
Love

Question 2.
Name the counterpart of truth.
Answer:
Non-violence

Question 3.
Is non-violence active or passive?
Answer:
Active

Question 4.
Whether non-violence in,lies physical or mental strength?
Answer:
Mental

Question 5.
Is non-violence a virtue or vice?
Answer:
Virtue

Question 6.
Can we establish peace by violence?
Answer:
No

Question 7.
Is there a defeat in Non-violence?
Answer:
No

Question 8.
Is non-violence superior or mferior to violence?
Answer:
Superior

Question 9.
Whose forimiLaüon of Live d Gancthiji accept?
Answer:
Loe Tolstoy

Question 10.
Is there an element of competition is non-violence?
Answer:
No

Question 11.
What sort of means does Gandhiji suggest to reach the end?
Answer:
Non-violence

Odisha State Board BSE Odisha 7th Class Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 18 ଲଙ୍ଲକାର ପ୍ରୟୋଗଃ Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

BSE Odisha Class 7 Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 18 ଲଙ୍ଲକାର ପ୍ରୟୋଗଃ

१. उत्तराणि लिखतु
(ଉତ୍ତରାଣି ଲିଖତୁ) ଉତ୍ତର ଲେଖନ୍ତୁ:

(क) जम्बुवृक्षे कः अवसत् ？
ଜମ୍ବୁବୃକ୍ଷେ ଡଃ ଅବସତ୍ ?
(ଜାମୁ ଗଛରେ କିଏ ବାସ କରୁଥିଲା।)
उत्तर :
जम्बुवृक्षे वानरः अवसत्।
ଜମ୍ବୁବୃକ୍ଷେ ବାନରଃ ଅବସତ୍।

(ख) वानरः जम्बुफलानि कस्य कृते अददात् ？
ବାନରଃ ଜମ୍ବୁଫଳାନି କସ୍ୟ କୃତେ ଅଦଦାତ୍ ?
(ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ ଜାମୁକୋଳି କାହାକୁ ଦେଲା ?)
उत्तर :
वानरः जम्बुफलानि मकरस्य कृते अददात्।
ବାନରଃ ଜମ୍ବୁ ଫଳାନି ମକରସ୍ୟ କୃତେ ଅଦଦାତ୍।

(ग) कानि फलानि मधुराणि ？
କାନି ଫଳାନି ମଧୁରାଣି ?
(କେଉଁ ଫଳସବୁ ମଧୁର ?)
उत्तर :
जम्बुफलानि मधुराणि।
ଜମ୍ବୁ ଫଳାନି ମଧୁରାଣି।

(घ) वानर：किम् आरोहत् ？
ବାନରଃ କିମ୍ ଆରୋହତ୍ ?
(ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ କ’ଣ ଚଢ଼ିଲା ?)
उत्तर :
वानर：मकरस्य पृष्ठम् आरोहत्।
ବାନରଃ ମକରସ୍ୟ ପୃଷ୍ଠମ୍ ଆରୋହତ୍।

(ङ) क：निराशः अभवत् ？
କଃ ନିରାଶଃ ଅଭବତ୍ ?
କିଏ ହତାଶ ହେଲା ?
उत्तर :
मकर：निराश：अभवत्।
ମକରଃ ନିରାଶଃ ଅଭବତ୍ ।

२. शून्यस्थानानि पूरयतु (ଶୂନ୍ୟସ୍ଥାନାନି ପୂରୟତୁ)
ଶୂନ୍ୟସ୍ଥାନ ପୂରଣ କର :
(क) एक： ……………. अवसत्।
(अहम्，वानरः，त्वम्)

(ख) मधुराणि ………… खादति ।
(फलं, फले, फलानि)

(ग) ………… ! सत्यं वदामि ।
(मित्रः, मित्रे, मित्र)

(घ) स: वानरं प्रति …………
(अकथय :, अकथयत्, अकथयम्)

(ङ) वानर: ………… अभवत् ।
(चकितः, चकितौ, चकिताः)
उत्तर :
(क) वानरः ବାନରଃ
(ख) फलानि ଫଳାନି
(ग) मित्र ମିତ୍ର
(घ) अकथयत् ଅକଥୟତ୍
(ङ) चकितः ଚକିତଃ

३. रेखाङ्कितपदानां संशोधनं करोतु।
(ରେଖାଙ୍କିତପଦାନାଂ ସଂଶୋଧନଂ କରୋତୁ।)
(क) अहं तत्र त्वं नयामि ।
(ख) अपरस्या दिवसे मकरः पुनः आगच्छत्।
(ग) एकस्मिन् नद्याः तीरे जम्बुवृक्षः आसीत्।
(घ) स: प्रक्वफलानि भक्षणम् अकरोत् ।
(ङं) मम भार्या तव हृदयम् इच्छामि ।
उत्तर :
(क) त्वां ନାଂ
(ख) अपरस्मिन् ଅପରସ୍କ୍ରିନ୍
(ग) एकस्या: ଏକସ୍ଯ
(घ) पक्वफलानां ପକ୍ବଫଳାନାଂ
(ङ) इच्छति ଇଚ୍ଛତି

४. चित्रं पश्यतु नाम लिखतु
(ଚିତ୍ର ପଶ୍ୟତୁ ନାମ ଲିଖନ୍ତୁ ।)

उत्तर :
(क) वानरः ବାନରଃ
(ख) वृक्ष: ବୃକ୍ଷ :
(ग) मकरः ମକରଃ
(घ) गज:  ଗଜଃ

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अनुवादं कुरुत।

(क) वृक्षस्य शाखायाम् एक: वानरः अवसत्।
ଗଛ ଡାଳରେ ଗୋଟିଏ ମାଙ୍କଡ ବାସ କରୁଥିଲା ।

(ख) स: मकरः कानिचन फलानि अखादत्।
ସେ କୁମ୍ଭୀର କେତେକ ଫଳ ଖାଇଲା ।

(ग) अहं तस्य वानरस्य हृदयम् इच्छामि।
ମୁଁ ସେହି ମାଙ୍କଡର ହୃଦୟ ଇଚ୍ଛା କରୁଛି ।

(घ) आगच्छ मम पृष्ठदेशे उपविश।
ଆସ ମୋ ପିଠିରେ ବସ ।

(ङ) मित्र ! सत्यं वदामि।
ବନ୍ଧୁ ! ସତ କହୁଛି ।

(च) हृदयं वृक्षस्य कोटरे अस्ति।
ହୃଦୟ ଗଛ କୋରଡରେ ଅଛି ।

(छ) मूर्ख: मकरः निराशः अभवत्।
ମୂର୍ଖ କୁମ୍ଭୀର ନିରାଶ ହେଲା ।

२. विक्षिप्तवर्णानां मेलनेन शुद्धपदं रचयत।

(क) या शा खा म्
उत्तर :
ଶାଖାୟାମ୍

(ख) णा स्व प्रा न्
उत्तर :
ସପ୍ରାଣାନ୍

(ग) तः किच
उत्तर :
ଚକିତଃ

(घ) या आ मि न
उत्तर :
ଆନୟାମି

(ङ) से व दि
उत्तर :
ଦିବସେ

३. स्तम्भमेलनं कुरूत।

‘क’ समम्भ: — ‘ख’ स्तम्भ:
एक: — हृदयम्
नद्या: — शाखायाम्
वृक्षस्य — चकित:
तव — मकर:
वानर: — तीरे
उत्तर :
‘କ’ ସ୍ତମ୍ଭ — ‘ଖ’ ସ୍ତମ୍ଭ
ଏକଃ — ମକରଃ
ନମଃ — ତୀରେ
ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ଯ — ଶାଖାୟାମ୍
ତବ — ହୃଦୟମ୍
ବାନରଃ — ଚକିତଃ

४. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।

(क) अधुना
उत्तर :
ବଧିମାନ

(ख) अवसत्
उत्तर :
ବାସ କରୁଥିଲା

(ग) अरक्षत्
उत्तर :
ରକ୍ଷା କଲା

(घ) मकरः
उत्तर :
କୁମ୍ଭୀର

(ङ) झटिति
उत्तर :
ଶୀଘ୍ର

८. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत।

(क) नद्याः तीरे क: वृक्ष: आसीत् ?
(a) जम्बु वृक्ष:
(b) आम्र वृक्ष:
(c) पनस वृक्ष:
(d) कदली वृक्ष:
उत्तर :
(a) ଜମ୍ବୁବୃକ୍ଷ

(ख) क: पक्वफलानां भक्षणम् अकरोत् ?
(a) मकर:
(b) शृगाल:
(c) वानर:
(d) कच्छपः
उत्तर :
(c) ବାନରଃ

(ग) क: पुन: वृक्षमूलम् आगच्छत् ?
(a) शृगाल:
(b) वानरः
(c) मूषिक:
(d) मकर:
उत्तर :
(d) ମକରଃ

(घ) हृदयं कस्य कोटरे अस्ति इति वानरः अवदत् ?
(a) नद्या:
(b) वृक्षस्य
(c) जलस्य
(d) लताया:
उत्तर :
(b) ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ଯ

(ङ) वानरः केन स्वप्राणान् अरक्षत् ?
(a) कौशलेन
(b) सूत्रेण
(c) बलेन
(d) अस्रेण
उत्तर :
(a) କୌଶଳେନ

चतुरः वानरः
(ଚତୁରଃ ବାନରଃ) ଚତୁର ମାଙ୍କଡ଼

एकस्या: नद्या: तीरे एक: जम्बुवृक्ष: आसीत्। वृक्षस्य शाखायाम् एक: वानर: अवसत् । सः पक्वफलानां भक्षणम् अकरोत् ।
ଏକସ୍ୟା ନଦ୍ୟା ତୀରେ ଏକଃ ଜମ୍ବୁବୃକ୍ଷୀ ଆସୀତ୍ । ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ ଶାଖାୟାମ୍ ଏକଃବାନରଃ ଅବସତ୍ । ଡଃ ପକ୍ବଫଳାନାଂ ଭକ୍ଷଣମ୍ ଅକରୋତ୍।

ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥୀ :

• ତୀରେ – କୂଳେ କୂଳରେ।
• ଜମ୍ବୁବୃକ୍ଷ – ଜାମୁକୋଳି ଗଛ।
• ଆସୀତ୍ – ଥିଲା।
• ଶାଖାୟାମ୍ – ଡାଳରେ।
• ବାନରଃ – ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ ।
• ଅବସତ୍ – ବାସ କରୁଥିଲା ।
• ପଦ୍ମଫଳାନାଂ – ପାଚିଲା ଫଳ।
• ଅକରୋତ୍ – କରୁଥିଲା।

ଅର୍ଥ :
ଗୋଟିଏ ନଈ କୂଳରେ ଏକ ଜାମୁଗଛ ଥିଲା। ଗଛ ଡାଳରେ ଗୋଟିଏ ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ ବାସକରୁଥିଲା। ସେ ପାଚିଲାଫଳ ଖାଉଥିଲା।

एकदा एक: मकरः वृक्षमूलम् आगच्छत्। वानर: मकरस्य कृते पक्वानि फलानि अददात् । सः मकरः कानिचन फलानि अखादत् । कानिचन भार्याया: कृते गृहम् अनयत्। तस्य भार्या मकरं प्रति अकथयत् – “अहो जम्बुफलानि मधुराणि । य: प्रतिदिनं मधुराणि फलानि खादति तस्य हृदयम् अवश्यं मधुरम् । भो पतिदेव ! अहं तस्य वानरस्य हृदयम् इच्छामि।’’

ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥୀ :

• ଏକଦା – ଥରେ।
• ମକରଃ – କୁମ୍ଭୀର।
• ଆଗଚ୍ଛତ୍ – ଆସିଲା।
• ମକରସ୍ୟ କୃତେ – କୁମ୍ଭୀର ପାଇଁ।
• ପକ୍ବାନି ଫଳାନି – ପାଚିଲା ଫଳ ।
• ଅଦଦାତ୍ – ଦେଉଥିଲେ।
• କାନିଚନ – କେତେକ ।
• ଭାର୍ଯ୍ୟାୟା-କୃତେ – ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ ପାଇଁ ।
• ଅନୟତ୍ – ନେଇଥିଲା।
• ପ୍ରତି – ଆଡ଼କୁ।
• ଅହୋ ! – ଆହେ ।
• ପ୍ରତିଦିନଂ – ନିତିଦିନ ।
• ଅବଶ୍ୟମ୍ – ନିଶ୍ଚୟ ।

ଅର୍ଥ :
ଥରେ ଗୋଟିଏ କୁମ୍ଭୀର ଗଛମୂଳକୁ ଆସିଲା। ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ କୁମ୍ଭୀର ପାଚିଲା ଫଳ ଦେଲା। ସେ କୁମ୍ଭୀର କେତେକ ଫଳ ଖାଇଲା। କେତେକ ଫଳ ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ ପାଇଁ ଘରକୁ ନେଲା। ତା’ର ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ କୁମ୍ଭୀରକୁ କହିଲା – ‘ ଆହେ ଜାମୁକୋଳି କେତେ ମିଠା। ଯିଏ ପ୍ରତିଦିନ ମିଠା ଫଳ ଖାଏ ତା’ର ହୃଦୟ ନିଶ୍ଚୟ ମଧୁର । ହେ ସ୍ଵାମୀ ! ମୁଁ ସେହି ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ର ହୃଦୟ ଇଚ୍ଛାକରୁଛି।

अपरस्मिन् दिवेसे मकरः पुनः वृक्षमूलम् आगच्छत्। स: वानरं प्रति अकथयत् – “मित्र ! मम भार्या तव निमन्त्रणम् अकरोत्। आगच्छ मम पृष्ठदेशे उपविश। अहं तत्र त्वां नयामि ।

ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥୀ :

• ପୁନଃ – ପୁଣି।
• ବାନରଂ – ମାଙ୍କଡ଼କୁ।
• ତବ – ତୁମର।
• ପୃଷ୍ଠଦେଶେ – ପିଠିରେ।
• ଉପବିଶ – ବସ ।
• ତତ୍ର – ସେଠାକୁ
• ବଂ – ତୁମକୁ।

ଅର୍ଥ :
ଅନ୍ୟ ଏକ ଦିନ କୁମ୍ଭୀର ପୁନଶ୍ଚ ଗଛମୂଳକୁ ଆସିଲା। ସେ ମାଙ୍କଡ଼କୁ କହିଲା – ‘ ବନ୍ଧୁ ! ମୋ ଭାର୍ଯ୍ୟା ତୁମକୁ ନିମନ୍ତ୍ରଣ କରିଛି । ଆସ ମୋର ପିଠିରେ ବସ । ମୁଁ ତୁମକୁ ସେଠାକୁ ନେଇଯିବି।

वानरः मकरपृष्ठम् आरोहत्। नदीमध्ये मकर: अवदत् – “मित्र ! सत्यं वदामि । मम भार्या तव हृदयम् इच्छति ।”
ବାନରଃ ମକରପୃଷ୍ଠମ୍ ଆରୋହିତ୍। ନଦୀମଧେ ମକରଃ ଓଁ ଅବଦତ୍ – ‘ ମିତ୍ର ! ସତ୍ୟ ବଦାମି। ମମ ଭାର୍ଯ୍ୟା ତବ ହୃଦୟମ୍ ଇଚ୍ଛତି।’’

ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥୀ :

• ଆରୋହତ୍ – ଚଢ଼ିଲା।
• ଅବଦତ୍ – କହିଲା।
• ବଦାମି – କହୁଛି ।
• ଇଚ୍ଛତି – ଚାହୁଁଛି।

ଅର୍ଥ :
ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ କୁମ୍ଭୀର ପିଠିରେ ଚଢ଼ିଲା। ନଈ ମଝିରେ କୁମ୍ଭୀର କହିଲା – ‘ ବନ୍ଧୁ ! ସତ କହୁଛି । ମୋ ସ୍ତ୍ରୀ ତୁମ ହୃଦୟ ଚାହୁଁଛି।

वानर: चकित: अभवत्, इष्टम् अस्मरत्। विचारम् अकरोत् । पुनः अकथयत् – ‘‘मम प्रिय मित्र ! पूर्वं कथं न अवदत् ? हृदयं वृक्षस्य कोटरे अस्ति। अधुना तत्र मां नय । तत् आनयामि । अत्र पुनः आगच्छाव:।’

ବାନରଃ ଚକିତଃ ଅଭବତ୍, ଇଷ୍ଟମ୍ ଅସ୍ମରତ୍। ବିଚାରମ୍ ଅକରୋତ୍ । ପୁନଃ ଅକଥୟତ୍ – ‘ମମ ପ୍ରିୟ ମିତ୍ର ! ପୂର୍ବ କରଂ
ନ ଅବଦତ୍ ? ହୃଦୟଂ ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ କୋଟରେ ଅସ୍ତି। ଅଧୁନା ତତ୍ର ମାଂ ନୟ। ତତ୍ ଆନୟାମି। ଅତ୍ର ପୁନଃ ଆଗଚ୍ଛାମଃ।

ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥୀ :

• ଚକିତଃ ଅଭବତ୍ – ଚମକି ପଡ଼ିଲା।
• ଇଷ୍ଟମ୍ – କୁଳଦେବତାଙ୍କୁ।
• ଅକଥୟତ୍ – କହିଲା ।
• କର୍ଡିଂ – କାହିଁକି ।
• କୋଟରେ – କୋରଡ଼ରେ।
• ଅଧୁନା – ବର୍ତ୍ତମାନ।
• ନୟ – ନିଅ।
• ତତ୍ – ତାହା।
• ଆଗଚ୍ଛାବ – ଆସିବା।

ଅର୍ଥ :
ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ ଚମକି ପଡ଼ିଲା, କୁଳଦେବତାଙ୍କୁ ସ୍ମରଣ କଲା। ବିଚାର କଲା। ପୁଣି କହିଲା – ‘‘ମୋର ପ୍ରିୟ ସାଙ୍ଗ ! ପୂର୍ବରୁ କାହିଁକି କହିଲୁ ନାହିଁ । ହୃଦୟ ଗଛ କୋରଡ଼ରେ ଅଛି। ବର୍ତ୍ତମାନ ମୁଁ ସେଠାକୁ ମୋତେ ନେଇଚାଲ । ତାହା ଆଣିବି । ଏଠାକୁ ପୁଣି ଆସିବା।
ततः मकरः वानरं वृक्षमूलम् अनयत् । झटिति वानरः वृक्षस्य उपरि आगच्छत् । मूर्ख : मकरः निराशः अभवत्। वानरः कौशलेन स्वप्राणान् अरक्षत् ।
ତତଃ ମକରଃ ବାନରଂ ବୃକ୍ଷମୂଳମ୍ ଅନୟତ୍। ଝଟିତି ବାନରଃ ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ ଉପରି ଆଗଚ୍ଛତ୍ । ମୂର୍ଖ ମକରଃ ନିରାଶଃ ଅଭବତ୍। ବାନରଃ କୌଶଳେନ ସ୍ଵପ୍ରାଣାନ୍ ଅରକ୍ଷତ୍ ।

ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥୀ :

• ତତଃ – ତାପରେ।
• ଅନୟତ୍ – ନେଲା।
• ଝଟିତି – ଶୀଘ୍ର ।
• ଉପରି – ଉପରକୁ।
• ନିରାଶଃ – ହତାଶଃ – ହତାଶ।
• ସ୍ଵପ୍ରାଣାନ୍ – ନିଜ ଜୀବନକୁ।
• ଅରକ୍ଷତ – ରକ୍ଷାକଲା।

ଅର୍ଥ :
ତା’ପରେ କୁମ୍ଭୀର ମାଙ୍କଡ଼କୁ ଗଛମୂଳକୁ ଆଣିଲା। ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ ଝିଅଟି ଗଛ ଉପରକୁ ଋଲିଗଲା। ମୂର୍ଖ କୁମ୍ଭୀର ହତାଶ ହେଲା । ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ କୌଶଳରେ ନିଜ ଜୀବନ ରକ୍ଷାକଲା।

शब्दार्थ (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 8 Naya Theory of Knowledge Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 8 Question Answer Naya Theory of Knowledge

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What is Vyapti?
Answer:
Vyapti is an unconditional and invariable relation of concomitance between the middle and the major terms. For example; we infer fire (Sadhya) in the hill (Paksa) by seeing smoke (hetu) in the hill (Paksa) and knowing the invariable relation of concomitance between smoke (hetu) and fire (Sadhya).

Question 2.
What Is called Samavyapti?
Answer:
Vyapti between two terms of equal extension called as Samavyapti. It holds on between two terms that are co-extensive and hence from one term we may infer the other.

Question 3.
What is called Asamavyapti?
Answer:
Vyapti between two terms of unequal extension is called as Asamavyapti or Visamavyapti. It is a non-equipollent concomitance between two terms in which from one of the terms, we may infer the other, but not vice versa.

Question 4.
What is purvavat inference?
Answer:
In an inference if we infer an unperceived effect from the perceived cause that is called purvavat inferene. Example – If we infer the future rain from the dark clouds in the sky that is called purvavat inference.

Question 5.
What is called Sasavat inference?
Answer:
When we infer the unperceived cause from the perceived effect that is called sesavat inference. Example- If we infer the past rain from the perception of the muddy streets is called sesavat inference.

Question 6.
What is called Samanyatodrasta?
Answer:
When we infer one thing from the other not because they are causally related but because they are found to be uniformly related in our experience that is called Samanyatodrsta. For. example; on seeing the different positions of the hour’s hand of a watch, we infer that it is moving even though the motion is not berceived by us.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
What are the conditions on which Nyaya-inference is depend?
Answer:
Nyaya inference is based on two conditions. They are :
(i) Paksadharmata: Paksadharmata is the knowledge of the hetu in the Paksa.
(ii) Lingaparamarsa: Lingaparamarsa is the knowledge of the linga which is related to the Sadhya through the knowledge of Paksadharmata.

Question 2.
What is called Parathanuman inference?
Answer:
Parathanumana means making an inference for others. Here the argument is presented in a logical order. This argument consists of five constituent parts. It is Pachavayavi, Nyaya. These are; Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya, Nigamana.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Purvavat inference and Sasavat inference.
Answer:
(i) When we infer the unperceived effect from the perceived cause that is called purvavat inference.
Example:
When we infer the future rain from the perceived dark clouds in the sky is called Parvavat inference.

(ii) But when we infer the unperceived cause from the perceived effect that is called sesavat inference.
Example:
When we infer the past rain from the perception of the muddy streets is called sesavat inference.

Question 4.
Distinguish between Kevaihvayi and Kevaiavyatireki inference.
Answer:
(i) When the middle term is positively related with the major term that is called Kevalnvayi inference.
Example : Wherever there is smoke, there is fire. There is smoke in the hill. There is fire in the hill.

(ii) But when the middle term is negatively related with the major term that is called Kevalvyatireki inference.
Example : No non-fiery entities are smoky.
The hill is smokey.
∴ The hill is fiery

Question 5.
What is the fallacy of hetavabhasa?
Answer:
(i) When the middle term (hetu) appears to based on reason but actually it is not base don reason at that time we commit the fallacy of hetvabhasa.
(ii) There are five kinds of hetavabhasa. These are;
(1) Savyabhicara
(2) Virudha
(3) Satpratipakas
(4) Asidha
(5) Badhita

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers.

Question 1.
Explain Nyaya theory of perception.
Answer:
The sage Gotam is the founder of Nyaya school. Nyaya philosophy is atomistic pluralism andlogical realism. According to Nyaya, when mind subject comes in contact with objects at that time knowledge is possible. And that knowledge is called pramana. There are four pramanas these are –
(1) Perception
(2) Inference
(3) Comparison
(4) Testimony

Perception :
According to Gotam, “Perception is a non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of the sense organs with the object, which is not associated with a name and which is well defined.” But this definition of Gotam is too narrow, because it excludes the Yogic and divine perception where there is no contact between the sense organs and the object.

Hence Biswanath has defined perception as direct or immediate cognition which is not derived through the instrumentality of any other cognition. This definition of Biswanath includes both ordinary and extraordinary perception. According to him ordinary perception involves sense organs, objects, the self, the mind and their mutual contact.

Classification of Perception : Firstly perception is divided into two types, such as-

1. Indeterminate perception (Nirvikalpa Pratyaksa)
2. Determinate Perception (Savikalpa Pratyaksa)

These are not two different kinds but they are the two stages of the same perceptual knowledge. According to Gotam, perception is associated with a name and determinate perception is well defined. Indeterminate perception is the immediate apprehension or experience which is undifferentiated and non-relation. It is free from assimilation and discrimination, analysis and synthesis. But determinate perception is a mediate, differentiated relational mode of consciousness consists the result of assimilation and discrimination.

Secondly, perception is of two types, such as-
1. Ordinary and
2. Extraordinary perception.

(i) Ordinary Perception : When the sense organs come in contact with the object in the usual way that is called ordinary perception. Ordinary perception is a two types such as external ordinary perception and internal ordinary perception. External ordinary perception is of five types, such as visual, tactical, auditory, yastetory, olfactory. But internal ordinary perception is the feeling of pleasure, pain love, affection.

(ii) Extraordinary Perception : When the different sense organs come in contact with the object in an unusual way that is called extraordinary perception. It is of three types, such as :
(1) Perception of class or (Samanya laksana)
(2) Perception of complication (jnana laksana)
(3) Intuitive perception (Yogaja laksana)

(1) Samanya laksana : It is possible not in anusual way but in an unusual way. It is the perception of universals cannot be seen. It can be known only through particulars. For example : The universal conwness can be known through particular cows.

(2) Janana laksana : It is the complicated perception through association. It is called perception by complication because it is based on past experience. Here an object is not directly presented to sense organs but it is possible due to the memory of past cognition. For example : When we perceive a rose from distance and say that how fragrance it is ? Here the fragance of a rose has already been experienced by us in the past.

(iii) Yogaja laksana : It is the intuitive and immediate perception of all objects past, present and future possessed by theYogins. The Yogins immediately know the Nirvana, Kaivalya, self-knowledge.

Question 2.
What is Vyapti? Discuss the various kinds of Vyapti with examples.
Answer:
Vyapti is an unconditional and invariable relation of concomitance between the middle and the major term. It is considered to be the logical ground of inference. In an inference, the conclusion which expresses a relation between the major (Sadhya) and the minor (Paksa) terms depends on the previous knowledge of Vyapti. For example – we infer fire in the hill by seeing smoke in the hill.

The relation ofVyapti is universal and materially true. It many be either positive or negative. In its positive relation, the major term (Sadhya) is universally affirmed wherever there is the middle term (hetu). For example, wherever there is smoke, there is fire. In its negative relation, there is a universal denial between Sadhya and hetu. For example; No non-fiery things are smoky.

Again it is said that Vyapti is the relation between Vyapya and Vyapaka. Vyapti may be of the following two types such as (1) Samavyapti (2) Asamavyapti

(1) Samavyapti: Vyapti between two terms of equal extension is called as Samavyapti. It holds on between two terms that are co-extensive and hence from one term we may infer the other. For example; the terms knowable and ‘namable’ are co-extensive. Whatever is knowable is nameable and whatever is nameable is knowable.

(2) Asamavyapti: Vyapti between two terms of unequal extension is called as Asamavyapti or Visamavyapti. It is a rion-equipollent concomitance between two terms in which from one of the terms, we may infer the other, but not vice-versa. For example; fire and smoke have a relation of non-equipollent concomitance. This is because from smoke we may infer fire, but not vice-versa.

Question 3.
Explain the role of Vyapti in Nyaya inference.
Answer:
Out of three parts of the Nyaya inference, \yapti plays an important place. It is the invariable and concomitance relation between the middle and major term. Without Vyapti, no inference is possible the three components of inference are;

1. The perception of the relation between the minor term (Paksa) and the middle term (Hetu).
2. The knowledge of the invariable relation of concomitance between the middle term (Hetu) and the major term (Sadhya)
3. The inference of the relation between the minor term (Paksa) and the major term (Sadhya).

Inference can be exemplified by clearly stating the above three components as under :

1. The perception of smoke in the hill.
2. Remembering the invariable relation of concomitance between smoke and fire.
3. Inferring fire is the hill.

For the possibility of Nyaya inference, the following two conditions need to be fulfilled.

1. Paksadharmata : Paksadharmata is the knowledge of hetu in Paksa. This is an important conditions as, for the Naiyayikas, the inference starts with the recognition of a mark i. e. the perception of hetu in Paksa.

2. Lingaparamarsa: The knowledge of Vyapti and that of Paksadharmata lead to the second condition, namely, lingapara-marsa. Lingaparamarsa is the knowledge of linga or hetu or the middle term (smoke) as related to Sadhya or the major term (fire) and as characterised by the knowledge of Paksadharmata. After Lingaparamarsa, we infer Sadhya (fire) is Paksa (hill).

Question 4.
Discuss the Naiyayikas method of ascertaining Vyapti.
Answer:
According to Nyaya, Vyapti is established by an uncondictory experiences of the unconditional relation of concomitance between two entities. He also says that Vyapti is not based on any a priori principle but it is purely based a posteriori principle. For ascertaining Vyapti the Nyaya thinkers have gives the following six steps.

(a) Anvaya : Anavaya means agreement of presence : In this step we observe the relation of agreement is presence between two things. For example, whereever there is smoke, there is fire.

(b) Vyatireka : Vyatireka means agreement in absence. Here we observe a relation of agreement in absence between two things. For example; where there is no fire, there is no smoke.

(c) Vyabhicharagraha: It means without any contrary instance. Here we mark that there is no contrary instance Where one of the entities is present without the other. For example; there is no case of smoke without fire.

(d) Upadhinirasa: Upadhinirasa means without any condition. Even though there is no contrary instance against the relation of agreement in presence or absence, yet the relation cannot be considered as Vyapti, unless and until it is unconditional.
For example : The driver drives and the bus runs. If the say that there is a relation of invariable concomitance between driving and running if the bus, then it would be wrong.

(e) Tarka: Tarka means indirect proof. It is otherwise called as reduction ad absurdum in western logic.Though Vyapti is unconditional and invariable relation between two things, still some doubt arise. In order to prove this true Nyaya has given the following argument.

Let the preposition “All smoky entities are fiery” be false. So its contradictory “some smoke entities are not fiery” must be true. This implies that there are cases of smoke without fire. But this is wrong. There is no smoke without fire. So if is said that some smoky entities are not fiery is false and all smoke entities are fiery is true, (f) Samanyalaksana Pratyaksa: It means the perception of class concept. Here Nyayikas said that Vyapti is based on the perception of the common quality that is necessarily present in all particular cases. Example : The essence ‘horseness’ is present in all horses.

Question 5.
Discuss the nature of Nyaya inference. Compare if with the western syllogism.
Answer:
According to Nyaya, out of 4 kinds of sources of knowledge; inference orAnumana is one of the important valid source of knowledge. Anumana means the knowledge; which is possible after some other kinds of knowledge.

Example: The hill is fiery because it smokes and whatever smokes is fiery. Here we pass from the perception of smoke in the hill to the knowledge of fire in it. Here there is an invariable relation exists between smoke and fire. Nyaya inference and western logic are nearly the same but-the way in which they are expressed differs.

(1) In both, there are three terms minor term (Paksa), major term (sadhya), middle term (hetu)
(2) Both consisted of members. Aristotles syllogism is consisted of three members like major premise, minor premise and conclusion.

ButNyaya’s logic is consisted of 5 members like Pratijna, hetu, udaharana, upanaya, nigamana. If we reject the last two members or first two members of the Nyaya syllogism then it will be same with Aristotles syllogism.

Pratijna is the first member of the Nyaya Syllogism. It is the proposition that ends to be proved in the conclusion. Hetu gives the reason behind the argument. Udaharana shows the relation between the assertion made in the first proposition and the reason in the second proposition.

In the fourth step Upanaya, Vyapti is applied to the case under consideration and the last step is Nigamana. It is the result or conclusion. From the above it is’said that Nyaya syllogism is both formally valid and materially true.

Question 6.
Explain tht different classification of Nyay’s inference.
Answer:
Nyaya school has classified inference from three differetit Standpoints, They are :
(1) Use of inference
(2) Nature of vyapti
(3) Method of ascertaining Vyapti

(1) From the standpoint of the use, inference is classified into 2 types
(a) Svarthanumana : Svarthanumana is inference for oneself. It has three steps.

• The hill is smoky (that which is perceive)
• Wherever there is smoke, there is fire (Vyapti)
• The hill is fiery (conclusion)

(b) Parathanumana: Parthanumana is inference for others. It is consisted of five members like Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya and Nigamana.

(2) From the standpoint of the nature of Vyapti, inference is of three types.Type are :
(a) Purvavat inference : It is a form of inference in which we infer an unperceived effect from the perceived cause. Example – By observing the darkclouds if we infer the future rain then this is called purvavat inference.

(b) Sesavat inference : It is a form of inference in which we infer the unperceived cause from the perceived effect. Example – The inference of a past rain from the perception of the muddy streets is the sesavat inference.

(c) Samanyatodrsta : When we infer onething to another thing only the basis of co-existence that is called Samanya todrsta. Example- On seeing the different positions of the hours hand of a watch, we infer that it is moving even though the motion is not perceived by us.

(3) From the stand point of the method of ascertaining vyapti, inference is of three types.
(a) Kevalanvayi: When the middle term is related with the major term positively that is called kevalanvayi inference.
Example = wherever there is smoke, there is fire.
There is smoke in the hill.
There is fire in the hill.

(b) Kevalavyatireki: When the middle term is related with the major term negatively that is called Kevalvyatireki inference.
Example : No Non-fiery entities are smoky.
The hill is smoky.
∴ The hill is fiery.

(c) Anvayavyatireki: When the middle term is related with the major term both positively that is called Anvayavyatireki inference.
The above two examples of Kevalanvayi and Kevalvyatireki are coming under the Anvayavyatireki inference.

Question 7.
What is the procedure of inference in Nyaya system?
Answer:
The Nyaya system, one of the classical Indian schools of philosophy, has a well- defined procedure of inference known as Anumana. In Nyaya, inference is considered a valid means of knowledge (Pramana), alongside perception (Pratyaksha) and verbal testimony (Sabda). Anumana plays a crucial role in the Nyaya epistemological framework, providing a systematic method for drawing conclusions or acquiring knowledge about the unpefceived or imperceptible.

Procedure of Inference (Anumana) in Nyaya:
1. Pratijna (Proposition): The inference process begins with the enunciation of a proposition or statement. This proposition serves as the basis for the subsequent inference. The Pratijna is the initial claim that the reasoner intends to establish. Example: “The mountain has fire.”

2. Hetu (Reason) : The Hetu is the reason or middle term that connects the subject of the proposition with the predicate. It is the logical ground or evidence that supports the Pratijna. Example: “Because there is smoke on the mountain.”

3. Udaharana (Example/Illustration) : The Udaharana provides an example or illustration of the connection between the reason (Hetu) and the proposition (Pratijna). It demonstrates instances where the presence of the Hetu is invariably associated with the presence of the Pratijna. Example: “In the kitchen, where there is smoke (Hetu), there is fire (Pratijna).”

4. Upanaya (Application) : Upanaya involves the application of the example to the subject of the proposition. It highlights the parallel between the example (Udaharana) and the subject of the inference, emphasizing the universal connection between the reason and the proposition. Example: “Similarly, on the mountain where there is smoke (Hetu), there is fire (Pratijna).”

5. Nigamana (Conclusion) : The Nigamana is the conclusive statement that affirms the Pratijna based on the provided reasons. It summarizes the inference drawn from the presented evidence. Example: “Therefore, the mountain has fire.”

6. Vyapti (Universal Concomitance) : Vyapti is the principle of universal concomitance, asserting that wherever the Hetu is present, the Pratijna will also be present. Vyapti establishes an invariable connection between the reason and the proposition. Example : “Wherever there is smoke, there is fire.”

7. Tarka (Criticisms and Counterarguments) : The Nyaya system recognizes the importance of critical examination and anticipates potential objections or counterarguments. Tarka involves considering alternative explanations or challenges to the inference and responding to them.

8. Siddhanta (Established Conclusion) : Siddhanta represents the final, established conclusion that results from a sound and valid inference. A Siddhanta is accepted when the inference satisfies all the necessary conditions, including the presence of the Hetu in the subject.

Conditions for a Valid Inference (Hetvabhasa) :
The Nyaya system emphasizes the importance of avoiding fallacies or incorrect inferences known as Hetvabhasa. A valid inference must satisfy the following conditions :

1. Sadhya (Probandum) : The Pratijna or the proposition must be something to be proved or established. It is the subject of the inference.
2. Hetu (Reason) : The Hetu or the middle term must be present wherever the Pratijna is present and absent wherever the Pratijna is absent. This is known as Vyapti.
3. Vyapti (Universal Concomitance) : There must be a universal concomitance between the reason (Hetu) and the proposition (Pratijna). This means that the presence of the Hetu is always associated with the presence of the Pratijna.
4. Asamavayi (Non-coexistence of the Reason with the Opposite of the Proposition) : The Hetu should not be present where the opposite of the Pratijna is present. In other words, the Hetu should not be found in instances where the Pratijna is absent.
5. Savvyabhicara (Non-deviation): The Hetu must not undergo any variations or exceptions. It should consistently exhibit a uniform relationship with the Pratijna.

Example of Nyaya Inference : Let’s consider an example:

1. Pratijna (Proposition) : “The pot is hot.”
2. Hetu (Reason) : “Because it has smoke.”
3. Udaharana (Example/Illustration) : “In the kitchen, where there is smoke, there is fire.”
4. Upanaya (Application) : “Similarly, in the pot where there is smoke, there is heat.”
5. Nigamana (Conclusion) : “Therefore, the pot is hot.”
6. Vyapti (Universal Concomitance) : “Wherever there is smoke, there is fire.”

In this example, the presence of smoke (Hetu) is invariably associated with the presence of fire (Pratijna) based on the example provided. The inference is valid when the conditions of Hetvabhasa are met, ensuring a logical and sound connection between the reason and the proposition.

Conclusion :
The Nyaya system’s procedure of inference, Anumana, is a systematic and rigorous method that follows a structured sequence of steps to establish knowledge about unperceived or imperceptible phenomena. Through careful analysis, logical reasoning, and the avoidance of fallacies, Nyaya inference contributes to the epistemological foundation of this classical Indian philosophical tradition. The adherence to conditions such as Vyapti ensures the reliability and validity of inferences drawn within the Nyaya framework.

Question 8.
Compare the Nyaya theory of inference with that of the Western method.
Answer:
The Nyaya theory of inference, as part of classical Indian philosophy, shares some similarities with Western methods of inference, particularly within the broader context of logical reasoning. However, there are notable differences in terms of foundational principles, epistemological frameworks, and the treatment of specific aspects of inference. A comparison between the Nyaya theory of inference and the Western method highlights both shared elements and distinct philosophical approaches.

Nyaya Theory of Inference :
1. Epistemological Context : Nyaya is one of the classical Indian schools of philosophy that places a strong emphasis on epistemology (theory of knowledge). In Nyaya, inference (Anumana) is considered a valid means of knowledge (Pramana), alongside perception (Pratyaksha) and verbal testimony (Sabda).

2. Components of Inference : Nyaya’s inference involves specific components, including Pratijna (proposition), Hetu (reason), Udaharana (example/illustration), Upanaya (application), Nigamana (conclusion), Vyapti (universal concomitance), Tarka (criticisms), and Siddhanta (established conclusion).

3. Conditions for Valid Inference (Hetvabhasa) : Nyaya emphasizes the importance of avoiding fallacies or incorrect inferences known as Hetvabhasa. A valid inference must satisfy conditions such as Sadhya (probandum), Hetu (reason), Vyapti (universal concomitance), Asamavayi (non-coexistence), and Sawyabhicara (non-deviation).

4. Inferential Knowledge (Anumiti) : Nyaya distinguishes between direct perception (Pratyaksha) and inferential knowledge (Anumiti). While direct perception involves immediate awareness of an object, inferential knowledge is derived through reasoning based on observed evidence.

Western Method of Inference :

1. Philosophical Traditions : Western philosophy encompasses a variety of traditions, including ancient Greek, medieval, modem, and contemporary philosophy. Within these traditions, various approaches to inference- and reasoning have been developed.

2. Epistemological Context: Western philosophy has explored epistemology extensively, with thinker’s like Aristotle, Descartes, Locke, and Hume contributing to discussions on the nature and sources of knowledge. Unlike Nyaya, Western philosophy may not explicitly categorize inference as a separate means of knowledge.

3. Logical Reasoning : Western methods of inference often rely on principles of formal and informal logic. Deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning, and abductive reasoning are fundamental to Western philosophical traditions. Logical systems, such as propositional and predicate logic, are extensively used.

4. Scientific Method : The Western method of inference has been heavily influenced by the development of the scientific method. Scientific inference involves systematic observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and the drawing of conclusions based cm empirical evidence. This method is widely employed in natural and social sciences.

5. Empirical Emphasis: While Nyaya acknowledges the importance of empirical evidence, the Western method, especially in the scientific context, places a strong emphasis on empirical observation and experimentation. Empirical validation is a central criterion for establishing the validity of inferences.

Shared Elements :
1. Logical Reasoning : Both the Nyaya theory of inference and Western methods involve logical reasoning. They emphasize the importance of valid and sound inference, ensuring that conclusions are drawn based on logical principles.

2. Critique and Counterarguments : Both traditions recognize the importance of critique and counterarguments. In Nyaya, Tarka involves considering alternative explanations or challenges to the inference and responding to them. Similarly, Western philosophical traditions engage in critical analysis and dialectical reasoning.

3. Concern for Fallacies : Both’Nyaya and Western philosophical traditions are concerned with avoiding fallacies in reasoning. Whether labeled as Hetvabhasa in Nyaya or recognized as logical fallacies in Western philosophy, there is a shared commitment to identifying and rectifying incorrect inferences.

Distinct Elements :

1. Cultural and Historical Context: Nyaya arises within the context of classical Indian philosophy, which is influenced by its own cultural and linguistic traditions. Western methods of inference emerge within diverse cultural, linguistic, and historical contexts, resulting in differences in philosophical approaches.

2. Epistemological Emphasis : Nyaya places a specific emphasis on delineating different means of knowledge, including inference, perception, and testimony. In Western philosophy, while epistemology is a central concern, there may not be the same explicit categorization of various pramanas or means of knowledge.
3. Formal Logic vs. Empirical Validation : While both traditions engage in logical reasoning, the Western method, especially in the scientific context, places a greater emphasis on empirical validation. The scientific method, rooted in Western philosophical traditions, involves systematic observation and experimentation to test hypotheses and draw conclusions based on empirical evidence.

Conclusion :
The Nyaya theory of inference and Western methods share a common commitment to logical reasoning, critique, and the avoidance of fallacies. However, they diverge in terms of their epistemological foundations, cultural contexts, and the degree of emphasis on empirical validation. Nyaya’s explicit categorization of inference as a means of knowledge, along with its detailed components and conditions, reflects its unique contribution to the broader landscape of philosophical inquiry.

On the other hand, Western methods, shaped by diverse philosophical traditions, place a strong emphasis on formal and empirical reasoning, particularly within the scientific domain. A comparative analysis illuminates both the shared principles and the distinctive characteristics of these two philosophical approaches to inference.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
For Nyaya school knowledge is
(i) Cognition of objects
(ii) Apprehension of objects
(iii) Consciousness of objects
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 2.
A vlid presentative knowledge is called –
(i) Prama
(ii) Aprama
(iii) Pramana
(iv) Pratyaksa
Answer:
(i) Prama

Question 3.
Nyana theory of knowledge is –
(i) Realistic
(ii) Pragmatic
(iii) Both realistic and pragmatic
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Both realistic and pragmatic

Question 4.
How many kinds of external perception do we have?
(i) Three
(ii) Four
(iii) Five
(iv) Six
Answer:
(iii) Five

Question 5.
Which of the following constitutes Laukika Pratyaksa?
(i) Nirvikalpa Pratyaksa
(ii) Savikalpa Pratyaksa
(iii) Pratyabhijna
(iv) All of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 6.
Which of the following is the first stage of perception?
(i) Nirvikalpa
(ii) Savikalpa
(iii) Pratyabhijna
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Nirvikalpa

Question 7.
Which of the following is not Alaukika Pratyaksa?
(i) Samanyalaksana
(ii) Jnana Laksana
(iii) Yogaja Laksana
(iv) Pratyabhijna
Answer:
(iv) Pratyabhijna

Question 8.
The perception of class essence is
(i) Samanya Laksana
(ii) Jnana Laksana
(iii) Yogaja Laksana
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Samanya Laksana

Question 9.
The perception due to the contact of the mind with the psychological states, emotions, feelings etc. is –
(i) External perception
(ii) Internal perception
(iii) Visual perception
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) C

Question 10.
Perception by the sense-organs in the usual way is called
(i) Ordinary perception
(ii) Yogaja perception
(iii) Samanya Laksaria perception
(iv) Jnana Laksana Perception
Answer:
(i) Ordinary perception

Question 11.
The relation of Vypti is
(i) Only positive
(ii) Only negative
(iii) Either positive or negative
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Either positive or negative

Question 12.
Vyapti is an unconditional, invariable relation between the
(i) Middle and major term
(ii) Major and minor term
(iii) Middle and minor tenTh
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(I) Middle and major term

Question 13.
Hetu corresponds to the
(i) Major
(ii) Minor term
(iii) Middle term
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Middle term

Question 14.
Panchakarani is the member of
(i) Naiyikas
(ii) Buddhists
(iii) Vedantins
(iv) None ‘of’ these
Answer:
(ii) Buddhists

Question 15.
All kins of hetvabhasa are:
(i) Formal fa11acie
(ii) Informal fallacies
(iii) Both formal and informal
(iv) Material fallacies
Answer:
(iv) Material fallacies

Question 16.
Paksadharmata is what kind of ground of inference?
(i) Causal
(ii) Logical
(iii) Psychological
(iv) Inferential
Answer:
(iii) Psychological

Question 17.
Whereever there is smoke, there is fire, is an example of?
(i) Vyatiriki
(ii) Anvya
(iii) Tarka
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Anvya

Question 18.
Which one of the following is not a member of Nayaya Syllogism?
(i) Upanaya
(ii) Pratijina
(iii) Hetu
(iv) Paksa
Answer:
(iv) Paksa

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
Nyaya is a system of logical _______.
Answer:
Realism

Question 2.
_______ Perception is called the intuitive and immediate perception of all objects of past, present and future.
Answer:
Yogaja

Question 3.
Any invalid presentative knowledge is called as _______ .
Answer:
Aprama

Question 4.
Perception is a _______ source of knowledge.
Answer:
Perception

Question 5.
Savikalpa Pratyaksa is _______ perception.
Answer:
Determinate

Question 6.
There are _______ kinds of Alaukika Pratyaksa.
Answer:
Three

Question 7.
There are _______ distinctions or modes of Laukika Pratyaksa.
Answer:
Three

Question 8.
_______ is cognition of object as something cognised earlier.
Answer:
Pratyabhijina

Question 9.
The intuitive perception of objects through one’s meditative powers is _______ .
Answer:
Yogaja Pratyaksa

Question 10.
The usual contact of the senses with their respective objects is _______ .
Answer:
Pratyaksa

Question 11.
The perception of ‘Cowness’ in perceiving a cow is _______ Pratyaksa.
Answer:
Samanya Laksana

Question 12.
For the Nyaya School of thought, the most important source of knowledge is _______ .
Answer:
Inference

Question 13.
The western syllogism involves _______ number of proposition.
Answer:
Three

Question 14.
Inference is an _______ source of knowledge.
Answer:
Indirect

Question 15.
In inference we pass from the seen to _______ .
Answer:
Unseen

Question 16.
Anumana in English as _______ .
Answer:
Inference

Question 17.
_______ is the knowledge that follows from some other knowledge.
Answer:
Inference

Question 18.
Nyaya Syllogism involves _______ number of propositions.
Answer:
Five

Question 19.
Nyaya inference involves _______ number of terms.
Answer:
Three

Question 20.
From the standpoint of purpose, Nyaya inference may be either  _______ or _______ .
Answer:
Svarthanumana, Parethanumana

Question 21.
The inference for oneself is called _______ .
Answer:
Svarthanumana

Question 22.
There exists an invariable relations of concommittance between smoke and _______ .
Answer:
Fire

Question 23.
_______ is the relation of pervasion.
Answer:
Vyapti

Question 24.
Vyapti is of two types, namely _______ and _______ .
Answer:
Samavyapti, Asamavyapti

Question 25.
In ______ inference, on perceiving the antecedent cause, we infer the consequent effect.
Answer:
Purvavant

Question 26.
In _______ inference, on perceiving the consequent effect, we infer the antecedent cause.
Answer:
Sesavat

Question 27.
In inference, Vyapti doesnot depend on the _______ casual link but depends on co-existence.
Answer:
Samanatodrasta

Question 28.
In kevalanvayi inference, vyapti is based on the _______ instances of the relation of concommittance between the middle and the major term.

Question 29.
In Kevalavyatireki inference, Vyipti is based on the instances on the _______ relation of concommittance between the middle and the major term.
Answer:
Negative.

Question 30.
In _______ inference, Vyapti is based on both the positive and negative instances of the relation of concommittance between the middle and the major term.
Answer:
Anvayavyatireki.

Question 31.
There are _______ steps in scientific method.
Answer:
Five

Question 32.
There are _______ terms in Nyaya inference.
Answer:
Three

Question 33.
There are _______ kinds of inference from the stand point of purpose.
Answer:
Two

Question 34.
Paksa corresponds to _______ term.
Answer:
Minor

Question 35.
Sadhya corresponds to _______ term.
Answer:
Major

Question 36.
The conclusion of Nyaya inference is called _______ .
Answer:
Nigamana .

Question 37.
A Vyapti between two terms of equal extension is called _______ .
Answer:
Samavyapti

Question 38.
Inference is an _______.
Answer:
Indirect

Question 39.
Nyaya inference involves _______ kinds of propositions.
Answer:
Five

Question 40.
In Nyaya inference the minor term is called _______ .
Answer:
Paksa

Question 41.
In Nyaya inference, the major terms is called _______ .
Answer:
Sadhya

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Prama is the wrong cognition of objects.
Answer:
Prama is the right congnition of objects.

Question 2.
Perception is a false cognition
Answer:
Perception is a right cognition

Question 3.
Perception is indeterminate
Answer:
Perception is determinate.

Question 4.
A clear-cut perception of objects with their characteristics is Nirvikalpa Pratyaksa.
Answer:
A clear-cut perception of objects with their chracteristics is savikalpa pratyaksa.

Question 5.
Perception may be mediate and indirect.
Answer:
Perception is always immediate and direct.

Question 6.
The relation of vyapti holds on between the middle and minor terms.
Answer:
The relation of vyapti holds on between the middle and major terms

Question 7.
Hetu is the major term
Answer:
Hetu is the middle term.

Question 8.
The relation of vyapti is formally true
Answer:
The relation of vyapti is materially true

Question 9.
Vyapti is apriori
Answer:
Vyapti is aposteriori

Question 10.
The Nyaya procedure for assertaining vyapti consists of five steps.
Answer:
The Nyaya procedure for assertaining vyapti consists of six steps.

Question 11.
Upadhinirasa means without any contrary instance.
Answer:
Upadhinirasa means without condition.

Question 12.
Vyapti is the unconditional invariable concomitance between two syllogism.
Answer:
Vyapti is the unconditional invariable concomitance between two events.

Question 13.
Paksadharmata is the knowledge of Tarka in the Paksa.
Answer:
Paksadharmata is the knowledge of hetu in Paksa.

Question 14.
Tarka means direct proof.
Answer:
Tarka means indirect proof.

Question 15.
Hentu is also called Paksa.
Answer:
Hetu is also called Linga Vyapti is a particular relation.
Answer:
Vyapti is a universal relation.

Question 16.
Vyapti is only formally true.
Answer:
Vyapti is both formally and materially true.

Question 17.
The relation of Vyapti holds on between the middle and the minor terms.
Answer:
The relation of Vyapti holds on between the middle and the major terms.

Question 18.
Hetu is the major term.
Answer:
Hetu is the middle term.

Question 19.
Vyapti is a priori.
Answer:
Vyapti is a posteriori.

Question 20.
Nyaya syllogism is consisted of three memers.
Answer:
Nyaya syllogism is consisted of five members

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
Is perception direct or indirect knowledge.
Answer:
Direct.

Question 2.
Is inference direct or indirect knowledge,
Answer:
Indirect.

Question 3.
What is perception by association with some past cognition called?
Answer:
Jnanalaksana

Question 4.
What is the usual contact of the senses with their objects called?
Answer:
Laukika Pratyaksa

Question 5.
What is Vyapti between two terms of equal extension called?
Answer:
Samavyapti

Question 6.
Whether vyapti is conditional or unconditional?
Answer:
Unconditional

Question 7.
What is perceived in Samanya Laksana Pratyaksa?
Answer:
Class essence.

Question 8.
Name the Nyaya inference that corresponds to nulls method of agreement.
Answer:
Kevalanvayi

Question 9.
Name the Nyaya inferene in which the middle term is both positively and negatively related with the major term.
Answer:
Anvyavyatireki

Question 10.
How many kinds of Hetvabhasado we have?
Answer:
Five

Question 11.
Name the fallacy of non = inferenctially contradicted middle.
Answer:
Badhita

Question 12.
Who is the founder of Nyaya school?
Answer:
Gautama

Question 13.
How many kinds of ordinary perception are there?
Answer:
Two

Question 14.
Name the fallacy of unproved middle.
Answer:
Asidha

Question 15.
Name the Nyaya inference in which no contrary instance is found.
Answer:
Kevalavyatireki

Question 16.
What is the unconditional, invariable relation between two events called?
Answer:
Vyapti

Question 17.
To which term hetu corresponds in Aristotelean syllogism?
Answer:
Middle

Question 18.
What is Vyapti between two terms of equal extension called?
Answer:
Samavyapti

Question 19.
If what is Vyapti the logical ground?
Answer:
Anumana

Question 20.
Whether Vyapti is conditional or unconditional?
Answer:
Unconditional

Question 21.
What is the inference for one self called?
Answer:
Svarthanumana

Question 22.
What is the inference for others called?
Answer:
Parathaumana

Question 23.
How many kinds of Hetvabhasa do we have?
Answer:
Five.

Odisha State Board BSE Odisha 7th Class Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 19 ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟଃ Textbook Exercise Questions and Answers.

BSE Odisha Class 7 Sanskrit Solutions Chapter 19 ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟଃ

१. उत्तराणि लिखतु
(ଉତ୍ତରାଣି ଲିଖତୁ) ଉତ୍ତର ଲେଖନ୍ତୁ:

(क) विद्यालयम् अभितः कः गच्छति ?
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଅଭିତଃ କଃ ଗଚ୍ଛତି ?
(ସ୍କୁଲ ଆଗରେ କିଏ ଯାଉଛି ?)
उत्तर:
विद्यालयम् अभित: छात्र: गच्छति ।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଅଭିତଃ ଛାତ୍ରୀ ଗଚ୍ଛତି।

(ख) प्राचीरं कुत्र अस्ति ?
ପ୍ରାଚୀରଂ କୁତ୍ର ଅସ୍ତି ?
(ପାଚେରୀ କେଉଁଠାରେ ଅଛି ? )
उत्तर:
विद्यालयं परितः प्राचीरम् अस्ति ।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟଂ ପରିତଃ ପ୍ରାଚୀରମ୍ ଅସ୍ଥି।

(ग) पुष्पवाटिका कुत्र अस्ति ?
ପୁଷ୍ପବାଟିକା କୁତ୍ର ଅସ୍ତି ?
(ଫୁଲବଗିର କେଉଁଠି ଅଛି ?)
उत्तर:
विद्यालयम् उभयतः पुष्पवाटिकाअस्ति।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଉଭୟତଃ ପୁଷ୍ପବାଟିକା ଅସ୍ତି।

(घ) वाटिकां सर्वतः के सन्ति ?
ବାଟିକାଂ ସର୍ବତଃ କେ ସନ୍ତି ?
(ବଗିପ୍ଟର ସବୁଆଡ଼େ କ’ଣ ଅଛି ?)
उत्तर:
वाटिकां सर्वतः वृक्षाः सन्ति ।
ବାଟିକାଂ ସର୍ବତଃ ବୃକ୍ଷା ସନ୍ତି।

(ङ) बालक: कुत्र उपविष्ट:?
ବାଳକଃ କୁତ୍ର ଉପବିଷ୍ଟ ?
(ବାଳକ କେଉଁଠି ବସିଛି ?)
उत्तर:
बालक: वृक्षस्य अध: उपविष्टः।
ବାଳକ ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ ଅଧଃ ଉପବିଷ୍ଟ ।

२. कोष्ठकस्थपदै: वाक्यानि रचयतु ।
(କୋଷ୍ଠକସୁପଦଃ ବାକ୍ୟାନି ରଚୟତୁ।)

(क) विद्यालयम् अभितः छात्रः गच्छति।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଅଭିତଃ ଛାତ୍ରୀ ଗଛତି।

(ख) विद्यालयम् उभयतः पुष्पवाटिका।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଉଭୟତଃ ପୁଷ୍ପବାଟିକା।

(ग) विद्यालयं परितः प्राचीरम् अस्ति ।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟଂ ପରିତଃ ପ୍ରାଚୀରମ୍ ଅସ୍ତି।

३. वाक्यानि रचयतु।
(ବାକ୍ୟାନି ରଚୟତୁ।)

उच्चै :, पुनः, तूष्पीम्, परितः, अभितः
उत्तर:
उच्चै: (ଉଚ୍ଚୈଃ) – उच्चै: पाठस्य अभ्यासं करोतु ।
ଉଚ୍ଚୈଃ ପାଠସ୍ୟ ଅଭ୍ୟାସଂ କରୋତୁ।

पुनः (ପୁନଃ) – पुनः विषयं पठतु।
ପୁନଃ ବିଷୟଂ ପଠତୁ।

तूष्णीम् (ତୂଷ୍ଣୀମ୍)- श्रेण्याः अन्तः तूष्णीं तिष्ठतु ।
ଶ୍ରେଣ୍ୟା ଅନ୍ତଃ ତୂଷ୍ଣୀ ତିଷ୍ଠତୁ।

परितः (ପରିତଃ) – विद्यालयं परितः प्राचीरम् अस्ति।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟଂ ପରିତଃ ପ୍ରାଚୀରମ୍ ଅସ୍ତି।

अभितः (ଅଭିତଃ) – विद्यालयम् अभितः छात्र: गच्छति।
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଅଭିତଃ ଛାତ୍ର ଗଚ୍ଛତି।

४. अव्ययपदानि निर्वाचयतु ।
(ଅବ୍ୟୟପଦାନି ନିର୍ବାଚୟତୁ।)

पठतु, नमः, अधः, पुनः, तिष्ठतु, तूष्णीम्
उत्तर:
अधः ( ଅଧଃ), पुनः (ପୁନଃ), तूष्पीम् (ତୂଷ୍ଣୀମ୍)

अतिरिक्त प्रश्नोत्तरम्
(ଅତିରିକ୍ତ ପ୍ରଶ୍ନୋତ୍ତରମ୍)

१. मातृभाषया अनुवादं कुरुत।

(क) विद्यालयः ज्ञानमन्दिरं भवति।
उत्तर:
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ଜ୍ଞାନର ମନ୍ଦିର ଅଟେ ।

(ख) स: भगिन्या सह गच्छति।
उत्तर:
ସେ ଭଉଣୀ ସହିତ ଯାଉଛି ।

(ग) विद्यालयम् उभयतः पुष्पवाटिका।
उत्तर:
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ଦୁଇ ପଟେ ଫୁଲବଗିଚା ।

(घ) विद्यालये गुरुः अस्ति।
उत्तर:
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟରେ ଗୁରୁ ଅଛନ୍ତି |

(ङ) कक्षायां नीचै: वदतु।
उत्तर:
ଶ୍ରେଣୀରେ ଧୀରେ ଧୀରେ କୁହନ୍ତୁ ।

(च) कदापि मिथ्या मा वदतु ।
उत्तर:
କେବେହେଲେ ମିଛ କୁହ ନାହିଁ ।

(छ) वृक्षस्य उपरि वानराः कूर्दन्ति।
उत्तर:
ଗଛ ଉପରେ ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ମାନେ କୂଦୁଛନ୍ତି ।

२. शून्यस्थानं पूरयत।

(क) ………… अभित: छात्र: गच्छति।
उत्तर: ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍

(ख) विद्यालयं परितः ………… अस्ति।
उत्तर: ପ୍ରାଚୀରମ୍

(ग) ………… नम:।
उत्तर: ଗୁରବେ

(घ) अलं ………… |
उत्तर: ବିବାଦେନ

(ङ) श्रेण्या: अन्त: ………… तिष्ठतु।
उत्तर: ତୂଷ୍ଣୀ

(च) ………… अध: बालक: उपविष्ट:।
उत्तर : ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ଯ

३. विक्षिप्तवर्णानां मेलनेन शुद्धपदं रचयत।

(क) तः भि अ
उत्तर: ଅଭିତଃ

(ख) न वा वि दे
उत्तर: ବିବାଦେନ

(ग) ल या द्या वि त्
उत्तर:  ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟାତ୍

(घ) दि प श उ ति
उत्तर:  ଉପଦିଶତି

(ङ) तः भ य उ
उत्तर:  ଉଭୟତଃ

४. स्तम्भमेलनं कुरूत।

‘क’ स्मम्भः — ‘ख’ स्तम्भः
विद्यालयम् — नम:
भगिन्या — उपरि
गुरवे — अलम्
विवादेन — अभितः
वृक्षस्य — सह
उत्तर:
‘କ’ ସ୍ତମ୍ଭ — ‘ଖ’ ସ୍ତମ୍ଭ
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ — ଅଭିତଃ
ଭଗିନ୍ଯା — ସହ
ଗୁରବେ — ନମଃ
ବିବାଦେନ — ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ଯ
ଅଳମ୍ — ଉପରି

६. मातृभाषया अर्थं प्रकाशयत।

(क) प्राचीरम्
उत्तर:
ପାଚେରୀ

(ख) सर्वतः
उत्तर:
ସବୁଆଡେ

(ग) अधः
उत्तर:
ତଳେ

(घ) परितः
उत्तर:
ଚାରିପଟେ

(ङ) अस्ति
उत्तर:
ଅଛି

६. रेखाड्कितपदानां भ्रमसंशोधनं कुरुत।

(क) कदापि मिथ्यां मा वदतु।
उत्तर:
କଦାପି ମିଥ୍ୟା ମା ବଦତୁ ।

(ख) विद्यालयस्य वहि: मा भ्रमतु।
उत्तर:
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟାତ୍ ବହିଃ ମା ଭ୍ରମତୁ ।

(ग) पुष्पवाटिकां सर्वतः वृक्षाः अस्ति।
उत्तर:
ପୁଷ୍ପ ବାଟିକାଂ ସର୍ବତଃ ବୃକ୍ଷା ସନ୍ତି ।

(घ) विवादं अलम्।
उत्तर:
ବିବାଦେନ ଅଳମ୍ ।

(घ) गुरूणा नमः।
उत्तर:
ଗୁରବେ ନମଃ ।

 ८. उत्तर चयनं कुरूत। 

(क) क: ज्ञानमन्दिरं भवति ?
(a) गृहम्
(b) कार्यालय:
(c) विद्यालय:
(d) देवालय:
उत्तर:
(c) ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ

(ख) उच्चै: कस्य अभ्यासं करोतु ?
(a) पाठस्य
(b) गीतस्य
(c) नृत्यस्य
(d) पुस्तकस्य
उत्तर:
(a) ପାଠସ୍ଯ

(ग) गुरुः किं करोति ?
(a) उपविशति
(b) उपदिशति
(c) उपदिशन्ति
(d) उपदिशतः
उत्तर:
(b) ଉପଦିଶନ୍ତି

(घ) वृक्षस्य अधः कया उपविष्ट: ?
(a) चालक:
(b) सर्प:
(c) बालक:
(d) गोपालक:
उत्तर:
(c) ବାଳକଃ

(ङ) स: क्या सह गच्छति ?
(a) लतया
(b) गीतया
(c) सीतया
(d) भगिन्या
उत्तर:
(d) ଭଗିନ୍ୟା

उपपदविभक्तिप्रयोगः :
(ଉପପଦବିଭନ୍ତଃ ପ୍ରୟୋଗ ଅବ୍ୟୟପ୍ରୟୋଗଶ୍ଚ)

ସଦୃଶଂ ତ୍ରିଶୁ ଲିଙ୍ଗେଷୁ ସର୍ବାସୁ ଚ଼ ବିଭଭିକ୍ଷୁ
ବଚନେଷୁ ତ୍ବ ସର୍ବେଷୁ ଯତ୍ନ ବେତି ତଦବ୍ୟୟମ୍ ।
ସୂଚନା : ଶବ୍ଦ ଯୋଗରେ ଯେଉଁ ବିଭକ୍ତି ହୁଏ, ତାହା ଉପପଦ ବିଭକ୍ତି ଏବଂ ଯେଉଁ ପଦର ତିନି ଲିଙ୍ଗ, ସାତ ବିଭକ୍ତି ଓ ତିନି ବଚନରେ ସମାନ ରୂପ ହୁଏ, ତାହା ଅବ୍ୟୟ ପଦ।

विद्यालयः (ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ) ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ

उपपदविभक्तिप्रयोगः (ଉପପଦବିଭକ୍ତିପ୍ରୟୋଗ)

• उभयतः (ଉଭୟତଃ) ଉଭୟପଟେ
• परितः (ପରିତଃ) ଋରିପଟେ
• सर्वतः (ପରିତଃ) ଋରିପଟେ
• नम: (ନମଃ) ନମସ୍କାର
• उपरि (ଉପରି) ଉପରେ

अव्ययप्रयोग: (ଅବ୍ୟୟପ୍ରୟୋଗ)

• अलम् (ଅଳମ୍) ବୃଥା
• अन्तः (ଅନ୍ତଃ) ଭିତରେ
• वहि: (ବହିଃ) ବାହାରେ
• अधः (ଅଧଃ) ତଳେ
• उच्चै: (ଉଚ୍ଚୈଃ) ବଡ଼ ପାଟିରେ
• नीच्चै: (ନୀଚ୍ଚି) ଧୀରେ ତଳେ
• कदापि (କଦାପି) କେବେହେଲେ
• पुनः (ପୁନଃ) ପୁଣି

विद्यलायः ज्ञानमन्दिरं भवति। विद्यालयम् अभितः छात्रः गच्छति। स: भगिन्या सह गच्छति। विद्यालयं परितः प्राचीरम् अस्ति। विद्यालयम् उभयतः पुष्पवाटिका। पुष्पवाटिकां सर्वतः वृक्षाः सन्ति। विद्यालये गुरुः अस्ति। गुरवे नमः गुरुः उपदिशति – अलं विवादेन। श्रेण्याः अन्तः तूष्णीं तिष्ठतु । विद्यालयात् वहि: मा भ्रमतु । उच्चै : पाठस्य अभ्यासं करोतु। कक्षायां नीचै: वदतु। कदापि मिश्या मा वदतु । पुनः विषयं पठतु । वृक्षस्य अधः बालक: उपविष्टः। वृक्षस्य उपरि वानराः कूर्दन्ति ।

ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ଜ୍ଞାନମନ୍ଦିରଂ ଭବତି । ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଅଭିତଃ ଛାତ୍ରୀ ଗଚ୍ଛତି । ଡଃ ଭଗିନ୍ୟା ସହ ଗଛତି । ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ପରିତଃ ପ୍ରାଚୀରମ୍ ଅଛି। ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟମ୍ ଉଭୟତଃ ପୁଷ୍ପବାଟିକା । ପୁଷ୍ପବାଟିକାଂ ସର୍ବତଃ ବୃକ୍ଷା ସନ୍ତି । ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟେ ଗୁରୁ ଅସ୍ତି । ଗୁରବେ ନମଃ। ଗୁରୁ ଉପଦିଶତି – ଅଳଂ ବିବାଦେନ । ଶ୍ରେଣ୍ୟା ଅନ୍ତଃ ତୂଷ୍ଣୀ ତିଷ୍ଠତି । ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟାତ୍ ବହିଃ ମା ଭ୍ରମତୁ। ଉଚ୍ଚୈଃ ପାଠସ୍ୟ ଅଭ୍ୟାସଂ କରୋତୁ। କକ୍ଷାୟା ନୀତିଃ ବଦତୁ। କଦାପି ମିଥ୍ୟା ମା ବଦତୁ। ପୁନଃ ବିଷୟଂ ପଠତୁ। ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ ଅଧଃ ବାଳକଃ ଉପବିଷ୍ଟ । ବୃକ୍ଷସ୍ୟ ଉପରି ବାନରାଃ କୂର୍ଦନ୍ତି

ଅର୍ଥ :
ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ଜ୍ଞାନର ମନ୍ଦିର ଅଟେ। ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ଆଗରେ ଛାତ୍ରଟି ଯାଉଛି। ସେ ଭଉଣୀ ସହିତ ଯାଉଛି। ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ଋରିପଟେ ପାଚେରୀ ଅଛି । ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ଦୁଇପଟେ ଫୁଲବଗିର । ଫୁଲବଗିରର ସବୁଆଡ଼େ ଗଛ ରହିଛି। ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟରେ ଶିକ୍ଷକ ଅଛନ୍ତି। ଗୁରୁଙ୍କୁ

ନମସ୍କାର, ଗୁରୁ ଉପଦେଶ ଦିଅନ୍ତି – କଳି କର ନାହିଁ । ଶ୍ରେଣୀରେ ନୀରବ ରୁହ। ବିଦ୍ୟାଳୟ ବାହାରେ ବୁଲ ନାହିଁ । ବଡ଼ ପାଟିରେ ପାଠ ଅଭ୍ୟାସ କର। ଶ୍ରେଣୀରେ ଧୀରେ ଧୀରେ କୁହନ୍ତୁ। କେବେହେଲେ ମିଛ କୁହନ୍ତୁ ନାହିଁ। ବିଷୟକୁ ବାରମ୍ବାର ପଢ଼ନ୍ତୁ। । ଗଛତଳେ ପିଲାଟି ବସିଥିଲା। ଗଛ ଉପରେ ମାଙ୍କଡ଼ମାନେ କୂଦୁଛନ୍ତି ।

शब्दार्थ (ଶବ୍ଦାର୍ଥ) :

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Economics Solutions Chapter 9 Meaning of Macroeconomics Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Economics Chapter 9 Question Answer Meaning of Macroeconomics

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
Macro economics is the study of aggregates.
Answer:
Macro means large; hence Macro-economics deals with these concepts relating to the economy as a whole. It studies national income, total employment, aggregate demand & supply which are nothing but the aggregative concepts.

Question 2.
Microeconomics is the study of individual units. Justify.
Answer:
The term Micro has been derived from the Greek word “Mikros” which means small. As such, this branch deals with analysis of individual units & small groups of individual units such as individual income, price and demand for a product, output of a firm, supply of a goods etc. In brief, micro economics is a microscopic study of the economy.

Question 3.
How does Macroeconomics study functioning of an economy ?
Answer:
Macroeconomic analysis, is of paramount importance in getting us an idea of the functioning of an economic ‘system It is very essential for a proper and accurate knowledge of the behaviour pattern of the aggregative variables as the description of a large and complex economic system is impossible in terms of numerous individual items.

Question 4.
How does Macroeconomics study the National income ?
Answer:
It is the study of macroeconomics which has brought forward the immense importance of the study of national income and social accounts. In microeconomy such a study was relegated to the background. It is the study of national income which enables us to know that three-fourth of the world is living abject poverty. Without a study of national income, as a result of the development in macroeconomics, it was not possible to formulate correct economic policies.

Question 5.
Macro economics is the study of economic development. Justify.
Answer:
As a result of advanced study in macroeconomics, it has becomes possible to give more attention to the problem of development of underdeveloped countries. Study of macroeconomics has revealed not only the glaring inequalities of wealth within an economy but has also shown the vast differences in the standards of living of the people in various countries necessitating the adoption of important steps to promote their economic welfare.

II. Answer within Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
What do you mean by Macroeconomics ?
Answer:
Macroeconomics studies the entire economic system or its major components such as households, business and Government. It deals with total private consumption expenditure, total private investment, total Government expenditure, and total imports and exports of goods as well as services. It seeks the causes and cures for unemployment, inflation and balance of payment deficits. Thus, macroeconomics is not concerned with a particular decision making unit, but with all such units combined together. It presents a complete picture of the economic system. That is why, macroeconomics is termed as aggregative economics.

Question 2.
Why do you study Macroeconomics ?
Answer:
The term macro is derived from the Greek word ‘makros’ which means large. Most of the modem economics is now macro-economics. Macro-economics studies the entire economic system or its major components such as households, business and Government. It deals with total private consumption expenditure, total private investment, total Government expenditure, and total imports and exports of goods as well as services. It seeks the causes and cures for unemployment, inflation and balance of payment deficits. Thus, macro-economics is not concerned with a particular decision making unit, but with all such units combined together. It presents a complete picture of the economic system. That is why, macro-economics is termed as aggregative economics.

Question 3.
Distinguish between Micro Economics & Macro Economics.
Answer:

• Macro economics is the study of economic actions of individuals. It includes economic actions of the individual’s demand, price & output determination of firm & industry etc. Macro economics is the study if aggregates covering the entire economy such as total employment, total income, output, total saving & investment etc.
• Micro economics does not study the problem of allocation of resources whereas macro economics studies the problem of allocation of resources.
• Micro economics is based on the partial equilibrium whereas macro economics is based on the general equilibrium.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is Macroeconomics ? Describe the Importance of study of Macroeconomics.
Answer:
Macroeconomics, also called income theory is concerned with the analysis of the economy as a whole and its large aggregates or averages such as total national income and output, total employment, aggregate demand and supply and the general price level. Macroeconomics studies the entire economic system or its major components such as households, business and Government. It deals with total private consumption expenditure, total private investment, total Government expenditure, and total imports and exports of goods as well as services. It seeks the causes and cures for unemployment, inflation and balance of payment deficits.

Thus, macro-economics is not concerned with a particular decision making unit, but with all such units combined together. It presents a complete picture of the economic system. That is why, macro-economics is termed as aggregative economics. In the words of Kenneth E. Boulding. “Macro-economics deals not with individual quantities but with aggregate of these quantities, not with individual incomes but with national income, not with individual prices but with price levels, not with individual outputs but with the national output.” Further, Gardner Ackley says: “Macro economics deals with economic affairs in large. It concerns the overall dimensions of economic life. It studies the character of forest, independently of trees which compose it.”

In a nutshell, macro-economics examines and explains the determination of the level of composition, fluctuations (cycles) and trends (growth) in the over all economic activity, i.e., national income, output and employment. Further, here full employment is not assumed. We merely study the determinants of full employment and see how the fullest possible employment can be achieved. Importance of Macro- Economics
The analysis of the macro-economics has acquired great significance in recent years particularly for understanding economic problems like unemployment, poverty, inflation, depression, underdevelopment, etc. The study of the macro- economics is useful in many ways.

(a) Formulation and Execution of Economic Policies – Government’s intervention in the economic activities has been increasing day by day. The Government, however, can not deal with a particular individual or with small groups. Hence, the study of the macro-economics becomes very important,while formulating and executing economic policies. The economic policies for the removal of the poverty, the unemployment and the price instability are based upon aggregative requirements.

(b) Functioning of Economy- The macro- economics helps us to get an idea of how a complex economic system functions. It is very difficult to interpret the functioning of an economy in terms of micro-economics as there are numerous decision making units in the economy. We can understand the complex econofnic system through the study of national aggregates like income, output, expenditure, saving and investment.

(c) Helps to Understand Micro- Economics Better- The study of the macro-economics makes the understanding of the micro-economics better. Almost every micro-economic law is based on macro-economic study. For instance, the law of diminishing marginal utility (a fundamental law of consumption) has been framed by observing the behaviour of many consumers in the society.

(d) Study of Economic Development- Macro-economic developments have led to the study of the economic growth. This has enabled us to study and understand the problems of under developed countries. By analysing such problems, it has become possible for us to promote the development of the under developed countries. The macro economic analysis helps us to study the process of the income generation and to determine the factors accelerating the economic efficiency.

(e) Study of Welfare-It is not possible to measure the size of material welfare in terms of the micro-economics. The importance of macro- economics is enhanced, as the main objectives of the study of Economics is the welfare of society.

(f) Theory of Inflation and Deflation-In these days, the problem of inflation has assumed serious dimensions in both the developed and the underdeveloped countries. It is the result of excessive aggregate demand, as explained by Keynes. The theory of inflation is an important subject of macro-economics. In contrast, deflation is associated with a steady and sustained fall in the price level. The inflation as well as the deflation are explained in terms of aggregative economic variables like aggregate demand, output and money supply, which explain the general price level. The steps for curing these maladies are also based on the aggregative approach.

(g) International Comparisons-Macro- economics facilitates international comparisons by providing information about aggregate demand, national income, consumption and saving for different countries:
Business environment needs macro-economic analysis before decisions are taken by the firms. Macro-economic analysis as it exists today has been evolved through ages with contributions made by economists from different schools of thought. This analysis will help in evaluating the plans and policies towards the business firm.

Question 2.
What is Macro Economics ? Distinguish between Micro economics & Macro economics.
Answer:
Macro economics has been derived from Greek word “Makros” which means large. This macro economics is the study of economic system as a whole. In other words, it deals with the study of aggregates covering entire economy such as national income, national product, employment, general price level, aggregate demand, aggregate supply etc. This branch is not concerned with the individual quantities as in micro economics but it analyses the aggregates or averages of the entire economy.

On the other hand, the term Micro has been derived from the Greek word “Mikros” which means small. As such, this branch deals with analysis of individual units & small groups of individual units such as individual income, price and demand for a product, output of a firm, supply of a goods etc. In brief, micro economics is a microscopic study of the economy.
Micro & Macro economics stand as separate branches of economics because of certain distinctions which are mentioned below :

DIFFERENCE:-
(a) Micro economics is the study of economic behaviour of individuals such as individual consumers or producers, firms, markets, individual industries and thus, it studies one segment of the total economy.
On the other hand, macro economics is the study of aggregates covering the entire economy such as total volume of employment, national income, national output, total saving & investment etc.

(b) Micro economics studies the economic affairs in the large whereas micro economics studies a part of the entire economy.

(c) Micro economics uses the partial equilibrium analysis technique to study the prices of a particular commodity on the assumption that other things remaining unchanged. On the other hand, macro economics uses the technique of quasi-general equilibrium to study the determination of aggregate-price.

(d) Micro economics deals with consumption, production, sources of production for individual economics units whereas macro economics studies total consumption, total saving & investment, total production, total income etc.

(e) In Micro economic analysis total volume of employment is assumed to be constant & with
this its allocation among different sectors is studied. It assumes the prevalence of full employment in the economy. On the contrary, macro economics does not assume full employment as given rather it explains various factors for determining the total volume of employment.

(f) Being based on the assumption of full employment, micro economics does not provide suitable explanation for the emergence of trade cydes which is vividly described in macro economics.

(g) Micro economics remains away from the topic of problem of allocation of resources of the economy. It is based on the objective of optimum allocation of resources, for individual units. But macro economics studies the problem of allocation of resources for the entire economy & it also deals with the problems, principles & losses for it.

(h) The objective of micro economics is concerned with maximisation of utility as well as maximisation of profit. On the other hand, in macro economics, the objective is to attain full employment, general price stability, economic growth & favourable balance of payments, etc.

The distinctions as mentioned above are not rigid. It can be changed under varied circumstances. This distinction is really a matter of degree only. Only, the visible distinction what a common man observes is that micro economics is concerned .with the individual economic units whereas macro economics covers the entire economy as a whole.

Question 3.
What is Macro-economics ? Why do we study it.
Answer:
The term macro is derived from the Greek word ‘makros’ which means large. Most of the modem economics is now macro-economics. Macro-economics studies the entire economic system or its major components such as households, business and Government. It deals with total private consumption expenditure, total private investment, total Government expenditure, and total imports and exports of goods as well as services. It seeks the causes and cures for unemployment, inflation and balance of payment deficits. Thus, macro-economics is not concerned with a particular decision making unit, but with all such units combined together. It presents a complete picture of the economic system. That is why, macro-economics is termed as aggregative economics. The theoretical and the practical importance of macroeconomics would be deaf1 from the following arguments:

1. Functioning of an Economy : Macroeconomic analysis, is of paramount importance in getting us an idea of the functioning of an economic ‘system It is very essential for a proper and accurate knowledge of the behaviour pattern of the aggregative variables as the description of a large and complex economic system is impossible in terms of numerous individual items.

2. Formulation of Economic Policies: Macroeconomics is of great help in the formulation of economic policies. The days of Taissez faire’ are over and government intervention in economic matters is an accomplished fact. Governments deal not with individuals but with groups and masses of individuals, thereby establishing the importance of macroeconomic studies. For example, during depression, when the machines lie idle and men roam from pillar to post in search of employment, macroeconomics helps us to analyse the cause leading to depression and unemployment and to the adoption of suitable policies to cope with such a situation.

3. Understanding Macroeconomics : The study of macroeconomics is essential for the proper understanding of microeconomics. No Microeconomic law could be framed without a prior study of the aggregates; for example, the theory of individual firm could not have been formulated with reference to the behaviour pattern of one single firm, howsoever representative it might have been; the theory was possible only after the behaviour pattern of several firms had been examined and analysed, for example, the forest, though an aggregation of trees, does not exhibit the behaviour and characteristics of individual trees. Microeconomics has been, and to some extent, remains a jungle of special-assumptions, special cases, unsatisfactory measurements and abstract theorising.

4. Understanding and Controlling Economic Fluctuations : Economic fluctuations are a characteristic feature of the capitalist form of society. The theory of economic fluctuations can be understood and built up only with the .help of macroeconomics, for here we have to take into consideration aggregate consumption, aggregate saving and investment in the economy. Thus, we are led to analyse the causes of fluctuations in income, output and employment, and make attempts to control them or at least to reduce their severity.

5. Inflation and Deflation : Macroeconomic approach is of utmost importance to analyse and understand the effects of inflation and deflation. Different sections of society are affected differently as a result of changes in the value of money. Macroeconomic analysis enables us to take certain steps to counteract the adverse influences of inflation and deflation

6. Study of National Income: It is the study of macroeconomics which has brought forward the immense importance of the study of national income and social accounts. In microeconomy such a study was relegated to the background. It is the study of national income which enables us to know that three-fourth of the world is living abject poverty. Without a study of national income, as a result of the development in macroeconomics, it was not possible to formulate correct economic policies.

7. Study of Economic Development: As a result of advanced study in macroeconomics, it has becomes possible to give more attention to the problem of development of underdeveloped countries. Study bf macroeconomics has revealed not only the glaring inequalities of wealth within an economy but has also shown the vast differences in the standards of living of the people in various countries necessitating the adoption of important steps to promote their economic welfare.

8. Performance of an Economy: Macroeconomics helps us to understand and analyse the performance of an economy. It implies the result-oriented study of an economy- in terms of actual and factual achievements. Gross National Product (GNP) or National Income (NI) estimates are used to measure the performance of an economy over time by comparing the production of goods and services in one period with that of the other periods, the composition of GNP gives information about the quantum of contribution of each sector of the economy to GNP.

9. Nature of Material Welfare: Macroeconomics enables us to study the nature and size of the material welfare of the nations. The problem of measuring social welfare is not easy; even welfare economics does not help us. Those who are interested in the material and social welfare of all must study problems in their-macroeconomic setting. This adds to the importance of macroeconomics because when the chief objective of the studies of economics is the welfare of entire society, economics becomes the study of macroeconomics.

Question 4.
What is Macro-economics ? State its limitation.
Answer:
The term macro is derived from the Greek word ‘makros’ which means large. Most of the modem economics is now macro-economics. “The modem developments in macro economics are most closely associated with the work of Mr. J. M. Keynes”. Macro-economics, also called income theory is concerned with the analysis of the economy as a whole and its large aggregates or averages such as total national income and output, total employment, aggregate demand and supply and the general price level. Thus, macro-economics is not concerned with a particular decision making unit, but. with all such units combined together. It presents a complete picture of the economic system. That is why, macro-economics is termed as aggregative economics.

LIMITATIONS:
1. Excessive Generalisation : Despite theimmense importance of macro-economics, there is the danger of excessive generalisation from individual experience to the system as a whole, ff an individual withdraws his deposits from the bank, there is no-harm in it, but if all the persons rushed to withdraw deposits, the bank would perhaps collapse.

2. Excessive Thinking in terms of Aggregates: Again, macroeconomics suffers from excessive thinking in terms of aggregates, as it may not be always possible to have the homogeneous constituents. Prof. Boulding has pointed out that 2 apples + 3 apples = 5 apples is a meaningful aggregate; 2 apples + 3 oranges = 5 fruits may be described as a fairly meaningful aggregate; but 2 apples + 3 sky scrappers constitute a meaningless aggregate; it is the last aggregate which brings forth the fallacy of excessive aggregative thinking.

3. Heterogeneous Elements: It may, however, be remembered that macro-economics deals with such aggregates as aggregate consumption, saving, investment and income, all composed of heterogeneous quantities. Money is the only measuring rod. But the value of money itself keeps on changing, rendering economic aggregates immeasurable and incomparable in real terms. As such, the sum or average of heterogeneous individual quantities lose their significance for accurate economic analysis and economic policy.

4. Differences within Aggregates: Under this approach one is likely to overlook the differences within aggregates. For example, during the first decade of planning in India (from 1951 -1961) the national income increased by 42% ; this, however, doesn’t mean that the income of all the constituents, i.e., the wage earners or salaried persons increased by as much as that of entrepreneurs or businessmen. Hence, it takes no account of differences within aggregates.

5. Aggregates must be functionally related: The aggregates forming the main body of macroeconomic theory must be significant and mutually consistent. In other words, these should be functionally related. For example, aggregate consumption and investment expenditures -. which form part of the macroeconomic theory (Y= G + I) would have no importance, if they were not
functionally related to the levels of income, interest and employment. If these composing aggregates are mutually inconsistent or are not functionally related, the study of macroeconomic theory will be of little use.

6. Limited Application: Macroeconomics deals with positive economics in the sense of an analysis or how the aggregate theoretical models work-these are far removed from policy applications. These models explain the functioning of an economy and working of things in abstract and precise terms. Their abstraction and precision make such models unsuitable for use due to changes in significant variables from time to time and from one situation to another.

But these limitations, may be taken more in the nature of practical difficulties in formulating meaningful aggregates rather than factors invalidating the immense importance of macroeconomic analysis. With the commencement of Keynes’s General Theory and his basic equation, Y= C + I; interest in the study of macroeconomics has deep-ened. Significant breakthroughs in the computation of national income accounts (the study of which forms the very basis of macroeconomics) prove it beyond doubt that the limitations of rqacroeconomic studies are not insurmountable.

Is Meaningful Macroeconomics Possible ?
Sometimes a question is raised whether a meaningful macroeconomics is at. all possible? It is useless if macroeconomic variables simply confine to definitional relationships. Macroeconomics must study relationships amongst economic variables which express motivation and behaviour. The use of such an economics would depend upon whether or not aggregative theories of behaviour are possible. However, it may be understood that despite its limitations it can exist as an approximation to reality because:

(a) It depends upon certain macroeconomic truisms. Experience has shown that individuals do react in a certain generally common ways to changes in circumstances that confront them. With the increase in income, for example, other things remaining the same, individuals will increase then- expenditure though not in the same proportion. It will vary from person to person on account of variations in income, size of family, saving, expected income and so many other factors. Thus, while dealing with aggregates for the economy as a whole, we take into consideration the grater regularity of m&ss than of individual behaviour.

(b) The composition of many aggregates is relatively stable or varies regularly with changes in the magnitues of the aggregates so as to pave the way for meaningful aggregative theories.

(c) Many of the variables most significant in explaining individual economic behaviour cancel out, at least roughly, when dealing with the entire economy. This is more true in the short- run. Consumption behaviour of individual family, for example, depends op income, size of family, age, sex composition of its members, number of durable goods already ih possession, etc. While considering behaviour of aggregate families, many of these variables cancel out, specially in the short-run thus paving the way for more meaningful aggregative economics.

But these limitations may be taken more in the nature of practical difficulties in formulating meaningful aggregates rather than factors invalidating the immense importance of macroeconomic analysis. With the commencement of Keynes’s General Theory and his basic equation, Y= C + 1, interest in the study of macroeconomics has deepened. Significant ‘breakthroughs’ in the computation of national income accounts (the study of which forms the very basis of macroeconomics) prove it beyond doubt that the limitations of macroeconomic studies are not insurmountable.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
Macro economics deal with
(i) individual units
(ii) Price determination
(iii) aggregate of quantities
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) aggregate of quantities

Question 2.
Which is not included in Macro economics ?
(i) National output
(ii) National income
(iii) Household income
(iv) General price-level
Answer:
(iii) Household income

Question 3.
The term MACRO is derived from the Greek word ‘Macros’ which means
(i) Small
(ii) Medium
(iii) Large
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) Large

Question 4.
Which of the following belongs to Macroeconomics ?
(i) Price theory
(ii) Income theory
(iii) Expenditure theory
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(ii) Income theory

Question 5.
The word Macro was derived from
(i) Latin word
(ii) Greek word
(iii) Indian word
(iv) European word
Answer:
(ii) Greek word

Question 6.
Which of the followings is studied in Macroeconomics ?
(i) Individuals Income
(ii) National Income
(iii) Price determination of a firm
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(ii) National Income

Question 7.
What is the importance of Macroeconomics ?
(i) Formulation and Execution of Economic Policies
(ii) Functioning of Economy
(iii) Study of Economic Development-
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iv) All of the above

Question 8.
Which is the subject matter of Macroeconomics ?
(i) Inflation
(iii) Theory of income determination
Answer:
(iv) All of the above

Question 9.
Which is not the Macroeconomic concept ?
(i) National Income
(ii) Aggregate demand
(iii) Individual demand
(iv) Aggregate supply
Answer:
(iii) Individual demand

Question 10.
Which is the Macroeconomic concept ?
(i) Income distribution among the factor
(ii) Price determination of the firms
(iii) National Savings and investment
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) National Savings and investment

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
Microeconomic study _____ equilibrium.
Answer:
Partial

Question 2.
The National income is studied in _____ economics.
Answer:
Macro

Question 3.
_____ is the other name of Macroeconomics.
Answer:
Theory of income

Question 4.
The concept of aggregate demand is analysed in _____ econmics.
Answer:
Macro

Question 5.
The theory of employment is studied in _____ economics.
Answer:
Macro

Question 6.
Consumer’s choice is a subject matter of _____ economics:
Answer:
Micro

Question 7.
Macro is derived from the greek word _____
Answer:
Markos

Question 8.
The term micro is derived from the Greek word _____
Answer:
Mikros

Question 9.
Mikros literaly means _____
Answer:
Small

Question 10.
The price determination of a good is analysed in _____ economics.
Answer:
Micro

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Macroeconomics deals with individual quantities.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – Macroeconomics deals with the aggregates for the economy as a whole.

Question 2.
Micro economics deals with the functioning of the economy as a whole.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – Macroeconomics deals with the functioning of the economy as a whole.

Question 3.
National Income analysis is the subject matter of micro economics.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct – National Income analysis is the subject matter of macro economics.

Question 4.
Macro-economics deals with the economic affairs “in the large”.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 5.
The theory of income determination is another name of Microeconomics.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct – The theory of income determination is another name of Macroeconomics.

Question 6.
The theory of employment is studied in Microeconomics.
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct – The theory of employment is studied in Macroeconomics.

Question 7.
Price theory is another name of Macroeconomics
Answer:
Incorrect
Correct – Price theory is another name of Microeconomics

IV. Answer the following questions in one word:

Question 1.
What is Macro economics ?
Answer:
Macro economics studies the concepts of large agreement considering the economy as a whole.

Question 2.
What is Micro economics ?
Answer:
the term Micro has been derived from the Greek word “Mikros” which means small. As such, this branch deals with analysis of individual units & small groups of individual units such as individual income, price and demand for a product, output of a firm, supply of a goods etc. In brief, micro economics is a microscopic study of the economy.

Question 3.
Describe one difference between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics.
Answer:
Micro economics deals with consumption, production, sources of production for individual economics units whereas macro economics studies total consumption, total saving & investment, total production, total income etc.

Question 4.
Microeconomics deals with the individual units.
Answer:
Micro economics is the study of economic behaviour of individuals such as individual consumers or producers, firms, markets, individual industries and thus, it studies one segment of the total economy.

Question 5.
How does Macroeconomics deal with formulating economic policies ?
Answer:
The study of the macro-economics becomes very important while formulating and executing economic policies. The economic policies for the removal of the poverty, the unemployment and the price instability are based upon aggregative requirements.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Logic Solutions Chapter 7 Scientific Explanation Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Logic Chapter 7 Question Answer Scientific Explanation

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer with in Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
What is explanation?
Answer:
According to I. M. copi and carl cohen, an explanation is a group of statements from which the thing to be explained can logically be inferred and whose acceptance removes its problematic and puzzling character.

Question 2.
What is popular explanation?
Answer:
The explanation which is based on the belief, tradition, false conception imaginary and super natural agency is called popular explanation. For example; cholera is caused due to the anger of goddess.

Question 3.
What is scientific explanation?
Answer:
The explanation which makes a fact plain and intelligible by discovering the causal connection is called a scientific explanation.
For example : The law of tide and the law of planetary motion can be explained by the law of gravitation.

Question 4.
What is analysis?
Answer:
Analysis means breaking up of a complex phenomena into its constituent factors. For example; we can explain the growth of a child by the factors such as food, rest, exercise, environment etc.

Question 5.
What do you mean by subsumption?
Answer:
Subsumption is a form of scientific explanation by which we bring a law under a higher law. For example, we explain the law of tides and Planetary motion by the law of gravitation and the law of gravitation by the law of relativity.

Question 6.
State the different kinds at scientific explanation according to mill.
Answer:
According to mill, scientific explaration is of three kinds, such as
(i) Analysis
(ii) Concatenation
(iii) Subsumption.

Question 7.
State the different forms of explanation according to Ernest Nagel.
Answer:
According to Ernest Nagel, scientific explanation is of four types, such as
(i) Deductive explanation
(ii) Probable explanation
(iii) Functional or Teleological explanation

Question 8.
What is called Teleological explanation?
Answer:
When we explain a fact with reference to purpose or end that is called teleogical explanation, for example, people work hard because they may prosper in future.

Question 9.
What is genetic explanation?
Answer:
When we explain a fact with reference to process of development that is called genetic explanation.
For example:
A fever is explained as a case of typhoid by observing gradual rise and fall of temperature in course of a week!

Question 10.
What is deductive explanation?
Answer:
The explanation which deduces fact or law from a higher law is calle deductive explanation.
For example;
from the law of gravitation the laws of tides and planetary motion are deduced.

Question 11.
What is concatenation?
Answer:
Concatenation makes the relation between cause and effect.
For example; The loud sound in the bell is possible through the electricity.

II. Answer with in Five/Six sentence :

Question 1.
State the features of scientific explanation.
Answer:
The following features are the main features of scientific explanation.
(i) It seeks for essential points of similarity.
(ii) It explains natural facts by natural agencies.
(iii) It aims at understanding the nature of the events and establishing general laws of wider scope.

Question 2.
State the features of popular explanation.
Answer:
The following points are the main features at popular explanation.

1. It satisfies the curiosity of an ordinary man and it is always concemaed with immediate . problems.
2. It takes any familiar or important event to be the cause of an event.
3. It is concerned with particular facts, so its scope is very limited.
4. This explanation refers unreal, imaginary and supernatural agencies.

Question 3.
State the purpose at explanation:
Answer:
(i) Explanation aims at satisfying the curiosity of a person.
(ii) Explanation extends our knowledge.
(iii) Explanation makes the things systematic and coherent.
(iv) It brings a fact under a general law.

Question 4.
What is probable explanation?
Answer:
Probable explanation is a form of explanation where a particular fact is of deduced from a higher law, rather we explain a fact in relation to a higher law. Here as the result is not always certain, so it is probable, when we explain that the fallness of a child is due to the fallness of his parents, our explanation is not deductive but we refer to Mandel’s law of heredity.

Question 5.
Distinguish between scientific explanation and popular explanation.
Answer:

1. Scientific explanation is based on real cause but popular explanation is based on blind beliefs dogmas, prejudics.
2. Scientific explanation satisfies the educated and scientists but popular explanation satisfies the commmon men.
3. Scientific explanation is always natural but popular explanation takes the help of a supernatural force.
4. Scientific explanation requires for framing a hypothesis.
5. Popular explanation provides explanation of a particular fact but scientific explanation provides a fact in general.
6. Popular explanation is not rational and logical but but scientific explanation is rational and logical but scientific explanation is rational, coherent and logical.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is explanation ? Discuss the nature and purpose of explanation.
Answer:
Explanation means making something plain for easy understanding. In our everyday life we come across many Strange and unnatural phenomena which require some explanation When facts are obscure and difficult to our understanding, we explain it do have a clear picture of the phenomenon. So explanation aims at making something orderly, systematic and coherent. Besides, it makes man free from difficulty and perplexity.

Nature of explanation:
1. Explanation involves the clarity of facts : If something is difficult to understand, we want to explain the facts. Here our explanation must be clear and the way of explanation must relate to the knowable facts. As a result, it would constitute a body of knowledge.

2. Explanation involves two processes of assimilation and discrimination : We understand a fact if it is assimilated to our body of knowledge. That means, the fact must come under a class already known to us. For example, if the term tiger is not understood to a child, we assimilate, it to a group of animal like dog, cat, bear etc. Then we discriminate or differentiate the tiger from the other animals.

We explain ‘robot’ as a human machine, that means mechanism made to act like a man. Here we group the robot under a class, human-machine, distinguish it from human and machine and clarify the meaning that it looks like a man but it has no life. It also works like a man. So explanation involves classification.

3. Explanation involves deduction or inference : We explain a fact either by passing a reason or by bringing it under a law. In order to explain a law, we deduce it from a higher law. When the water pipe bursts in a hill station during winter, we explain it by saying that the water inside the pipe has freezed. We explain it through a general law.

The law of tides is also explained by deducing it from the law of gravitation. Thus a fact is explained when it is inferred from another fact or law. Therefore, explanation involves an inference in which a fact is known to be the consequence of or deducible from a general law.

4. Explanation consists in finding out the cause of a given phenomenon : The aim of explanation is to make something plain and clear to our understanding. A difficult or obscure thing becomes plain and clear to us when we are able to find out its cause. When we explain the downfall of our family, we particularly answer he ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions. Indirectly we want to discover and prove the causal connection. We may expain that father’s death is the cause of our downfall.

Purpose of Explanation :
(1) Explanation aims at satisfying the curiosity of a person: Man is always curious about unknown things. He cannot remain satisfied due to his eagerness to know something, if something is unclear to him, he wants explanation by which he can understand through his system of knowledge. Explanation makes something clear and connects the known system of knowledge to unknown things. So explanation is an aid to discovery. Explanation of something satisfies a person if he understands the situation. If somebody ask ‘what is horro’ ? We can explain him through different situations. In this case, the person should be able to understand the situation, otherwise explanation has no value for him.

(2) Explanation extends our knowledge: Nature is full of mysteries. We have little knowledge about nature. So the scope of our knowledge is limited, in our every day life we interrogate nature to know more things. When the puzzling things are explained in relation to our prese. System of knowledge, we get satisfied and our knowledge extends, if the digestive system of a man will be explained scientifically, it will extend the knowledge of a person about the food and disease.

(3) Explanation makes the things systematic and coherent: In an experiment, explanation makes the line clear. A teacher explains the facts to make the experiment methodical, in a murder case, the situation and the nature of murder should be clear, otherwise further investigation would not be systematic and consistent. As it makes the meaning of a term clear the further investigation becomes easy.

(4) Explanation bring facts under a general law : Our knowledge consists of a system of laws. Every known fact comes under this system of laws. If there is any new fact which is unintelligible to us. We explain its nature or pattern ofbehaviour to bring it under our known system. To explain anything is to connect it with what we know. For example, we explain the law of tides by pointing out its similarity with the law of falling bodies. Explanation helps us to find out the cause of a phenomenon.

Question 2.
Give a pull account of popular explanation.
Answer:
Popular explanation is known as common explanation. Common man explains things on the basis of his belief. He does not take any scientific facts or laws in his explanation. Common man explains the fever of a person with reference to an evil force. Similarly common people also explain the lunar eclipse with reference to a supernatural being-Rahu’s devouring the moon. This kind of a layman’s explanation is popular in uncultured societies.

Characteristics :
(1) Popular explanation satisfies the curiosity of an ordinary man : An ordinary man ask a regarding the cause of flood and famine. It is popularly explained to him that flood and famine are caused due to the wrath of nature. Cholera is due to the wrath of a goddess.

(2) Popular explanation is a body of belief: Popular explanation is based upon superstition, tradition, popular beliefs, divine vision or revelation. A man who cherishes such opinions cannot give any satisfactory account in support of his basis. He accepts this kind of unscientific explanation without any criticism. This kind of explanation is true to him and there cannot be any other type better than this. So to him this popular explanation is ultimate and unerring. A religious person accepts the views or statements of saints or philosophers as infallible.

(3) Popular explanation is concerned with immediate problems : Common man in interested with questions of who and what. If there is an accident, a common man is generally more interested to know about the person who died in the accident or what happened to the driver. If he gets the answer he is satisfied.

(4) Popular explanation takes any familiar or important event to be the cause of an event: Without proper analysis a man takes the immediate antecedent to be the cause. A man attends dinner in a marriage and in the next morning he vomits blood and dies. We explain that he died because of the dinner, if a new bride comes to our family and mother dies, then we explain that new bride is the cause of our mothers death.

(5) Popular explanation refers to unreal, imaginary and supernatural agencies : Uneducated and uncultured people explain natural evenets through supernatural agencies. They explain an earthquake as the wrath of a god. Break out of cholera in a village is explained as the anger of a goddess. Here we cannot verify the agent.

(6) Popular explanation is concerned with particular facts & limited in scope : Explanation should not be confined to a particular fact. It must be able to explain some further facts. This condition is not satisfied in popular explanation is always circular common people believe in the words of saints. It a saint says that a woman will give birth to a son and it becomes true, then the people stick to that fact and run to him for blessings.

(7) Popular explanation is based on superficial points of similarity : Common people are satisfied by any good or bad analogies. If they find that two things resemble each other in certain points, they explain that the two things will resemble each other in all other points. We observed that two particular college students were talking to each other and soon after they got married. If we find any other similar talking between two students, we say that they are going to marry. If we find two college girls resemble in dress, food habits, manner etc. then we agree that they also resemble in their intelligence. These are popular explanations.

(8) Popular explanation is not systematic : We sometimes explain a thing to serve a particular problem, here we don’t go to the details of the phenomenon. So our explanation becomes temporary and causal. We don’t mind the truth and relevance of the statements. If the son of a rich man dies, we say that the rich man is a greedy fellow.

(9) Popular explanation does not create any problem for the common man : the common man is satisfied with what is obvious and familiar. Water flows down, apple falls on the ground, sky is blue are familiar natural facts. The common man never bothers about all these facts. He remains silent without asking any question regarding these abyious facts. So these facts do not pose a problem for any ordinary man. On the other hand, it creats a problem for the students of science, who genuinely think over the facts. Newton saw a problem in the falling of apple and discovered the law of gravitation. So there is another way of explaining the facts which is called scientific explanation.

Question 3.
Discuss the characteristics of Scientific explanation.
Answer:
Scientific explanation makes a fact plain and intelligible by connecting it with another fact which we know. Discovery of causal connection in an aid to scientific explanation. The same type of explanation may not satisfy all. What is satisfactory to an ordinary man may not be so to a scientist. A scientist explains the facts through laws which can be verified. A boy returns home from playground and vomits blood. Some people may say that he has been severely beaten by his playmates. Others may say that he has been frightened by some abnormal situation. These are made for the immediate solution of the problem, so these are called popular explanations. This type of explanation cannot satisfy all persons. A doctor examines the body and finds any chronic disease. Thus he relates the fact to other facts which can be scientifically verified. The second type of explanation is called scientific explanation.

Characteristic :
(1) Scientific explanation gives us the clear understanding of a thing : Scientific explanation connects a fact with other facts through a chain of causation. Flood is not caused due to the wrath of nature, it is connected with other facts, continuous heavy rainfall is the cause of flood. So blood and heavy rainfall are causally related Truth & relevance of the facts can be examined, hence our understanding is clear because we can verify this causal connection from our experience, in popular explanation we fail to verify the relevant facts.

(2) In scientific explanation the cause is verifiable : In a scientific explanation we passing the cause to explain a phenomenon, in this case the cause is verifiable law of gravitation is the cause of the falling bodies. This law can he indirectly verified by higher laws, in case of popular explanation we do not relate the facts with other facts. So the cause is not verifiable in popular explanation.

(3) In scientific explanation we explain the natural facts by natural agencies : Scientific explanation is not based upon blind beliefs, revelation and superstitions. It believe in observable evidences. Cholera is not caused due to the wrath of a goodness, but it is due some particular virus, popular explanation, refers to supernatural agencies which can not be observed.

(4) Scientific explanation is based upon the essential points of similarity: We explain a fact in terms of a fact or law or theory. We explain the law of planaetary motion through the law of gravitation. We also explain the increase of a disease by laws of facts. Popular explanation refers to superficial points of similarity.

(5) Scientific explanation is an aid to scientific enquiry : The aim of scientific enquiry is to establish a general truth. In order to find out the cause of malarial fever, we have to know what is malaria fever and then the nature of malaria fever. That means we explain the event scientifically in relation to a cause.

(6) Scientific explanation is related to hypothesis : Unless a fact is explained scientifically, we can’t form a hypothesis. Hypothesis guides our investigation. When the nature of malaria fever is explained, we form a hypothesis that bite of mosquito may be the cause of malaria fever. Lastly, we discover that bite of anopheles is the cause of malaria fever.

(7) Scientific explanation refers to deduction of laws : According to Carveth Read, “Scientific explanation consists in discovering, deducing and assimilating the laws of phenomenon”. Firstly, in order to explain phenomena we state the causal laws or general conditions of the phenomena. If the laws are not know, we discover them by framing hypothesis, in order to explain a law, we deduce it from a higher law. Lastly, in order to explain a fact or law, we assimilate it to other known facts or laws.

(8) Scientific explanation is theoretical in character and wider in scope : In scientific explanation we not only explain the facts for which the explanation is made but also other facts. The law of gravitation is not only the cause of falling bodies but also explains the rise and falls of dides and movement of the planets. So the explanation is wider in scope because it covers more facts than the initial once here we seek universal explanation.

(9) Scientific explanation is always systematic, universal & unified : An explanation must be true & relevant. The statement or the premise which is offered as explanation of a fact must be relevant and true. The truth and relevance of the statement can be verified directly or indirectly. In case of scientific explanation, the statements are verifiable, it bring a fact under a law and a law under a higher law. So it is systematic and unified, popular explanation is not systematic and unified.

In conclusion we may say that the scientific and popular explanation differ both in respect of the nature of the problem and the character of the explanation scientific explanation is universal and general, serving a theoretical purpose whereas popular explanation is particular and immediate, serving a practical purpose.

Question 4.
State & explain the different forms of scientific explanation according to carveth Read with concrete examples.
Answer:
According to carveth Read & Mill, there are three forms of scientific explanation. These are analysis, concatenation & subsumption.
(i) Analysis : Analysis means breaking up of a complex phenomenon into its constituent factors. While explaining a fact scientifically, we must analyse the factors which jointly produce the effect. The path of a food ball depends upon the law of initial force, resistance of air and law of gravitation. We explain the growth of a tree by the factors responsible such as the seed, water, climatic, conditions, soil, the manures etc.

(ii) Concatenation : We cannot explain a thing directly at every time. We have to bring out the intermediary links between cause and effect. Concatenation is bringing out this intermediary steps between cause and its remote effect, we ordinarily explain that electricity directly produces the loud sound in the bell. But when we link different steps of causation, we find that electricity produces that, expands air, air moves the mechanical part of the bell & it produces a loud sound.

(iii) Subsumption : It is a form of explanation by which we bring a law under a higher law. We explain facts through laws or secondary laws through primary laws. Subsumption belongs to the second type. We explain the law of ides & planetary motion through the general law of gravitation.

According to Nagel, there are four foms of scientific explanation. These are-
(i) Deductive Model Explanation : Scientific explanation involves deduction, it: consists in deducing a fact or law from a higher law. From the law of gravitation, the law of tides.and planetary motion are deduced. The law of gravitation is also deduced from the theory of relativity. We go on deducing the lower law from the higher laws till we reach at the level of facts. From the law of falling bodies, we can explain the fall of my book from hand by deduction.

(ii) Probabilistic Explanation : This is a form of explanation where a particular fact is not deduced from a higher law, rather we explain a fact in relation to a higher law. The result of the law is not certain in all cases. It is true in most of the cases. That is why it is known as probabilistic explanation. When we explain that the fallness of a child is due to the fallness of parents our explanation is not deductive but we refer Mandel’s law of heredity.

(iii) Functional or Teleological Explanation : The word ‘teleology’ is derived from the word ‘teleos’ which means purpose or end. When we explain a fact with reference to purpose or goal, our explanation is teleological. Everybody struggles for existence because self-preservation is the goal of life people work hard because they may prosper in future.

(iv) Genetic Explanation : Sometimes we explain a fact with reference to the process of development we explain that the defeat of a ruling party is the logical development of its method of operation. A fever is explained as a case of typhoid by observing the gradual rise & fall of temperature in course of a week. Similarly we explain the occurrence of tuberculosis in a particular person by tracing its development to excessive drinking and smoking habits.

Question 5.
What is the significance of the scientific method ? Is it the same as the inductive procedure?
Answer:
The scientific method is a systematic and empirical approach to inquiry that forms the foundation of scientific investigation. It provides a structured process for formulating and testing hypotheses, gathering evidence, and drawing conclusions. The significance of the scientific method lies in its ability to facilitate objective, reliable, and evidence-based knowledge generation, fostering the advancement of scientific understanding and innovation. While the scientific method and the inductive procedure share some common elements, they are not synonymous. The inductive procedure is a broader approach encompassing various methods, including the scientific method.

Significance of the Scientific Method :

1. Empirical Rigor : The scientific method emphasizes empirical observation and experimentation. This ensures that scientific conclusions are grounded in real-world evidence, contributing to the credibility and reliability of scientific knowledge.

2. Objectivity and Impartiality : Objectivity is a crucial aspect of the scientific method. By minimizing bias and subjectivity, scientists aim to maintain impartiality in their investigations. This enhances the trustworthiness of scientific findings and promotes consensus within the scientific community.

3. Systematic Inquiry : The scientific method provides a systematic framework for inquiry, guiding researchers through a series of well-defined steps. This structure facilitates clarity in experimental design, data collection, and analysis, leading to more rigorous and organized research.

4. Hypothesis Testing : Hypothesesvwhich are educated guesses or predictions, form an integral part of the scientific method. Through systematic testing, scientists can evaluate the validity of their hypotheses, allowing for the refinement of theories and models based on empirical evidence.

5. Cumulative Knowledge : The scientific method encourages the accumulation of knowledge over time. As new evidence emerges, scientific theories can be modified or expanded to incorporate the latest insights. This iterative process contributes to the dynamic nature of scientific understanding.

6. Replicability and Verification : The scientific method places a strong emphasis on the replicability of experiments. Findings that can be independently verified by other researchers lend additional support to scientific conclusions, promoting confidence in the reliability of the results.

7. Predictive Power : A hallmark of successful scientific theories is their ability to make accurate predictions. The scientific method allows scientists to develop models that not only explain observed phenomena but also predict future outcomes. This predictive power is essential for practical applications and technological advancements.

8. Openness to Revision: Scientific knowledge is inherently open to revision. The scientific method encourages scientists to revise theories in light of new evidence, ensuring that the understanding of natural phenomena evolves and improves over time.

9. Communication and Peer Review : The scientific method promotes communication and collaboration within the scientific community. Through peer review, scientists critically evaluate each other’s work, helping to identify errors, validate results, and enhance the overall quality of scientific research.

10. Ethical Considerations : The scientific method incorporates ethical considerations, emphasizing transparency, honesty, and integrity in research practices. This commitment to ethical standards enhances the trustworthiness of scientific investigations.

Distinction Between the Scientific Method and the Inductive Procedure :
While the scientific method and the inductive procedure share common elements, they represent distinct concepts in the realm of scientific inquiry.

•  Scientific Method :
  1. The scientific method is a specific and systematic approach to scientific inquiry that includes steps such as observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, data collection, analysis, and conclusion drawing.
  2. It emphasizes the importance of testing hypotheses through controlled experiments to gather empirical evidence.
  3. The scientific method aims to establish causal relationships, allowing for the formulation and refinement of scientific theories.
  4. It is characterized by its structured and iterative nature, providing a framework for objective and reliable knowledge generation.
•  Inductive Procedure :
  1. The inductive procedure is a broader concept that encompasses various methods of reasoning, including induction. Induction involves drawing general conclusions from specific observations or instances.
  2. Inductive reasoning is one component of the inductive procedure, which also includes other forms of reasoning, such as analogy, abduction, and generalization.
  3. Unlike the scientific method, which often involves controlled experiments and hypothesis testing, the inductive procedure is not necessarily bound by a specific set of steps or criteria.
  4. While the scientific method is a subset of the inductive procedure, the latter extends beyond the confines of scientific inquiry and can be applied in diverse fields, including philosophy, logic, and everyday reasoning.

Relationship Between’ the Scientific Method and Inductive Reasoning :
1. Inductive Reasoning in the Scientific Method : Inductive reasoning plays a significant role within the scientific method. Observations and data collected through experimentation serve as the basis for inductive reasoning, leading to the formulation of general hypotheses and theories.

2. Generalization and Abduction : Generalization, a form of inductive reasoning, is employed in the scientific method when scientists draw broader conclusions from specific observations. Additionally, abduction, the process of forming the best possible explanation for observed phenomena, is often integrated into the scientific method.

3. Scientific Method as a Specific Application of Induction : While the scientific method utilizes inductive reasoning, it is a specific and specialized application of the broader concept of induction. The scientific method adds rigor and structure to the inductive process, emphasizing experimental testing and empirical verification.

4. Controlled Experiments and Deductive Elements : The scientific method incorporates controlled experiments, which involve both inductive and deductive elements. Deductive reasoning is employed in the formulation of hypotheses and predictions based on existing theories, while inductive reasoning is crucial in drawing general conclusions from specific experimental results.

Conclusion :
The scientific method holds immense significance in the realm of scientific inquiry due to its systematic and empirical approach to knowledge generation. Its- structured framework, emphasis on objectivity, and commitment to empirical evidence contribute to the reliability and credibility of scientific conclusions. While the scientifid method incorporates elements of inductive reasoning, it represents a specific and rigorous application within the broader context of the inductive procedure. The scientific method’s ability to facilitate cumulative knowledge, predict outcomes, and adapt to new evidence underscores its enduring importance in advancing our understanding of the natural world.

Question 6.
What sort of explanations are unsatisfactory according to science 7 Discuss.
Answer:
Science values explanations that are grounded in empirical evidence, adhere to logical reasoning, and contribute to a deeper understanding of natural phenomena. In contrast, there are several types of explanations that are considered unsatisfactory within the scientific framework. These unsatisfactory explanations often lack empirical support, rely on non-falsifiable claims, or invoke supernatural entities. Understanding the limitations and criteria for acceptability in scientific explanations is crucial for maintaining the integrity and rigor of scientific inquiry.

Types of Unsatisfactory Explanations in Science :
1. Unfalsifiability :
• Issue : Explanations that are unfalsifiable, meaning they cannot be tested or potentially proven wrong through empirical observation, are considered unsatisfactory in science. If a claim or explanation cannot be subjected to empirical testing or verification, it falls outside the realm of scientific inquiry.

• Example : The existence of an invisible, intangible, and undetectable dragon in someone’s garage. Since the dragon is claimed to be undetectable and leaves no trace, it cannot be subjected to empirical investigation, making the explanation unfalsifiable.

2. Appeal to the Supernatural:
• Issue: Explanations that invoke supernatural entities, forces, or phenomena without providing empirical evidence are generally regarded as unsatisfactory in science. The supernatural, by its nature, lies beyond the scope of empirical observation and testing, making it incompatible with the scientific method.

• Example : Explaining the origin of a natural phenomenon by attributing it to the actions of an invisible, omnipotent being without offering any empirical evidence or testable predictions.

3. Circular Reasoning :
• Issue : Circular reasoning occurs when an explanation assumes what it seeks to prove, creating a self-referential, lohp. Such explanations do not contribute meaningful insights or new information and are considered logically unsatisfactory in science.

• Example : “The Bible is the true word of God because it says so in the Bible.” This statement relies on the authority of the Bible to validate its own truth, creating a circular argument without external empirical support.

4. Ad Hoc Hypotheses:
• Issue: Ad hoc hypotheses are introduced solely to explain away inconsistencies or challenges to a particular theoiy without providing independent empirical support. While ad hoc reasoning can temporarily address objections, it is considered unsatisfactory because it does not contribute to a broader understanding or generate testable predictions.

• Example : Modifying a scientific theory each time new evidence challenges it without providing a more comprehensive or predictive explanation.

5. Overreliance on Anecdotal Evidence:
• Issue: Explanations based solely on anecdotal evidence, personal experiences, or testimonials are generally unsatisfactory in science. Anecdotes lack the systematic control and reliability required for scientific investigation, often leading to biased or unreliable conclusions.

• Example : Arguing that a particular treatment is effective because someone claims to have experienced positive results without rigorous, controlled studies to support the assertion.

6. Reduction to Ignorance:
• Issue : Explaining a phenomenon by attributing it to our current lack of understanding or gaps in knowledge without actively seeking empirical evidence or engaging in further inquiry is considered unsatisfactory. This form of explanation does not contribute to scientific progress or knowledge expansion.

• Example : Asserting that a mysterious event must be the result of unknown or supernatural forces simply because the current scientific understanding is incomplete.

7. Misuse of Scientific Terminology:
• Issue : Inappropriately using scientific terminology or concepts to lend an air of credibility to explanations that lack empirical support is considered unsatisfactory. Misusing scientific language without adhering to scientific principles undermines the rigor of scientific inquiry.

• Example : Asserting that a new-age or pseudoscientific claim is supported by quantum mechanics, even though the claim does not align with the principles or empirical evidence of quantum physics.

Criteria for Satisfactory Explanations in Science:
1. Empirical Evidence : Satisfactory explanations in science must be supported by empirical evidence obtained through systematic observation, experimentation, and measurement. Empirical evidence provides a basis for testing and validating hypotheses.

2. Testability and Falsifiability : Scientific explanations should be testable and potentially falsifiable. The ability to subject a hypothesis or theory to empirical testing allows for the validation or rejection of the explanation based on observed evidence.

3. Logical Coherence : Satisfactory explanations in science should demonstrate logical coherence and consistency. Logical reasoning ensures that the explanation is internally consistent and free from logical fallacies.

4. Predictive Pdwer : Strong scientific explanations possess predictive power—they allow scientists to make testable predictions about future observations or experiments. The ability to predict outcomes adds credibility to scientific explanations.

5. Generality and Scope : Scientific explanations are more satisfactory when they have broad generality and scope, providing a comprehensive understanding of natural phenomena. Generalizable explanations contribute to the development of overarching theories.

6. Reproducibility : For an explanation to be considered satisfactory, the results and observations supporting it should be reproducible by independent researchers. Reproducibility ensures that findings are not merely anecdotal or specific to a particular context.

7. Consensus within the Scientific Community : Satisfactory explanations gain support and acceptance within the scientific community through peer review and consensus-building. Scientific consensus reflects the convergence of evidence and agreement among experts in a particular field.

8. Absence of Circular Reasoning: Scientific explanations should avoid circular reasoning. The formulation of hypotheses, testing, and interpretation of results should follow a logical sequence, and the explanation should not assume what it seeks to prove.

Conclusion :
The significance of the scientific method lies in its ability to provide satisfactory explanations that are grounded in empirical evidence, subject to testing and falsification, and contribute to the cumulative knowledge of the scientific community. Unsatisfactory explanations often fall short of these criteria, relying on anecdotal evidence, circular reasoning, or appeals to the supernatural.

Maintaining the standards of empirical rigor, logical coherence, and testability ensures the integrity and reliability of scientific explanations, fostering the advancement of knowledge and understanding in diverse fields of inquiry.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
Explanation based on customs, tradictions, superstitions etc. is
(i) Popular Explanation
(ii) Scientific Explanation
(iii) Logical Explanation
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Popular Explanation

Question 2.
The explanation that is regarded by the common men as absolute, certain and final is:
(i) Popular Explanation
(ii) Scientific Explanation
(iii) Logical Explanation
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(i) Popular Explanation

Question 3.
A theoretical account of a fact is :
(i) Popular Explanation
(ii) Scientific Explanation
(iii) Logical Explanation
(iv) None of thesec
Answer:
(ii) Scientific Explanation

Question 4.
Scientific Explanation is :
(i) Systematic
(ii) Coherent
(iii) Logically consistent
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iv) All of these

Question 5.
Which of the following is not a form of scientific explanation?
(i) Analysis
(ii) Synthesis
(iii) Concatenation
(iv) Subsumption
Answer:
(ii) Synthesis

Question 6.
‘Man is a human being because he is a Home sapien’ is a
(i) Popular explanation
(ii) Scientific explanation
(iii) Fallacious explanation
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(iii) Fallacious explanation

Question 7.
Who says that scientific explanation may be of three types?
(i) Mill
(ii) Nagel
(iii) Copi
Answer:
(i) Mill

Question 8.
Whic one is not a primary quality?
(i) Extension
(ii) Motion
(iii) Gravity
(iv) Colour
Answer:
(iv) Colour

Question 9.
Which one is an elementary sensation?
(i) Shape
(ii) Resistance
(iii) Taste
(iv) Hinesty
Answer:
(iii) Taste

Question 10.
Which one cannot be explained?
(i) Table
(ii) Man
(iii) Teacher
(iv) Pleasure
Answer:
(iv) Pleasure

Question 11.
Which of the following is not a type of scientific explanation?
(i) Analysis
(ii) Generalisation
(iii) Subsumption
(iv) concatenation
Answer:
(ii) Generalisation

Question 12.
‘Famine is due to wrath of gods’ – what type of explanation is it?
(i) Popular
(ii) Scientific
(iii) Naturalistic
Answer:
(i) Popular

Question 13.
‘Table clock makes sounds in order to keep time’ what type of explanation is it?
(i) Genetic
(ii) Functional
(iii) Probabilistic
(iv) Deductive model
Answer:
(ii) Functional.

Question 14.
The aim of explanation is to make things:
(i) Simple
(ii) Gloomy
(iii) Obscure
(iv) Clear
Answer:
(iv) Clear

Question 15.
How many kinds of explanation are there?
(i) Two
(ii) Three
(iii) Four
(iv) Five
Answer:
(i) Two

Question 16.
Popular explanation is based on:
(i) Science
(ii) Evidence
(iii) Blind beliefs
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) Blind beliefs

Question 17.
How many kinds of scientific explanation, according to Nagel?
(i) One
(ii) Two
(iii) Three
(iv) Four
Answer:
(iv) Four

Question 18.
Which explanation is considered as most satisfactory form of explanation?
(i) Deductive model explanation
(ii) Probabilistic explanation
(iii) Functional explanation
(iv) Genetic explanation
Answer:
(i) Deductive model explanation

Question 19.
Which explanation is statistical in nature?
(i) Deductive model explanation
(ii) Probabilistic explanation
(iii) Functional explanation
(iv) Genetic explanation
Answer:
(ii) Probablistic explanation

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
There are _____ types of explanation.
Answer:
Two

Question 2.
Popular explanation is basically _____ and _____.
Answer:
Dogmatic, Superstitious.

Question 3.
_____ explanation is not scientific..
Answer:
Popular

Question 4.
According to _____ there are three types of scientific explanation.
Answer:
Mill.

Question 5.
_____ finds out the intermediary links between a remote cause and remote effect.
Answer:
Concatenation

Question 6.
_____ means to bring small laws under the purview of higher laws.
Answer:
Subsumption

Question 7.
According to _____ there are four types of scientific explanation.
Answer:
Nagel

Question 8.
According to Nagel, the most satisfactory form of explanation is _____ explanation.
Answer:
Deductive

Question 9.
Explanation extends our _____.
Answer:
Knowledge.

Question 10.
Explanation involves the clarity of _____.
Answer:
Facts.

Question 11.
Explanation is an aid to _____.
Answer:
Discovery

Question 12.
In _____ explanation the cause is verifiable.
Answer:
Scientific

Question 13.
In _____ explanation natural facts are explained by natural agencies.
Answer:

Question 14.
Scientific explanation is _____ in character.
Answer:
Theoretical

Question 15.
The word teleology is derived from the word _____.
Answer:
Teleos

Question 16.
In _____ explanation we explain a fact with reference to the process of development.
Answer:
Genetic

Question 17.
The limit at explanation is the limit at _____.
Answer:
Assimilation

Question 18.
The hypothesis, theories and laws together constitute a _____.
Answer:
Sysem

Question 19.
_____ explanation gives no room for superstitions, blind beliefs and dogmas..
Answer:
Scientific

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Explanation makes a statement gloomy.
Answer:
Explanation makes a statement clear.

Question 2.
There are three types of explanation.
Answer:
There are two types of explanation.

Question 3.
Scientific explanation is based on blind beliefs.
Answer:
Popular explanation is based on blind beliefs.

Question 4.
Popular explanation is based on evidence.
Answer:
Scientific explanation is based on evidence.

Question 5.
According to mill, there are two types of scientific explanation.
Answer:
According to mill, there are three types of scientific explanation.

Question 6.
According to Nagel there are five types of scientific explanation.
Answer:
According to Nagel, there are four types of scientific explanatio.

Question 7.
Explanation creates doubts concerning an event.
Answer:
Explanation removes doubts concerning an event.

Question 8.
Explanation is required for the usual events.
Answer:
Explanation is required for the unusual events.

Question 9.
Explanation limits our knowledge.
Answer:
Explanation enhance our knowledge.

Question 10.
Popular explanation is a theoretical account of a fact.
Answer:
Scientific explanation is a theoretical account of a fact.

Question 11.
Popular explanation is also called as scientific explanation.
Answer:
Popular explanation is also called as unscientific explanation.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word

Question 1.
Which explanation is based on evidence?
Answer:
Scientific

Question 2.
How many kinds of scientific explanation, according to Nagel?
Answer:
Four

Question 3.
Which explantion is wider in scope?
Answer:
Scientific

Question 4.
In which explanation we bring a law under a higher law?
Answer:
Subsumption

Question 5.
In which explanation we explain a fact with reference to purpose or goal?
Answer:
Teleological

Question 6.
Which explanation is based on beliefs?
Answer:
Popular

Question 7.
Are fundamental principles of logic explainable?
Answer:
No

Question 8.
Which explanation, popular or scientific, provides the best explanation ?
Answer:
Scientific.

Question 9.
What is the explanation of a complex fact by its simple causes called?
Answer:
Analysis

Question 10.
Whatis the explanation of a law by a more jgeneral law called?
Ans:
lubsumption

Question 11.
Name any one kind of mill’s scientific explanation?
Answer:
Analysis

Question 12.
How many kinds of scientific explanation did Mill put forth?
Answer:
Three

Question 13.
How many kinds did Bain classify the fallacious explanations?
Answer:
Three

Question 14.
Which laws, primary or secondary, cannot be scientifically explained?
Answer:
Primary

Question 15.
Which of the experimental methods are based on observation?
Answer:
Naturalistic observation

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Economics Solutions Chapter 8 Market Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Economics Chapter 8 Question Answer Market

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
In perfect competition, price is uniform.
Answer:
In perfect competition, goods are hemogeneous & transacted among the large number of buyers & sellers. Neither the buyers nor the sellers have any influence over this. So, the price remains uniform.

Question 2.
Normal price is an imaginary price.
Answer:
Normal price is a long-run price determined by the interaction of supply of & demand for a goods. Since long-period is an imaginary concept, the normal price is conceived as an imaginary price.

Question 3.
Market price is real price.
Answer:
Market price is the price that prevails in the market & at this price goods are bought & sold. So market price is real price.

Question 4.
Normal profit is the part of the cost of production.
Answer:
Normal profit is determined in the long-run in which AR & MR becomes equal to AC at its minimum point. So it is part of the average cost of production.

Question 5.
Super-normal profit is generally earned in the short-run.
Answer:
In the short run, the entry of new firm is restricted. The existing firms lam super normal profit because of favirable cost condition & price structure. So it is a short-run phenomenon.

Question 6.
The supply in the market period is inelastic.
Answer:
The market period is a very short-period during which additional supply is impossible. So the supply in market period is quite inelastic.

Question 7.
Monopoly indicates absence of any type of competition.
Answer:
In monopoly, there is single seller/producer selling/producing a goods having no close substitutes. So, it indicates absence of competition.

Question 8.
Price discrimination is possible only under monopoly.
Answer:
Under monopoly, there is single seller selling a product having no close substitutes. So it is viable under this to change different prices at different places for the same product.

Question 9.
Mopoly price is higher than price under perfect competition.
Answer:
Unlike the perfect competition monopolist sell a product having no close substitute & it has sole control over the price & market. So to get more profit, monopolist can charge higher price.

Question 10.
Monopolistic competition is the blending of perfect compeition & monopoly.
Answer:
In monopolistic competition, there observed a mixture of competitive elements like large number of buyers & sellers, free entry & exit along with some monopoly element like product differentiation etc. So, it is the blending of perfect competition & monopoly.

Question 11.
Each seller under monopolistic competition is a monopolist.
Answer:
In monopplistic competition, each seller sells a product having no perfect substitute but having close substitute. So each seller is a monopolist of his own product facing a competition from its rivals producing close substitutes.

Question 12.
In perfect competition price of goods is uniform.
Answer:
Under perfect competition, the Homogeneous goods are bought & sold by the large number of buyers & sellers. Neither the buyers nor the sellers have any control over the price.

Question 13.
Demand curve under perfect cometition is perfectly elastic.
Answer:
Under perfect competition, the goods are homogeneous & price is uniform. So the demand curve is perfectly elastic.

Question 14.
Both the demand for & supply of product determine the price under competition.
Answer:
As per Prof. Marshal both the demand side as well as supply side of a goods are equally influential in determining the price under perfect competition.

Question 15.
Monopoly price is higher than the competitive price.
Answer:
Under monopoly, there is single seller selling a goods having no close substitutes & hence it has sole control over the price. But under perfect competition neither the buyers nor the sellers have any control over the price because of homogeneous goods & uniform price.

Question 16.
Under monopoly, there is no distinction between firm & industry.
Answer:
Under monopoly, there is only one firm & it also constitutes the whole industry. So there is no distinction between firm and industry.

Question 17.
Monopolistic competition is the mixture of both monopoly & perfect competition.
Answer:
The monopolistic competition bears some features of perfect competition & monopoly. Every seller firm under this market structure is a monopolist facing competition.

Question 18.
Normal price is a long-run price.
Answer:
Normal price is determined by the interaction of supply & demand in the long-run.

II. Answer within Five/Six sentence :

(A) WRITE SHORT NOTES ON :

Question 1.
Market:
Answer:
In Economics, the market is not related to a place rather it is associated with goods. Market consists of a group of buyers & sellers sufficiently close contact with each other that exchange takes place among them. Hence, market is formed with buyers & sellers. These buyers & sellers are sufficiently attached with each other for the exchange of goods. Broadly market is of two types i.e. perfectly competitive market & imperfect market. Further, imperfect market may be in form of monopoly, monopolistic competition, Oligopoly etc.

Question 2.
Perfect Competition:
Answer:
Perfect competition is said to prevails when there are large number of buyers & sellers exchanging a homogeneous goods at a uniform price without any restriction. A large number of buyers & sellers, homogeneous goods, free entry and free exit, uniform price, perfect mobility etc. are the prominent features of perfect competition. Under perfect competition, the demand curve is perfectly elastic. Neither the buyers nor the seller can influence the price of the product. Price stands as a given datum & all the sellers are the “price-takers”. Perfect competition is an ideal market structure but it is rarely found in real world.

Question 3.
Homogeneous Goods:
Answer:
Homogeneous goods are those goods which are indentical in all respect. All the goods are similar with regard to quality, quantity, size, packing etc. All are similar in nature. All these goods are perfect substitute for each other & hence all these can be used alternatively. The price of such goods is likely to be uniform & any change in price of it will lead to infinite change in quantity demanded.

Question 4.
Equilibrium:
Answer:
Equilibrium is a state of rest or balance. It is free from all sorts of fluctuation. In this situation, there will be no tendency on the part of the buyers or sellers to change the quantity of goods purchased or sold. All the economic variables are found to be stable and indicate no symptom of change. This situation is possible only when the economic agents derive the best. The economic forces are in balance & shows no tendency for change.

Question 5.
Equilibrium Price:
Answer:
Equilibrium price refers to that price at which quantity demanded of a goods equates to its quantity supplied. It is determined by the interaction of forces of demand & supply. When these two forces are balance with each other, the equilibrium price results. In this situation, both the buyers & sellers maximise their satisafaction. The buyers maximise their utility whereas sellers maximise thir profit. Any change in either demand or supply takes place , this equilibrium price is changed.

Question 6.
Market Price :
Answer:
Market price refers to that price which actually prevails in the market at a particular point of time. It is the real price at which the commodities are but & sold in the market at a particular span of time. This market price is determined by the equilibrium of forces of demand & supply. During this period supply is fixed. So the demand for the product plays the vital role in determining the price. Any change in price in this period happens due to the fluctuations of demand for the product. Thus, market price is constructed as the equilibrium price determined in a very short period in which supply of the commodity is fixed.

Question 7.
Normal Price:
Answer:
Normal price denotes that price which is expected to prevail to in the long-run. Hence it is called long-run price. This price is determined by the forces of demand & supply. Supply of the product can be fully adjusted to any change in its demand. Normal price is an imaginary price based on expectation. As such normal prices are not found in real world. According to Marshall, “Normal price is the price which tends to prevails in a market when full time is given to the forces of demand & supply to .adjust themselves.” It is the long-run equilibrium price of a commodity with supply adjusted to demand.

Question 8.
Monopoly:
Answer:
Monopoly is a market structure in which there exists a single seller selling a product having no close substitutes. Literary speaking ‘mono’ means one & ‘poly’ means seller. Thus, in monopoly there is only one seller who controls the entire market. This partnership or a joint stock company. Besides, the product in monopoly market does n’t have any close substitute. This product is a unique product.

Question 9.
Oligopoly:
Answer:
Oligopoly denotes an inperfect market in which a few sellers/producers selling/producing either homogeneous goods or differentiated goods. In this market there is a few sellers or producers. The product is either homogeneous or differentiated. The competition is restricted to the few sellers selling very close or perfect substitute. The oligopoly is of two types. In case the sellers deals with homogeneous product, it is called “pure oligopoly” & in case of differentiated product, it is called “differentiated oligopoly.”

Question 10.
Differentiated Product:
Answer:
The products which are slightly different from each other are called differentiated products. These products are close substitutes for each other but not perfect substitutes. In these products, there observed the least differences in respect of their quality, quantity, size, colour or packing. This type of product becomes the feature of monopolistic competition. This product differentiation makes this monopolistic competition as a seperate market structure.

Question 11.
Selling Cost:
Answer:
Selling cost is a special cost incurred by the producer in imperfect market to promote the sale of.its product. This cost takes the form of advertisement cost. It is incurred to inform the consumer about the various aspect of the product. It is spent to attract the new customer towards a particular product. This cost is usally spent in monopoly, monopolistic competition & oligopoly.

Question 12.
What is equilibrium price ?
Answer:
The price of a commodity is determined somewhere between the maximum limit (demand price) and the minimum limit (supply price). Naturally the customers will like to strike the deal as low as possible compared to the demand price and the sellers will try their best to get as high a price as possible compared to the supply price. The point at which the quantity demanded and the quantity offered balance each other shall be the deciding point. That price is, therefore, known as the ‘equilibrium price’.

Question 13.
Define equilibrium.
Answer:
Equilibrium refers to a point of rest or stage of no change. It is a state of balance between various economic forces. In other words it means no movement away from the present position. In economics the term is used in the context of a consumer, a producer, a firm or an industry etc. A consumer is said to be in equilibrium when he feels no urge to change his combination of things as long as circumstances are not changed. Similarly a firm is said to be in equilibrium when it has no tendency either to expand or to contract its output. It is a position when the firm earns maximum profits or minimum losses. The same is true of an industry. An industry consisting of a group of firms is said to be in equilibrium only when no firm has the tendency to enter Into it or leave out of it. An industry is considered to be in equilibrium when all firms are earning normal profits.

Question 14.
Define market price.
Answer:
Market price is the price of a product which prevails at any given time as a result of temporary equilibrium between demand and supply. It is a fluctuating price. It is influenced more by demand which is especially true in case of perishable goods. It may sometimes be below the cost of production.

Question 15.
Distinguish between short period and long period.
Answer:
Short period refers to a situation where the time involved is not too short as in market period nor too long as in long period. During short period supply cannot fully adjust to change in demand, because the fixed factors like plant and machinery cannot be changed at short notice. Hence, plant size remains unaltered. Production can be increased or decreased to some extent by changing the variable factors only. Demand forces play an important role in determining price in the short period. Firms may reap supernormal profits in the short period.

Under long period, however, supply can fully adjust to demand conditions as all factors are variable during this period. Sufficient time is available to change the plant size by changing the factor inputs. New firms may enter the industry or old firms may quit depending upon the demand conditions. Thus adjustment between supply and demand becomes possible. In the long period the cost of production plays a dominant role in determining price. Firms earn only normal profits in the ! long period.
(B) DISTINGUISH BETWEEN

Question 16.
Homogeneous Product & Differentiated Product.
Answer:
The product which is similar in all respect is called homogeneous product, but the product which is slightly different from other product of similar nature is called differentiated product. The quality, quantity, size, packing etc are identical in case of homogeneous product whereas there found slight differences in quality, quanity, size, packing etc in case of differentiated product.

The homogeneous product are perfect substitutes for each other whereas the ditferentiated product are close substitutes for each other.
The price of homogeneous goods is uniform but there is difference in price in case of differentiated product. The homogeneous goods are found in perfectly competitive market but the differentiated goods are found in monopolistic competition.

Question 17.
Monopoly & Monopolistic Competition :
Answer:
Monopoly is an extreme form of imperfect market in which there exist single seller; but in monopolistic competition there are many sellers.
In monopoly, the product does not have close substitute whereas in monopolistic competition the product has close substitutes.
A producer under monopoly faces no competition but a producer under monopolistic competition faces stif competition.
Entry of new is restricted under monopoly but there is free entry in case of monopolistic competition.. ‘
Price discrimination is possible under monopoly but it is not possible under monopolistic competition.

Question 18.
Market Price & Normal Price.
Answer:
Market price prevails in the market at a particular point of time whereas normal price is expected to prevails in the long-run.
Market price is the real price what the consumer actually pays but normal price is an expected imaginary price.
Market price prevails during very short-period but normal price is prevails during long-run Market price is highly fluctuating but normal price is some how-stable.
All the goods have market price but only the reproducible goods have the normal price.

Question 19.
Perfect Competition & Pure Competition:
Answer:
Perfect competition possesses the features like large number of buyers & seller, homogeneous goods, free entry & exit, perfect knowledge about the market, free mobility of the factors, no transportation cost etc. But pure competition covers only first three features of perfect competition.
Perfect competition is a broader concept whereas pure competition is a narrow concept. Pure competition is a part of the perfect competition.

Question 20.
Perfect Competition & Imperfect Competition.
Answer:
Under perfect competition, there exists a large number of sellers whereas under imperfect competition, the number of sellers may be limited.
There prevails uniform price in perfect competition but different prices are charged under imperfect competition.
The buyers are well-informed about the market but the buyers lack perfect knowledge in imperfect competition.
There is no selling cost in perfect competition but it is very much present in imperfect competition.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What do you mean by perfect competition ? Discuss its important features & find out the difference between perfect competition & pure competition.
Answer:
Broadly, market is classified into perfect competition and imperfect market. Perfect competition is an extreme form of market which is not seen in reality. Perfect competition is said to prevail in the market in which a large number of buyers & sellers with an easy access to enter into & exit from the market make the exchange of a homogeneous goods at a uniform .price. In other words, a perfectly competitive market is that market in which a large number of buyers & sellers exchange a homogeneous goods at a uniform price. All these features exposed in the definition indicate that neither a buyer nor a seller can influence this market structure in any manner. It is considered to be an ideal market.

Features : The salient features of perfect competition are mentioned below :
(a) Large number of buyers & sellers : In perfect competition, there observed innumerable of buyers and sellers. One seller or buyer is treated to be one amongst many. So a buyer can not influence the demand for the goods because of such limitation. Similarly, an individual seller can not also influence the supply of the goods in the market. Both the buyers & sellers are compelled to accept the prevailing price in the market. They are the price takers.

(b) Free entry & free exit: In perfect competition, there is no restriction on the part of the buyers or sellers with respect to their entry into & exit from the market. They are quite free & independent to enter into the market at their own will or they may exit from the market when- evej desire. It is because of the large size of the buyers & sellers who may earn normal or abnormal profit. In case of normal profit, the sellers may not be encouraged to enter into or exit from the market – But in case of abnormal profit, the out-side sellers are encouraged to enter into the market. On the other hand, the buyers are also extremely free to go or to come to the market.

(c) Homogeneous Goods : The goods which are exchanged in the perfectly competitive market are homogeneous. The goods which are identical in quality, quantity, size, packing etc are called homogeneous goods. This goods are identical in all respect. In such a case the buyers do not reveal their preference for any particular goods. In another angle, the buyers will never pay different price for the same goods or the sellers can not charge different price for the same good.

(d) Perfect knowledge about the market: The buyers in such market are completely aware of the market structure & condition. The buyers gather information about the type of goods & price of the goods. Similarly, the sellers are also quite aware of the market condition. Under this situation, bargaining about the price becomes a futile exercise on the part of the buyers or sellers.

(e) Perfect mobility of factors : The factors in this market are perfectly mobile. Mobility refers to easy & free movement from one place to another. As such, the factors can freely move from one place to another if there occurs imbalance between demand & supply. This feature leads to create a uniform price all over the market.

(f) No Transport Cost: As the product & price are uniform in perfect competition, there will be absense of transport cost. With the addition or inclusion of transport cost, the price of the product shall never be uniform rather it will vary from place to place. All these features indicate the prevalence of uniform price in perfect competition. So uniform price of the product is a derived feature in perfectly competitive market. All the buyers & sellers are forced to exchange the goods at this unifom price.

Difference between Perfect competition & pure competition:
E.H. Chamberlin, a noted American economists made the distinction between perfect competition & pure competition. According to him, perfect competition is a broader concept & pine competition is a narrower concept & it is a part of the perfect competition.

Pure competition possesses the features like a large number of buyers & sellers, free entry & exit, homogeneous goods along with uniform price. But perfect competition possesses all the features as mentioned above. Hence, pure competition is a part of the compehensive perfect competition. Though perfect competition is an ideal market, it is never found in the real world. It is an imaginary concept which has only theoretical validity.

Question 2.
How is the “Equilibrium Price” determined in the perfectly competitive market ?
Answer:
Perfectly Competitive Market or perfect competition is an ideal market in which a large number of buyers & sellers participate in exchange a homogenous goods at a uniform price without any restriction. The features of perfect competition reveal a uniform price which can not be challenged either by the buyers or the sellers. The price is uniform & it is same for all. So it is very much essential to determine the policy or process of price determination under perfect competition. .

The principle of price – determination under perfect competition was a controversial & debatable issue for the economists before the arrival of Alfred Marshall. Before Marshall, there was a dispute among the economists regarding this. One group of economists argued that the price under perfect competition can alone be determined by the demand-side & other group emphasised on the supply- side as the sole determinant. But Marshall outrightly rejected these two notions & enunciated that neither the demand side nor the supply side of the product can alone determine the price. Rather both the sides are equally Important for the price-determination under perfect competition. In case of absence of any one of the sides, the price can not be determined.

According to Marshall’s view, the price under perfect competition can be determined through the simultaneous interaction of the demand-side as well as the supply-side of the product. The equilibrium price can be determined at that level when the demand for goods is equal to supply of goods. Thus, equilibrium price is that price where the quantity demanded of a good is equal to the quantity supplied of it. As such, for the equilibrium price under perfect competition, the demand must coincide with the supply of goods.

Keeping the Marshallian concept in view, it is required to analyse both the demand -side as well as supply-side of the determination of price under perfect competition.

Demand Side :The demand for any product is the function of price. It is guided by the “Law of Demand”. According to this law, in an unchanged situation, more is demanded at lower prices & less is demanded at higher price. As such, there exists inverse relationship between price of a goods and quantity demanded. The demand-curve, thus, has a negative slope.

Supply – Side : The supply of a product is also a function of price. But unlike to demand- side, there exists direct functional relationship between price of a goods & its quantity supplied. As stated in law of supply,, more is supplied at higher price & less is supplied at lower price. Hence, the supply curve has a positive slope & it slopes upward from left to right.

Interaction : The determination of equilibrium price can be made by the interaction of demand side as well as supply-side. This interaction is mentioned below with the help of numerical analysis & graphcial analysis.

Numerical Analysis

Price (in Rs.)	Quantity Demanded (in units.)	Quantity Supplied (in units)
10	90	50
20	80	60
30	70	70
40	60	80
50	50	90

The above schedule is a numerical explanation of the interaction between supply-side & demand side for the product. In the schedule, the range of the price varies from Rs 10 to Rs 50 where as the range of the demand & supply varies from 50 units to 90 units. The demand-side in the schedule exhibits that when the price of the product rises from Rs 10 to Rs. 50, the quantity demanded of it decreases from 90 units to 50 units. It just describes the inverse relationship between the price of the product & its quantity demanded. On the other hand, with the rise in the price from Rs. 10 to Rs.50 the quantity-supplied of the product increases from 50 units to 90 units. It is just the direct relationship between price & quantity supplied of a product.

Further, it is also revealed that both the demand for & supply of the product, interacting with each other becomes equal when price is Rs.30. At this price, demand for the product & supply of the product are found to be 70 units each. So, the Price Rs.30 is accepted as “equilibrium price” as per Marshall’s assertions. The same analysis can be made with the help of a graphical illustration which is as follows :

Graphical analysis:

The above diagram measures quantity demanded & supplied of the product on OX-axis & price of the product on OY-axis.
The figure illustrates the downward slope (negative slope) of the demand curve (DD) & upward slope (positively slope) of the supply curve (SS). Both the demand curve & supply curve meet at point E resulting equilibrium price, OP. This point of intersection (E) results from the interaction of both the demand-side & supply-side. So in Marshallian framework, P is the equilibrium price & OQ is the equilibrium quantity that represents both the demand for & supply of the product. Justification of Equilibrium Point (E) :
Equilibrium denotes a state of rest or balance. At point E, the demand for the product equals to supply of the product & it is believed that this situation is free from fluctuation. To establish this, the price deviation may be made.

If equilibrium price (OP) becomes higher i.e. OM, the quantity supplied exceeds the quanity demanded to the extent of RT. This excess amount remains unsold unless the price gets reduced. So the sellers will be forced to reduce the price. This price reduction will continue till OP is restored. On the other hand, if the price falls to ON, there shall be excess demand to the extent of AB: So the buyers will compete with each other for the goods. As such, the sellers will be encouraged to raise the price & ultimately ‘OP’ price will be restored.
Thus, it is affirmed the ‘OP’ price is the equilibrium price. Neither OM nor ON loses its validity to be the equilibrium price. Hence, the price ‘OP’ is justified as equilibrium price.

Question 3.
What is normal price ? How can it be determined ?
Answer:
Normal price is an ideal price which is determined in the long-run through the interaction of demand for & supply of the product. It is other wise called long-run price. Normal price is determined at that level where the equilibrium between demand for & supply of a product is confirmed. In other words, it is determined at that level where demand for product is equal to supply of product.

It is a fact that long-period is a period during which all the factors are found to be variable & hence there is every possibility of full adjustment of supply to any change in demand for product. In the long-run, supply can be increased to any extent to match with the increase in demand.

With all the features of long-run, the normal price prevails. According to Marshall, “Normal value of a commodity is that which economic forces would tend to bring about in the long-run. Thus, normal price is viewed as that price to which one may expect actual prices to tend. It is not same thing as average price till price is constant.”

Like the price-determination in general, the normal price is also determined by the forces of demand and supply. The real force behind the demand is the marginal utility of the commodity whereas on the supply-side, it is the cost of production. In the long-run, as the supply can be fully adjusted to increase in demand, the supply-side plays the vital role in the long-run while determining the price. In the long-run, there is also no distinction between fixed cost & variable cost. All the costs are variable & undergo change with the change in the level of output. Besides, all these costs incurred are covered up & hence price in the long-run (Normal Price) is equal to average cost in the long-run. There is no question of earning abnormal profit nor incurring abnormal loss because of free entry & exit of firms. So, the price is equal to long-run average cost resulting in normal profit.

The process of price determinination in the long-run is illustrated with the help of diagram which is presented below :

Graphical Analysis:
In the figure, demand for & supply of the product is reflected on OX-axis & price on OY-axis.

The DD & SS are the demand curve & supply curve respectively. Demand curve (DD) & supply curve (SS) take traditional shape. DD has negative slope & SS has the positive slope.
The demand curve (DD) intersects supply curve (SS) at point E resulting in price OP & quantity (OM). Suppose demand curve (DD) curve shifts upward to D₁D₁. This new demand curve (D₁D₁) cuts the supply curve at point E₁ & new price will be OP₁ & quantity OM₁, This price (OP₁) is greater than the previous price (OP). On the contrary, if demand decreases, the demand curve is D₂D₂. This demand curve (D₂D₂) cuts the supply curve at point E₂ resulting price (OP₂). This new (OP₂) price is less than the previous price (OP).

The above analysis reflects that any change in demand is matched by adequate change in supply. Hence OP₁ & OP₂ are the normal price determined under the full adjustment of demand-side with supply side. All these prices are equilibrium price determined by equating demand & supply of the product. An increase in demand leads to higher price & decrease in demand leads to lower price. Hence supply is adjusted fully with demand. All these expressed above are the situations that happen in the long-run. So all these prices are stable price determined by the long-run equilibrium of demand & supply of the product.

Question 4.
Explain the market price & Normal Price. What are the differences between Market Price & Normal Price.
Answer:
On the basis of time elements of Marshall, time period can be classified into market period, short period & long-period. Thus, the price determined in the market period, short-period or long-period can be called as market price, short-run price & long-run price (Normal price). respectively. Market price & Normal price are the two level of price of a goods prevailing at two different time periods i.e. market period & long period.
Market price refers to that price which actually prevails in the market at a particular point of time. It is the real price at which the commodities are bought & sold in the market at a particular span of time. This market price is determined by the equilibrium of forces of demand & supply. During this period supply is fixed. So the demand for the product plays the vital role in determining the price.

Any change in price in this period happens due to the fluctuations of demand for the product. Thus market price is construed as the equilibrium price determined in a very short period in which supply of the commodity is fixed.

Normal price denotes that price which is expected to prevail to in the long-run. Hence it is called long-run price. This price is determined by the forces of demand & supply. Supply of the product can be fully adjusted to any change in its demand. Normal price is an imaginary price based on expectation. As such normal prices are not found in real world. According to Marshall, “Normal price is the price which tends to prevails in a market when full time is given to the forces of demand & supply to adjust themselves.” It is the long-run equilibrium price of a commodity with supply adjusted to demand. The noteworthy differences between market price & normal price are described below:

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MARKET PRICE&NORMAL PRICE:

(a) Time element: Market price refers to that price which prevails in the market period (very short period). But the normal price is that price which is expected to prevail in the long-run. (long period)
Thus, market price prevails during a point time where as normal price prevails over a period of time.

(b) Real price & Imaginary Price : Market price is said to be the real price that rules in the market. The commodities are bought & sold in the market at this price. It is uniqe & uniform price what the purchase actually pays.
On the other hand, Normal price is an imaginary price expected to prevail in the market in the long run. It is a probable price based on an imaginary impression of long-run equilibrium of demand & supply. Its prevalene in the market is questionble.
Thus, market price is real price whereas the normal price is an imaginary price based on guess mark.

(c) Stability : Market price is not a stable price. It is highly fluctuating on account of frequent changes in demand. This fluctuation takes place due to temporary changes in the market.

But normal price is a stable price. Because the temporary events hapens in market period that naturalise each other in the long-run. The price comes to be settled at a particular level. So market price is found to be fluctuating but normal price is observed to be stable.

(d) Relative influence of demand & supply : Market period is a very short period during which supply of the commodity is fixed. So, in case of market price, demand plays the dominant role in determining it. Any fluctuation in market price is due to the change in the factors of demand as supply remains as a neutral component.

In case of normal price, it is determined by the long-run equilibrium of demand & supply. As all the factors are variable,, supply of the commodity can be fully-adjusted to change in demand to any extent. Supply of the commodity is quite flexible. In this case, supply-side plays the significant role.

(e) Relationship with cost of production : Market price is the price prevailed in the market period during which supply is fixed. As such market price does not have any relevance to the cost of production. In the determination of market price, demand-side is dominant which is guided by consumers, behaviour. Henqe market price is no way related to the cost of production.

On the other hand, supply-side plays the dominant role in determining the normal price. Supply is greatly influenced by the cost of production. So price in the long-run is somehow related to the cost of production. It must be equal to average cost of production. If it is more than the average cost, there shall be abnormal profit which attracts new producers. This new entry brings back the price to normal. Similarly, if the price is less than the average cost, there shall be abnormal loss for which existing producers will leave. This exit will bring back the normal price. Thus, market price is not related to cost of production,but normal price is related to it.

(f) Relevance to kinds of Goods : Market price is the price which prevails in the market. So all the commodities whether producible or non-reproduciable have market price. But only the reproducible goods have normal price. Hence rare paintings, old coins, ancient arts do not have normal price but those goods have market price.

(g) Emergence of Profit Loss : Market price is not associated with the cost of production. So the producer may earn super normal profit by charging higher price or may incur loss. But normal price always assures normal profit which is a part of the cost of production.

The above analysis affirms that market price is real price & the consumers are to rely on it. In real world, the market price is emphasised as the goods are bought & sold with this price. But normal price is an imaginary price which is expected in the 16ng-run. Long-run is a long period which is not categorically marked. So normal price is exclusively a theoretical concept which is not valid in the real world.

Question 5.
What is monopoly ? Explain the features of monopoly.
Answer:
Monopoly is a market structure in which there exists a single seller selling a product having no close substitutes. Literary speaking ‘mono’ means one & ‘poly’ means seller. Thus, in monopoly there is only one seller who controls the entire market. This may be a partnership or a joint stock company. Besides, the product in monopoly market does n’t have any close substitute. This product is a unique product.

FEATURES :
(a) Single seller & Innumerable buyers : Under monopoly, there is only seller who deals with a large number of buyers. This single seller dominates all over the market. This single seller may be in form of an individual or partnership or joint stock company. A large number of buyers in such market are to depend on this single seller.

(b) No close substitutes : The product exchanged in this market is unique. It does not have any close substitute. So no good can be substitute for this good. Non-availability of any close substitute makes the seller supreme & he may charge any price keeping the demand for the product in view. So under monopoly, higher price is very often charged.

(c) Free entry is restricted : In the monopoly, the entry of new sellers firm is completely ruled out. There is no scope for other sellers to reign over the market. This single seller is considered as the sole supplier or dealer of the product. There is no rival of it.

(d) Price discrimination: Under monopoly, there observed price discrimination. The monopolist can discriminate the price. Price-discrimination occurs when seller charges different prices from different buyers for the same good. As under monopoly, there is only one seller, he has ample scope to discriminate the price by keeping the demand for goods in view.

(e) Selling Cost: The monopoly incurs selling cost towards the advertisement. By spending this amount, the monopolist makes the consumers aware of the product & also informs the consumers about the quality & nature of product.

(f) Independent decision : Being a sole seller the monopolist takes his own decision regarding his business. It fixes the price of his product independently. He is the ‘price-maker’ very often it changes higher price & imposes a burden on the consumer.

(g) Demand Curve : Under monopoly, demand curve or avarage revenue curve slopes downward from left to right. It indicates that whenever a monopolist wants to sell more, he is to reduce the price & incase of higher price, he is to reduce the sale. Thus, the average revenue curve as well as marginal revenue curve slopes downward from left to right.

(h) Profit & Loss : It is not always true that monopolist earns super normal profit. Though a monopolist very often earns super normal profit by manipulating the supply of goods, yet it sometimes incurs loss because of insufficient demand for the product. If the demand for the product becomes inadequate, the monopolist incurs loss. So profit & loss also arise under monopoly.

Question 6.
Make a comparative analysis of perfect competition with monopoly.
Answer:
On the basis of the relative strength of competitive aspects in the market, market may be view as perfectly competitive market & imperfect market. Perfectly competitive market (perfect competition) market is constituted with a large number of buyers & sellers making the exchange of a homogeneous goods at a uniform price without any restriction to their entry & exit. In this market, no buyer nor seller has control over the market in influencing it. On the contrary, monopoly is a market structure comprising of a single sellerselling a product having no close substitute. Hence, this single seller has sole authority & control over the entire market & the price charged is not also uniform.

The critical analysis of both the extreme forms of market dictates certain similarities and disimilarities. The important concepts in this regard are describe below :
SIMILARTIES : Both the perfect competition & monopoly have certain common characters.

(a) Common goal: Both monopolist & perfectly competitive firm have a common goal. The seller or producer in both the market structures pursues to maximise its profit. So profit maximisation becomes the common goal or objective in perfect competition & monopoly.

(b) Perfect Knowledge : Under monopoly & perfect competition, the buyers & seller gather perfect information about the market, product & price. All the buyers & the seller (in monopoly single seller) are completely aware of the market condition & accordingly they behave for the maximisation of profit.

DISSIMILARITIES : Along with these similarities, there are number of dissimilarities between these market structures.

(i) Goods : The first & foremost difference between these two market is about the goods exchanged. In perfect competition, the goods are identical in all respect i.e. same in quality, quantity, size, packing etc. & hence the goods re homogeneous. In other words, under perfect competition the goods are perfect substitute for each other. On the other hand, under monopoly, the goods does not have any close substitute. The goods exchanged is unique & no other good can be substitute for it.

(ii) Number of buyers & sellers : Though the number of buyers in both the markets are innumerable, yet there is spectacular difference over the number of sellers. In perfect competition there is a large number of sellers selling a product. There is a large number of sellers in perfect competitive market. No individual seller has its own influence in the market. But, in monopoly, there is only one seller which can form the entire market. He has the sole authority or control over the market. He himself deals with the product & it is treated to be the single supplier. This single seller may be an individual, partnership or joint stock company.

(iii) Entry : In perfect competition, there exists free entry & exit in respect of the firms or selles. The buyers & sellers are free to enter into the market & they also leave the market at their own will.

On the other hand, this free entry & exit are quite banned under monopoly. As a single seller forms the market, the entry & exit are not possible. Thus entry & exit are restricted under monopoly.

(iv) Price : In perfect competition, price is uniform because of its inhertied features. Neither the buyers nor the sellers can influence the price. Price stands as a constant entity which is universally accepted.
But under monopoly, the price is not uniform. The monopolist can change prices to different buyers at different times. Besides it monopolist desires to sell more, he may reduce the price or if wants sell less, he may change higher price. As such the price is quite a variable concept.

(v) EquiHbrium Price & Output: In perfect competition, the equilibrium price is less than that of under monopoly. On the other hand, the equilibrium output in perfect competition is found to be higher than that of monopoly.

(vi) Price Discrimination : As the price is uniform in perfect competition, there is no scope for price-discrimination. A uniform price is changed & is same for all the buyers. But monopolist practise price-discrimination. He can charge different prices to different buyers for selling the same quantity of a commodity. This is not possible in perfect competition.

(vii) Demand Curve : The demand curve for an individual seller in perfect competition is found to be a horizontal straight line. It shows that the demand is perfectly elastic. But under monopoly, the demand curve slopes downward from left to right indicating that more is sold at lower price & vice-versa.
From the above analysis, its observed that the perfect competition & monopoly are two extreme forms of market. They possess certain distinct different features. Though these market structure seem to be theoretically valid, there are rarely structure seem to be theoretically valid, there are rarely found in real world.

Question 7.
What is Monopolistic Competition ? State its features.
Answer:
The concept of monopolistic competition is a joint contribution of E.H. Chamberlin & Joan Robinson. Both the economists treat this special market structure as a blending of perfect competition & monopoly. They term it as “Imperfect competition.”
Monopolistic competition is a market structure in which there are many sellers of a particular product but the product of each seller is in some way differentied in the minds of the consumers from the product of every other seller.

Simply speaking, monopolistic competition is a mixture of perfect competition & monopoly in which a large number of buyers & sellers exchange a differentiated product. Here the goods are not perfect substitute as in perfect competition rather close substitutes. Unlike monopoly, the goods is not unique rather close substitutes for each other. The monopolistic competition embraces some features of perfect competition & some features of monopoly. Thus, it is a combination of both these extreme forms of market & expressed in a unified manner.

In a single statement, it can be expressed that monopolistic competition is said to exist when a large number of sellers sell a slightly differentiated product to large number of buyers & enjoy a freedom of entry & exit. It is a competition amongst number of sellers selling close but not perfect substitutes.

FEATURES:

(i) A Large number of buyers & sellers : In monopolistic competition, there found sufficiently large number of buyers & sellers. There is no feeling of mutual inter-dependence among them. Thus, all the participants are quite independent &• activity take part in exchange of goods.

(ii) Product differentiation : Another unique feature of monopolistic competition is the product differentiation. The products are not homogenous nor unique as in perfect competition or in monopoly. The product is slightly differentiated so that these seem to be similar but they are close substitutes instead of perfect substitutes. The degree of differentiation describes the presence of competitive elements & monopoly elements. Thus, in this market, each is a monopolist & each is a competitor.

(iii) Free entry & free exit: Like perfect competition there found freedom of entry & exit in respect new firms/sellers. The entry & exit are permissible. The seller interested in selling the similar product may enter into the market freely & may leave it freely.

(iv) Selling cost: Selling cost is the cost incurred by the producer /seller to promote the product. As the products are close substitutes, there needs to provide certain eye catching information by the way of advertisement. It can attract the new consumer towards a particular brand. It is quite a non-product cost incurred in monopolistic competition.

(v) Price-Policy : The theory of monopolistic competition has its own price-policy. This policy is certainty different from that of perfect competition & monopoly. Neither the perfect competition nor the monopoly can provide an adequate explanation for price determination under monopolistic competition. It is because these are two mutually exclusive alternatives.

(vi) Imperfect Knowledge : Unlike perfect competition, the buyers are not completely aware of the nature & quality of the product. Hence, in monopolistic competition, the producer is able to create an imaginary superiority about the product in the minds of the consumer. For this the producer spends a lot in form of advertisement cost.

(vii) Non-Price Competition: In monopolistic competition, the non-price competition is quite visible. This non-price competition is also inevitable for each producer in order to promote their sale. This competition is visible in the form of warranty free, services, discount, free exchange etc.

All are the features of monopolistic competition. It quite revels that monopolistic competition is quite a new market structure which contains certain distinct features. Though it embraces the features of perfect competition & monopoly, yet it can be rightly told that monopolistic competition opens a new chapter in the theory of market.

Question 8.
What is monopolistic competition ? Compare it with the perfect competition.
Answer:
Monopolistic competition is a market structure in which there are many sellers of a particular product but the product of each seller is in some way differentied in the minds of the consumers from the product of every other seller. Simply speaking, monopolistic competition is a mixture of perfect competition & monopoly in which a large number of buyers & sellers exchange a differentiated product. Here the goods are not perfect substitute as in perfect competition rather close substitutes. Unlike monopply, the goods is not unique rather close substitutes for each other. The monopolistic competition embraces some features of perfect competition & some features of monopoly. Thus, it is a combination of both these extreme forms of market & expressed in a unified manner.

COMPARISION :
Monopolistic competition contains certain features of perfect competition like a large number of buyers & sellers “free entry & exit” etc. Besides these, there observed several points of difference between price & output decision & other aspects under perfect competition & monopolistic competition.

(i) Kinds of Goods : In perfect competition, the goods are homogeneous. They are identical in all respects so that all the goods act as perfect substitutes for each other. The quality, quantity, size & packing are similar in all respect.

But under monopolistic competition, there found “product differentiation”. The products are not perfect substitutes for each other rather there are close substitute. The products under monopolistic competition are slightly different from each other so that these goods can not be taken as identical or homogeneous goods.

(ii) Price : Under perfect competition, price of the goods remains uniform. All goods are exchanged at that uniform price. Neither the seller nor the buyer can influence this price. All the sellers or buyers are the “price-takers” but not the “price-jmaker”.

On the other hand, under monopolistic competition, price does not remain uniform because of interdependence of firms/sellers. The sellers /firms independently determines the price keeping the supply demand for its product in view. While determining price-policy, the seller/firm carefully analyses the rivals reaction. As the products are close substitutes, each seller / firm is a competitor as well as a monopolistic for his own product

(iii) Non-Production cost: Under perfect competition, the goods are homogenous & hence these are similar in all respect. Besides, the consumers are well informed about the market & product. Hence, there is no need of incurring non-production cost to promote the sale.

On the contrary, under monopolistic competition, the products are the close substitutes & the consumers are not well informed. Hence, the producer is compelled to incure non-production cost on warranty, free service etc. Thus, the non-production cost is visible in this market which is not in perfect competition.

(iv) Selling Cost: The selling costs are the costs which are incurred by the producer to provide information about the product to the consumer. This cost is spent on advertisement & hence it is also called advertise cost.

Under perfect competition, no such cost is incurred as the products are homogeneous & the consumers are folly aware of the market structure. But under monopolistic competition, the products are slightly differentiated. Each producer has its own competitors and every producer is also a monopolist of his own product. As such, the producer is to spend on advertisement.

(v) Relation with cost of production & revenue : Under perfect competition, price concide with average revenue, marginal revenue as well as average cost in the long run. But under monopolistic competition, price is equal to average revenue but it is greater than the marginal revenue.

(vi) Demand Curve : Under perfect competition, an individual firm faces with a perfectly elastic demand, curve which is a horizontal straight line. In this case, price of the product is equal to average revenue as well as marginal revenue. On the contrary, a firm under monopolistic competition faces a downward sloping demand curve. In this case price is equal to average revenue but greater than marginal revenue.

(vii) Excess capacity : Under perfect competition, the firm produces socially optimum output in the long-run. Hence, no excess capacity is realised because firm produces at the minimum point of long-run average cost.

But it does not happen under monopolistic competition. In this market, a firm produces the output at the falling portion of the average cost curve. Hence, socially optimum output is not produced & there found some inefficiency & excess capacity. All these indicate wasteful utilisation of productive resources. The facts presented above indicate that the monopolistic competition combines some elements of perfect competition & some of monopoly. So there observed the differences between these two market.

Question 9.
Illustrate the features of Oligopoly.
Answer:
Oligopoly denotes an inperfect market in which a few sellers/producers selling/producing either homogeneous goods or differentiated goods. In this market there is a few sellers or producers. The product is either homogeneous or differentiated. The competition is restricted to the few sellers selling very close or perfect substitute. The oligopoly is of two types. In case the sellers deals with homogeneous product, it is called “pure oligopoly” & in case of differentiated product, it is called “differentiated oligopoly.”

FEATURES:

(i) Interdependence : The sellors/firms under oligopoly are interdependent. Any decision taken by an individual seller/producer, with respect to price or product creates certain reaction among the rival firms. Any move taken by any seller has immediate counter move by the rivals. Hence, while assessing the market demand for its own product, the seller/firm concerned is to consider the reactions of its rivals. So no individual firm/seller can take independent decision of its own regarding the price & output.

(ii) Uncertainty : Uncertainty is another peculiar features under oligopoly. It arises because of the wide varieties of reaction patterns of the firm/seller. Any action taken by any firm /seller is well retaliated by the rivals which causes uncertainty. So, while taking decision, the firm/seller has to recognise the possible counter reaction of the rivals. Thus, the uncertainty under oligopoly creates difficulty in taking independent decision.

(iii) Selling Cost: The selling cost stands as an aggressive & defensive marketing device to achieve a greater share in the market. It appears due to the interdependence of the firms and uncertainty as well.

(iv) Group Behaviour : As the firms/sellers are interdependent & there exists uncertainty among them, the group behaviour acts as a proper solution. For maximising profitm the firms/ sellers act as a group by adopting a unanimously accepted norms. The group behaviour may reduce the degree of uncertainty that exists among the existing firms/sellers.

(v) Indeterminate Demand curve: The demand curve facing by an oligopoly is indeterminate. The demand curve usually reveals the price & product combination. In case of other market structures, the demand curve has got a definite shape. But in oligopoly, the demand curve is indeterminate because of inter dependence of firms that cause uncertainty. The concerned firm is not certain about the quantity he can sell at the price determined by him. It is because the firm concerned is not fully sure of the retaliatory move of its rivals. Such unpredictable response of the rivals to any action of the individual firm makes the demand curve indeterminate.

(vi) Price-rigidity & non-price competition : Price – rigidity is another feature in oligopoly. Any price, if accepted can not be easily changed & it continues to prevails over a long period. Thus, the price, under oligopoly is trend to be sticky & rigid, In spite of changes in cost-demand structure, the price is, not changed. Maintaining the quoted price, firms pursue to improve their competitive in the market through various types of non-price elements like rebate, free delivery, warranty etc. Thus non-price competition is believed to be a suitable business device. ‘

(viii) Non-Profit motive : Proft maximisation is not only objective of the oligopolist. Besides the entrepreneurs have many other motives like sales maximisation, security, risk minimisation etc. This is the special feature in oligopoly.

From the above features, it is believed that oligopoly is a real market structure that operates in real world. For a particular product, there is a few seller/producer competing with each other for having a greater share in the market. From this point of view, it is felt that oligopoly is a suitable market structure having practical validity.

Question 10.
What is market price ? How is it determined under condition of perfect competition ?
Answer:
Market price is the price of a commodity which prevails at any given time.’ This price is determined by momentary equilibrium between demand and supply at a time. Time in the market period is very small and the prices have a tendency to change very quickly during this period. Sometimes the prices change everyday and even every hour, The price of a good can be different in the morning and different in the evening. Market price is determined by the forces of demand and supply. But in the market period the price is influenced more by the demand. The main force behind demand side is the marginal utility of the commodity whereas from the side of supply the real force is the cost of production of the commodity. In the market period supply is almost fixed and cannot be increased. That is why when demand increases, price rises and when demand falls price also falls. We shall consider the price of the following two types of goods.

1. Perishable goods.
2. Durable or non-perishable goods.

Perishable goods – Perishable goods are those goods which do not last for a long time. These goods cannot be stored or kept. These goods go waste if stored. The perishable goods like fish, milk etc. have to be sold in the market whatever may be the price of these goods. Therefore, the supply curve of a perishable commodity in the market period is perfectly inelastic and is a vertical straight line. The pricing of a perishable commodity under market period can be shown with the diagram below.

On OX-axis we measure demand and supply and on OY-axis we represent the price. SS is the supply curve which is parallel to OY-axis. This supply curve shows that supply is absolutely fixed and it cannot be changed. DD demand curve has a negative slope showing thereby that demand will extend when prices fall. Demand and supply are in equilibrium at price OP. Therefore, OP is the equilibrium market price. Now if the demand curve moves forward from DD to D₁D₁, the market price shall go up from OP to OP₁ the supply of the commodity remaining fixed at OS.

Now if the demand curve moves downward from DD to D₂D₂ the market price falls from OP to OP₂ the supply again remaining constant at OS. Hence we find that changes in the demand produces sharp changes in price in the market period, supply being costant dining that period.

Non-perishable goods – There are some goods which can be kept for a long period such as wheat, tea etc. In case of these commodities the firm fixes a reserve price and below this price the firm is not prepared to sell anything. If demand falls and as a result of it price falls below the reserve price the sellers instead of selling at this low price will keep their prdduce in the godowns. The supply in this period can be increased only out of the fixed stock which are already in hand. The reserve price is determined by several factors which are discussed below :

1. Future expectation – The reserve price of a commodity depends upon the expectations of the sellers regarding the future prices of the commodity. The reserve price will be higher if the producer expects the prices to go up in future and vice versa.

2. Need for cash – If the need of the sellers for pash is great, they will fix a low reserve price as they shall be interested to sell the commodity. But if they do not need cash early, they fix a higher reserve price.

3. Durability of the goods – The durability of thq goods also has its influence upon the reserve price because durable goods can be stored without fear of loss and anticipation of better price.

4. Future cost of production – Production cost to be incurred in the future on the commodity also has its effect on the reserve price. The producers will fix a higher reserve price, if they think that production cost in future shall be high.

5. Cost of storage – The reserve price also depends upon the cost of storage. The length of period for which the stock is to be stored is therefore, very important. The longer the period and the higher the cost of storing, the lower will be the reserve price and vice versa.

The diagram in the previous page shows the determination of market price of a durable commodity:
In the diagram TRS is the market period supply curve. OQ is the total stock of the goods. In the beginning the demand curve for the goods in the market is shown by the demand curve DD. The demand curve and the supply curve intersect each other at point E and price OP is determined. At this price the quantity purchased and sold is OM. Out of total stock OQ only OM is sold in the market and the remaining i. e., MQ is withheld by the sellers. If demand falls to D₁D₁ the equilibrium between demand and supply is established at point M and price shall be OP₁. In this case the quantity sold is ON and NQ is kept in store. Now if demand increases to D₂D₂ the new equilibrium is established at point R and now the market price will rise to OP₂ As is Clear from the above diagram, all the stock OQ shall be sold at OP₂ price.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
In economics, which factor is not the essentials of the market ?
(i) Goods
(ii) Buyers & sellers
(iii) competition
(iv) cost of production
Answer:
(iv) cost of production

Question 2.
Large number of buyers & sellers are present in
(i) perfect competative market
(ii) monopolistic competition
(iii) obligopoly
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(ii) monopolistic competition

Question 3.
Generally homogeneous goods are bought & sold in the
(i) monopolistic competiton
(ii) perfect competiton
(iii) obligopoly
(iv) monopoly
Answer:
(iv) monopoly

Question 4.
Which is.not one of the features of perfect competition ?
(i) uniform price
(ii) perfect mobility of factors
(iii) normal profit
(iv) identical cost
Answer:
(iv) identical cost

Question 5.
Absence of transportation cost is present
(i) monopoly
(ii) obligopoly
(iii) monopolistic competiton
(iv) perfect competiton
Answer:
(iv) perfect competiton

Question 6.
Under perfect competition AR is always
(i) equal to MR
(ii) greater than MR
(iii) less than marginal revenue
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(i) equal to MR

Question 7.
Firm & industry lose their difference in
(i) perfect competition
(ii) monopoly
(iii) obligopoly
(iv) monopolistic competiton
Answer:
(ii) monopoly

Question 8.
In monopoly, the seller generally sells
(i) homogeneous goods
(ii) differentiated goods
(iii) goods having no close substitutes
(iv) goods having no perfect substitutes
Answer:
(iii) goods having no close substitutes

Question 9.
The elasticity of demand for the goods is zero in
(i) perfect competition
(ii) monopoly
(iii) obligopoly
(iv) monopolistic competiton
Answer:
(ii) monopoly

Question 10.
The entry of the new firm is restricted under
(i) perfect competition
(ii) monopolistic competition
(iii) monopoly
(iv) obligopoly
Answer:
(iii) monopoly

Question 11.
Absence of all sorts competition is found in
(i) perfect competition
(ii) monopoly
(iii) obligopoly
(iv) monopolistic competiton
Answer:
(ii) monopoly

Question 12.
One individual seller/ firm cannot influence the price of the product in
(i) monopoly
(ii) perfect competition
(iii) obligopoly
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(ii) perfect competition

Question 13.
Under monopoly, AR is always
(i) greater than MR
(ii) Less than MR
(iii) equal to MR
(iv) none of the above
Answer:
(i) greater than MR

Question 14.
For the same goods, different prices can be changed in
(i) monopolistic competition
(ii) perfect competition
(iii) monopoly
(iv) obligopoly
Answer:
(iii) monopoly

Question 15.
Product differentiation is a feature of
(i) monopoly
(ii) perfect competition
(iii) monopolistic competition
(iv) obligopoly
Answer:
(iii) monopolistic competition

Question 16.
Non-price Competition is generally formed in
(i) perfect competition
(ii) monopolistic competition
(iii) monopoly
(iv) obligopoly
Answer:
(ii) monopolistic competition

Question 17.
Under perfect competition, price is determined by
(i) seller
(ii) buyer
(iii) firm
(iv) industry
Answer:
(iv) industry

Question 18.
Name the market were identical goods are sold at uniform price
(i) perfect competition
(ii) monopoly
(iii) obligopoly
(iv) monopolistic competiton
Answer:
(i) perfect competition

Question 19.
Charging different prices for the same goods happens in
(i) perfect competition
(ii) monopoly
(iii) monopolistic competition
(iv) obligopoly
Answer:
(ii) monopoly

Question 20.
The price at which the buyers purchase goods in the market is known as
(i) Real price
(ii) Normal price
(iii) Market price
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) Market price

Question 21.
Equilibrium price is influenced by
(i) demand for product
(ii) supply of product
(iii) lost of production
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)

Question 22.
If the demand for & supply of product changing in equal proportion, the equilibrium price
(i) increases
(ii) decreases
(iii) remains unaffected
(iv) all of the above
Answer:
(iii) remains unaffected

Question 23.
In determining equilibrium price, demand for a product is
(i) greater than supply
(ii) less than supply
(iii) equal to supply
(iv) both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(iii) equal to supply

Question 24.
The price at which demand is equal to supply of a product is known as
(i) Normal price
(ii) market price
(iii) equlibrium price
(iv) all of the above
Answer:
(iii) equlibrium price

Question 25.
Other things remaining constant, if the demand for a product increases, the price
(i) rises
(ii) falls
(iii) remains uncharged
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(i) rises

Question 26.
Long run price is otherwise knwon as
(i) Normal price
(ii) market price
(iii) short cut price
(iv) Both (i) and (ii)
Answer:
(i) Normal price

Question 27.
Most important condition of a perfect market is :
(i) A single producer or seller of a product.
(ii) No close substitutes for the product.
(iii) Homogenous product.
(iv) All of the above.
Answer:
(iii) Homogenous product.

Question 28.
Condition of a monopoly market:
(i) Uniformprice
(ii) Homogeneous product
(iii) Strong barriers to the entry into the industry
(iv) All of the above.
Answer:
(iii) Strong barriers to the entry into the industry

Question 29.
What is market price ?
(i) Price expected to prevail
(ii) Price actually prevailing in the market.
(iii) Both (i) and (iv)
(iv) None of he above
Answer:
(ii) Price actually prevailing in the market.

Question 30.
Under perfect competition :
(i) P>MR
(ii) P<MR
(iii) P = MR
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) P = MR

Question 31.
Under perfect competition price is determined by:
(i) Firm
(ii) industry
(iii) Seller
(iv) Buyer
Answer:
(ii) Industry

Question 32.
Normal price is a:
(i) Short-term price
(ii) Long-run price
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above.
Answer:
(ii) Long-run price

Question 33.
Normal price is:
(i) A real price
(ii) An imaginary price
(iii) An unstabe price
(iv) None of the above.
Answer:
(ii) An imaginary price

Question 34.
Under monopoly the goods have:
(i) Close substitutes
(ii) Do not have close substitutes
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of these
Answer:
(ii) Do not have close substitutes

Question 35.
Market in Economics refers to:
(i) Market for a commodity
(ii) A place
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(i) Market for a commodity

Question 36.
Under perfect competition goods are:
(i) Differentiated
(ii) Homogenous
(iii) Imperfect substitutes
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Homogenous

II. Fill in the blanks:

Question 1.
In economics Market refers to _____
Answer:
a goods.

Question 2.
There is a large number of sellers and buyers in a _____ market.
Answer:
perfectly competitive

Question 3.
Under _____, there is free entry and free exit of the firms.
Answer:
perfect competition

Question 4.
Under _____, goods are homogeneous.
Answer:
perfect competition

Question 5.
Under _____, the goods are perfect substitutes for each other.
Answer:
perfect competition

Question 6.
Under perfect competition, price is represented through _____ Price = AR.
Answer:
Average Revenue

Question 7.
Under perfect competition, AR = _____
Answer:
MR.

Question 8.
Factors are perfectly mobile under _____
Answer:
perfect competition.

Question 9.
Price under perfect competition remains _____
Answer:
uniform.

Question 10.
Under _____ buyers have very weak bargaining power.
Answer:
perfect competition

Question 11.
Under perfect competition, the demand curve is a horizontal _____ line.
Answer:
straight

Question 12.
Under _____ the goods do not have any close substitutes.
Answer:
monopoly

Question 13.
The demand curve, under monopoly slopes _____ from left to right.
Answer:
downward

Question 14.
In monopoly there is a single _____ but many buyers.
Answer:
seller

Question 15.
Under monopoly the _____ is a price maker.
Answer:
monopolist

Question 16.
Under _____ competition the product is differentiated.
Answer:
monopolistic

Question 17.
Under monopolistic competition, the product is _____
Answer:
differentiated.

Question 18.
Entry and exit of firms are restricted under _____
Answer:
monopoly

Question 19.
Firm under _____ competition promotes its product through the selling cost.
Answer:
monopolistic

Question 20.
Under _____ there is only few sellers of the commodity.
Answer:
oligopoly

Question 21.
The price which is equal to MR is _____
Answer:
normal price.

Question 22.
_____ competition is a mixture of perfect competition and monopoly.
Answer:
Monopolistic

Question 23.
Demand curve under _____ competition is perfectly elastic.
Answer:
perfect

Question 24.
Normal price is influenced more by _____ under monopoly.
Answer:
supply

Question 25.
Only the _____ goods have normal price.
Answer:
reproducible

Question 26.
_____ price is determined by demand and supply of the goods.
Amwer:
Equilibrium

Question 27.
Firms under perfect competition earn _____ profit in the long-run.
Answer:
normal

Question 28.
Competitive output is _____ than monopoly output.
Answer:
higher

Question 29.
_____ price is a long-run price.
Answer:
Normal

Question 30.
_____ price is the price prevailing during very short period.
Answer:
Market

Question 31.
_____ price is an imaginary price
Answer:
Normal

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Market, in economics, is associated with the name of a place.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Market in economics is associated with the name of a product

Question 2.
Market implies only perfectly competitive market.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct : Market implies both perfect & imperfect market.

Question 3.
The absence of competition is called perfect competition.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: The absence of competition is called monopoly.

Question 4.
There are many buyers & few seller in perfect competition.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: There are many buyers & many seller in perfect competition.

Question 5.
Buyers are influential in perfect competition.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Neither the buyers nor the sellers are influential in perfect competition.

Question 6.
There is free entry & free exit in perfect competition.
Answer:
Correct

Question 7.
In perfect competition, the goods are close substitutes for each other.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In perfect competition, the goods are perfect substitute for each other.

Question 8.
The buyers are ignorant of market condition in perfect competition.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: The buyers have perfect knowledge about market conditions in perfect competition.

Question 9.
The factors ate immobile in perfect competition.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: The factors are perfectly mobile in perfect competition.

Question 10.
There is no transportation cost in perfect competition.
Answer:
Correct

Question 11.
In perfect competition, the goods are homogeneous but price are different.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In perfect competition, the goods are homogeneous & price is uniform.

Question 12.
Under perfect competition, Average Revenue exceeds marginal Revenue.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under perfect competition, average revenue equates marginal revenue.

Question 13.
Under perfect competition, demand for good is perfectly elastic.
Answer:
Correct

Question 14.
Perfect competition is a real market condition.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Perfect competition is a theoretical market condition.

Question 15.
Under perfect competition, price exceeds marginal revenue.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under perfect competition, price is equal to marginal revenue.

Question 16.
Under Perfect competition, the buyers have strong bargaining power.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under perfect competition, the buyers have very weak bargaining power.

Question 17.
In perfect competition, demand curve is a horizontal straight line.
Answer:
Correct

Question 18.
Equilibrium means a state of balance.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 19.
Equilibrium price is the price determined when demand for product exceeds supply of product.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Equilibrium price is the price determined when demand for the product is equal to supply of product.

Question 20.
In the determination of equilibrium price, both the demand & supply are dominant.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In the determination of equilibrium price, both the demand & supply are important.

Question 21.
Market price is stable but normal price is fluctuating.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Market price is fluctuating but normal price is stable.

Question 22.
All the goods have normal price but only the reproducible goods have market price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: All the goods have market price but only the reproducible goods have normal price.

Question 23.
Rare goods have normal price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Rare goods have market price.

Question 24.
Normal price is real but market price is imaginary.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Market price is real but market price is imaginary.

Question 25.
All the goods have normal price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: All the goods have market price.

Question 26.
Market price is related with the cost of production.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 27.
Market price is Long – run price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Normal price is long-run price.

Question 28.
Market period is a very short-period.
Answer:
Correct

Question 29.
In market period, supply of goods is fixed.
Answer:
Correct

Question 30.
In the determination of market price supply is dominant but in case of normal price demant is dominant.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In the determination of market price demand is dominant, but in case of normal price, supply is dominant.

Question 31.
There is single seller in monopoly.
Answer:
Correct

Question 32.
Under monopoly, the goods have close substitutes but under perfect competition the goods have perfect substitutes.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under monopoly, the goods have no loss substitutes but under perfect competition. the goods have perfect substitutes.

Question 33.
In monopoly, entry is restricted.
Answer:
Correct

Question 34.
In monopoly, the seller adpot independent prices.
Answer:
Correct

Question 35.
Under monopoly. AR = MR.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under monopoly. AR >MR.

Question 36.
Under monopoly, price equates MR.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under monopoly, price equates AR

Question 37.
Under monopoly, price is uniform.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct : Under monopoly, price is different.

Question 38.
Price discrimination is possible under monopoly.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 39.
Under monopoly, AR curve is a vertical straight line.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under monopoly, AR curve is a downward sloping curve.

Question 40.
In price discrimination, the monopolists sells different goods at same price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In price discrimination, the monopolist sells same goods at different prices.

Question 41.
Monopolistic competition is a blending of perfect competition & monopoly.
Answer:
Correct

Question 42.
Monopolist charges high price to sell more & low price to sell less.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Monopolist charges low price to sell more & high price to sell less.

Question 43.
In monopolistic competition, there is only one seller.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In monopolistic competition, there are large number of sellers.

Question 44.
The products under monopolistic competition are the perfect substitutes for each other.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: The products under monopolistic competition are close substitutes for each other.

Question 45.
Under monopolistic competition each firm is a monopolist.
Answer:
Correct

Question 46.
Under monopolistic competition, the price is less than that of perfect competition.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under monopolistic competition, the price is higher than that of perfect competition.

Question 47.
In perfect competition, we find product differentiation.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In monopolistic competition, we find product differentiation.

Question 48.
Under oligopoly, there are many sellers.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under oligopoly, there are few sellers.

Question 49.
Under oligopoly, demand curve slopes downward.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under oligopoly, demand curve is indeterminate.

Question 50.
Under oligopoly, price is very flexible.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under oligopoly, price is very rigid.

Question 51.
Group behaviour is found under monopoly.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Group behaviour is found under oligopoly.

Question 52.
Under oligopoly, each firm produces a small share of the market.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 53.
Under oligopoly, firms are independent.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under oligopoly, firms are interdependent.

Question 54.
Under monopoly, the seller is a price maker.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct; Under monopoly, the seller is a price maker.

Question 55.
Selling cost is present both in monopoly & monopolistic competition.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 56.
In case of pure oligopoly, products are differentiated.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: In case of pure oligopoly, products are homogeneous.

Question 57.
Under monopolistic competition, there is price-variation.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 58.
Uncertainty in the market is found in monopoly.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Uncertainty in the market is found in oligopoly.

Question 59.
Under duopoly, there are few sellers in the market.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Under duopoly, there are only two sellers in the market.

Question 60.
Duopoly is another form of monopoly
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Duopoly is another form of oligopoly.

Question 61.
Oligopoly is a form of imperfect market.
Answer:
Correct.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word/One sentence :

Question 1.
What is a market ?
Answer:
Market consists of buyers & sellers sufficiently close contact with themeselves for the exchange of a particular goods.

Question 2.
What do you mean by perfect competition ?
Answer:
Perfect competition is said to prevail when a large number of buyers & sellers exchange a homogeneous goods at a uniform price without any restriction.

Question 3.
Write two features of perfect competition ?
Answer:
(i) Presence of a large number of buyers & sellers
(ii) Homogeneous goods.

Question 4.
What is homogeneous goods ?
Answer:
Homogeneous goods are those goods which are identical in all respects.

Question 5.
In which market there is uniform price ?
Answer:
In perfect competition there is uniform price.

Question 6.
What is.the shape of the demand curve for an individual firm under perfect competition ?
Answer:
Under perfect competition, the demand curve of an individual is a horizontal straight line (perfectly elastic demand curve).

Question 7.
Can a seller influence the price under perfect competition ?
Answer:
No, a seller cannot influence the price under prefect competition.

Question 8.
When does a market attain equilibrium ?
Answer:
Market is in equilibrium when there is no excess demand or excess supply.

Question 9.
What is meaning of equilibrium ?
Answer:
Equilibrium means a state of rest or balance.

Question 10.
What do mean by equilirium price ?
Answer:
Equilibrium price is that price at which quantity demanded is equal to quantity supplied.

Question 11.
What is pure competition ?
Answer:
Pure competition is perfect competition in narrow form which is characterised by the presence of a large number of buyers & sellers, homogeneous goods & free entry & exit.

Question 12.
How is the price determined under perfect competition ?
Answer:
Under perfect competition, price is determined by the interaction of forces of demand & forces of supply.

Question 13.
What sort of relationship exists between AR & MR under perfect competition ?
Answer:
AR & MR are equal under perfect competition

Question 14.
Who has propounded “price determination theory’ under perfect competition ?
Answer:
Alfred Marshall.

Question 15.
Which market deals with homogeneous goods ?
Answer:
Perfectly competitive market deals with homogeneous goods.

Question 16.
What is market price ?
Answer:
Market price is the real price which actually prevails in the market in a very short span of time.

Question 17.
What is Normal Price ?
Answer:
Normal price is an expected price which prevails in the long-run.

Question 18.
Write a distinction between Market price & normal Price ?
Answer:
Market price is real price but normal price is an expected price.

Question 19.
Which goods have only normal price ?
Answer:
Only the reproducible goods have normal price.

Question 20.
In which market, there is no transportation cost ?
Answer:
In perfectly competitive market, there is no transportation cost.

Question 21.
What is literacy meaning of ‘Monopoly’ ?
Answer:
Literacy meaning of ‘monopoly’ means one seller because ‘mono’ means one ‘poly’ means seller.

Question 22.
What are the various forms of imperfect market ?
Answer:
Imperfect market has three forms like monopoly, monopolistic competition & oligopoly.

Question 23.
What is the extreme form of imperfect market ?
Answer:
Monopoly is the extreme form of imperfect market.

Question 24.
What is monopoly ?
Answer:
Monopoly is a market structure in which single sellers sells a product having no close substitutes.

Question 25.
How many sellers are present in monopoly ?
Answer:
There is only one seller present in monopoly.

Question 26.
What a monopolist does to sell more of his product ?
Answer:
Monopolist reduces price to sell more of his product.

Question 27.
What is the shape of the demand curve under monopoly ?
Answer:
Monopolist has a downward sloping demand curve.

Question 28.
In which market price – discrimination is possible ?
Answer:
Price discrimination is possible under monopoly.

Question 29.
What is price discrimination ?
Answer:
Price discrimination is policy of charging different prices to different buyers for the same good.

Question 30.
What is relationship between AR & MR under monopoly ?
Answer:
AR is greater than MR under monopoly.

Question 31.
What is meant by dumping ?
Answer:
Dumping is the act of selling the same commodity at higher prices in the home market & at the lower price in the foreign market.

Question 32.
What is monopolistic competition ?
Answer:
Monopolistic competition is one form of imperfect competition which embraces some features of both the perfect competition & monopoly.

Question 33.
What is a differentiated product ?
Answer:
Diflfereentiated product is that product which is slightly different from other product of similar nature.

Question 34.
Which market product differentiation is visible ?
Answer:
In monopolistic competition product differentiation is visible.

Question 35.
What feature of monopoly is present in monopolistic competition ?
Answer:
The feature like product differentiation is present in monopolistic competition.

Question 36.
What common feature perfect competition is also present in monopolistic competition ?
Answer:
Presence of a large number of buyers & sellers is a common feature of perfect competition present in monopolistic competition.

Question 37.
What is selling cost ?
Answer:
Selling cost is the cost specially incurred to promote the sale of a product.

Question 38.
In which market selling cost is incurred ?
Answer:
In imperfect market selling cost is incurred.

Question 39.
What is the other name of selling cost ?
Answer:
Advertisement cost is the other name of selling cost.

Question 40.
What is oligopoly ?
Answer:
Oligopoly is an imperfect market in which a few sellers sell either homogeneous product or differentiated product.

Question 41.
What is pure oligopoly ?
Answer:
If a homogeneous product is produced or sold by a few producer/sellers, it is called pure oligopoly.

Question 42.
In which market, interdependent of firms are more visible.
Answer:
In oligopoly, interdependence of firms are more visible.

Question 43.
In which market, Group behaviour is found ?
Answer:
In oligopoly, group behaviour is found.

Question 44.
In which market demand curve is indeterminate ?
Answer:
In oligopoly, demand curve is indeterminate.

Question 45.
In which market, price is found stickly & rigid ?
Answer:
In oligopoly, price is found stickly & rigid.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Economics Solutions Chapter 7 Supply Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Economics Chapter 7 Question Answer Supply

Group – A

Short type Questions with Answers
I. Answer within Two/Three sentence.

Question 1.
Supply curve slopes upward from left to right.
Answer:
Supply curve is the geometrical representation of law of supply which shows the direct relationship between price & quantity supplied. So supply curve slopes downward from left to right.

Question 2.
Supply curve has a positive slope.
Answer:
Supply curve shows the direct relationship between price of a goods & its quantity so, It slopes upward from left to right showing a positive slope.

Question 3.
Supply of a goods differs from its stock.
Answer:
Stock refers to total quantity of goods stored by the producer; but supply of a goods refers to that part of the stock offered for sale at a given price. So, supply of a goods is a part of the stock.

Question 4.
Supply of good is different from stock of goods.
Answer:
Stock of goods refers to total quantity of goods brought & kept after production. But the supply of goods refers to quantities of a goods ofered for sale at different prices during a particular time period.

Question 5.
Supply function is a multi-variate function.
Answer:
Supply of a goods depends on price of that goods, price of related goods, cost of production, stage of technology etc. So it is a multivariate function.

Question 6.
Supply of a goods varies directly with price.
Answer:
According to law of supply, the supply of a goods increases with rise in prices & vice versa. It is due to profit motive of the producers.

Question 7.
Supply curve has a positive slope.
Answer:
As the supply of a goods is directly related to its price-level, the supply curve slopes upward from left to right. So supply curve has a positive slope.

Question 8.
Law of supply does not operate for rare goods.
Answer:
Rare goods have fixed supply. Its supply cannot be increased with rise in price-level. So law of supply does not operate in this case.

Question 9.
Stock may exceed supply but supply can never exceed stock.
Answer:
Stock refers to the goods already produced & in possession of seller. But supply of a goods refers to a part of stock brought for sale in the market at a given price.

Answer within Five/Six sentence :

(A) WRITE SHORT NOTES ON :

Question 1.
Supply Function.
Answer:
Supply refers to the quantities of goods offered for sale by the producer at given prices during a particular time period. It is associated with the production of goods. As such, supply of goods depends on the factors of production, price of goods supplied, state of technology, government policy etc. So supply function is a multi-variate function comprising of all these variables. Mathematically stated,
Sx = f (Px, Pa, Pb, Pr, T, G )
Where as Px → Price of goods, Pa, Pb → Price of inputs, Pr → price of related good, T → state of technology, G → Government policy. All these factor are classified into price-factors & non-price factors. Other things (Non-price factors) remaining constant, the quantity supplied of a goods increases with a rise in the price-level and decreases with a fall in the price-level.

Question 2.
Supply schedule.
Answer:
Supply schedule is a tabular expression on showing a list of various quantities of a goods supplied at different given prices. Supply schedule is a numerical statement of law of supply. It shows that more is supplied at higher price & less is supplied at lower price. Supply schedule is of two types i.e.Individual supply schedule & market supply schedule. Market supply schedule is considered while explaining “ Law of supply”. Market supply schedule is the aggregate of individual supply schedule that denotes quantities of goods of offered for sale to the market at different prices.

Question 3.
Law of Supply
Answer:
Law of supply is a guiding principle that shows a functional relationship between price of a good & its quantity supplied in an unchanged situation. According to this law, more of a good is supplied at higher price & less of the good is supplied at lower price. It just exhibits the direct relationship between price & quantity .of a goods supplied, it indicates that price & supply move in a same direction. For this operation, factor like price related goods, prices of inputs, technology should remain constant.

Question 4.
Supply Curve.
Answer:
Supply Curve is a geometrical representation of supply schedule. This graphical illustration of supply schedule reflects the operation of law of supply. This curve describes the direct functional relationship between price & quantity supplied. Hence, the supply curve slopes upward from left to right indicating more is supplied at higher price & less supplied at lower price. This supply curve has positive slope. ‘

Question 5.
Change in Supply.
Answer:
Supply is a multi-variate function. A number of factors like price of the goods supplied, prices of inputs, price of related goods, state of technology, government policy etc. influence the supply. Change in supply takes place due to the change in all those factors other than the price of good supplied. Price of the goods remaining constant, if these factos change, there shall happen either increase in or decrease in supply. Hence, the supply curve may shift downward to the right or upward to the left. Thus, change in supply occurs either in form of increase in supply or decrease in supply. Here, price of the goods acts as a passive factor.

Group – B

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is supply ? What are the factors influencing it ?
Answer:
Supply refers to the amount of goods offered for sale by the producer at a given price during a particular time period. Supply is a flow concept. It indicates flow of different quantities of goods to the market at a different prices during a given time period. Thus, supply is quoted with price & expressed for a particular time period.
Supply of any goods does not means the entire stock of it. Rather, it is a part to the stock which is offered for sale at different prices during a given period. Supply of a good can be expressed by the supply function like.
Sx = f (Px, Py, Pz, Pa, Pb, Pc, T…. )
Like demand, supply is also a multi-variate function. Supply of a goods not only depends on its price, rather it depends on price of related goods (Py,Pz) price of inputs (Pa, Pb, Pc) state of technology (f) etc. All these factors directly influence the supply of goods.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SUPPLY :
Being a multivariate function, the supply of any goods is influenced by numerous factors. The important factors influencing demand are mentioned below.

(i) Price of Goods : It is an important factor that directly influences the supply. Price & supply of goods are positively correlated. It implies that in an unchanged situation more is supplied at higher price & less is supplied at lower price. It establishes that there exists direct relationship between price of a good & its quantity supplied. It is because of the profit motive of the producer. Producer is able to earn more profit only at higher price. So he is attaracted with higher price & supply more of goods.

(ii) Prices of related Goods : The supply of a goods is greatly influenced by the price of related goods. Related goods may be a substitute goods or complementary goods. If the price of a goods substitute of other falls, the quantity supplied of it falls & the supply of the original goods increases. Similarly, a rise in price of a goods leads to a fall in the supply of other goods. On the other hand, in case of complementary goods, if price of goods rises, the quantity supplied of its complementary goods also increases. It just proves the prices of related good as an important factor.

(iii) Prices of inputs: The Prices of factors of production (inputs) are also influential in determining the quantum of supply. If the prices of factors of production rise, the supply of the concered commodity decreases. Thus, there exists inverse relationship between price of inputs & quantity supplied. For example, if the price of a raw material of a good rises, the profit margin is expected diminishing & hence the producer reduces the supply of it.

(iv) State of Technology : State of technology stands as an important determinant of supply. Technological progress or introduction of cost-saving technology reduces the cost of production & raises the supply. Because it creates higher profit expectations. Thus, new inventions or discoveries in respect of technology raises the supply of goods.

(v) Goals of Business : In a free market economy, profit-motive is an importation objective of the business. Profit maximisation is a common goal of business. As such, the producer becomes interested to supply more only at higher price. If the goal of the business is to maximise profit & the profit expectation is bright, then producer supplies more. In socialistic economy, it may not happen.

(vi) Natural Factors : Natural factors like rain fall, natural calamities etc can also influence the supply. Expected rainfall raises the agricultural productivity & hence the supply increases. On the contrary, natural calamities like flood, cyclone etc. reduces the supply.

(vii) Government Policy : Government plays a vital role in changing the pattern of supply. Imposition of higher tax increases the cost of production & thus reduces the supply of goods. For example, rise in sales Tax has adverse impact on supply of the good on which it is imposed. On the other hand, decrease in tax encourages the producer to supply more – Thus, taxation policy acts as a dominant factor in moulding the supply.
All those factors are non-priced factors. So any change in these factors cause changes in supply & the supply curve may shift either upward or downward on the basis of the nature of the change of these factors.

Question 2.
Explain the “Law of supply”. What are its limitations ?
Answer:
Supply refers to the quantity of a goods which are offered for sale at different prices during a given period of time. This very expression establishes that there exist certain relationship between price of a goods & quantity supplied. Law of supply tells about this relationship.

“Law of supply” speaks about the inter-relationship between the price of a goods & the quantity supplied of it. It describes the response or reaction of the sellers or producers with regard to supply of a goods to the prevailing price at a particular time-period. The price at which the goods are offered for sale (supplied) is called “Supply Price”. The supply price denotes the quantity or quantities of good supplied at different prices.
According to this law, “Other things remaing constant, the amount supplied of a good increases with the rise in its price & decreases with the fall in the price.”

So it clearly indicates a positive correlationship between price of a goods & its quantity supplied. This relationship holds goods in an unchanged situation i.e. some factors like price of related goods, Price of inputs, state of technology, Government Policy etc. should remain constant. In this situation, price of a goods & quantity supplied move in the same direction.

Illustration of law : The law of supply can be illustrated with the help of market supply schedule. Market supply schedule is a tabular expression showing a lilst of various quantities of a goods supplied at a different prices. This is purely a numerical exposition of law of supply.

MARKET SUPPLY SCHEDULE

Numerical Analysis Price of good (inRs.)	Amount of good Supplied (in units)
1	10
2	20
3	30
4	40
5	50

This numerical analysis revals that the quantity supplied of a goods increases with the rise in its price. It clearly shows a positive relation between price of a good & quantity supplied of it. When price of good X rises from Rs. 1 to Rs. 5 the quantity supplied of it increases from 10 units to 50 units. This is the theoretical aspect of “Law os supply.

Graphical Analysis.
The same theory can also be explain with the help of a graph.

The above figure shows that with the rise in price (measured on OY-axis) the quantity supplied (Measured on OX – axis) increases. When price is Rs. 1.00 the quantity supplied is 100 units. When the price rises to Rs 2.00,3.00,4.00 & 5.00, the quantity supplied increases to 20 unit, 30 units, 40 units, 40 units respectively. It just shows the direct positive relationship between the quantity supplied & price of a goods. By joining all these points, the supply curve can be obtained. Supply curve is, thus a graphical representation of supply schedule. It slopes upwards from left to right showing a positive slope. SS is the supply curve.

LIMITATIONS
Law of supply suffers from certain limitations which are presented below.
(a) Fixed supply : In case of some goods, the supply is found to be a fixed. The supply of such goods can not be increased irrespective of any change in its price. For example, the supply of rare collections, ancient coins, ancient manuscripts can not be increased with the change in price. Thus the law of supply does not operate in these cases.

(b) Change in other things : The law of supply does not hold goods if the non-price factors do change. In case of change in technology, prices of inputs, price of related goods, Government policy etc. the direct relationship between price of a good & its supply can not be proved.

(c) Prestigious Goods : The law is also not applicable to prestigious goods bearing a symbol of social status. Because, the supply of such goods are limited. So in spite of rise in price of these goods, the supply remains unchanged.

(d) Supply of labour : Through the law of supply speaks about the direct relationship between price of a good & quantity supplied of it, yet this does not hold good in case of supply of labour. Wage is the price of labour. A rise in wage creates more income to labour for- less horns work. So the labourer at higher wage rate prefers leisure to work. As such, the supply of labour gets reduced at higher wage rate.

(e) Future Expectation of Price-Change : If future change, in price is expected, the supply is also influenced. If the there is apprehension of fall in price in future, there shall be more supply at a currect price & vice-versa. As such, the law of supply loses its theoretical validity.

(f) Clearance Sale : In case of auction or clearance sale, the law of supply does not operate. In this case, more is supplied at lower price.

(g) Change in Taste & Preference : If any change in taste & preference of the consumer is observed the supply of goods decreases without any change in price.

In spite of all these limitations, the law of supply is treated as a universal law for its practical implications & tremendous significance. No doubt, the law of supply has practical validity for which it is appreciated.

Question 3.
What is change in supply ? What are the factors responsible for this ?
Answer:
Supply is a multi-valued function comprising of certain price & non-price elements. The direct relationship between price of a good & its quantity supplied can be proved only when these non-price factors remain unchanged. The change in these non-price factors shifts the supply curve either upwards or down-wards on the basis of the nature of change. This is truly called “ change in supply”.

Change in supply denotes increase or decrease in the supply as a result of the change in the factors other then the price of goods. Rise in price of inputs, rise in price of related goods, change in technology change in Government policy leads to, change in supply. In case of such change, the supply curve shifts either upwards or downward. Thus, it needs to analyse increase or decrease in supply & to discuss about the factors causing this increase or decrease.

Increase in Supply
Increase in supply takes place when more is supplied at same price & same is supplied at lower price. This figure presented below clarifies this concept.

SS is the intial supply curve at OP price (on OY – axis) the quantity supplied (on OX – axis) is OQ.

In case of increase in supply, the supply curve shifts to the right (S₁S₁) Price remaining same it is clear that more of goods OR can be supplied at OP price due to increase in supply. On the other hand, same quantity (OQ) can also be supplied at the lower price OP because of increase in supply.
Decrease in Supply : Decrease in supply takes place when less is supplied at same price & same is supplied at higher price. The figure presented shows the concept of decrease in supply.

The figure shows the shift of supply curve to the left & becomes S₁S₁ Intially, at OP price OQ quantity is supplied. But as a result of change in supply, less (OR) is supplied at same price (OP) & same (OQ) is supplied at higher price(OS).

Causes of Increase or decrease in Supply.
(a) Change in Price of inputs : If the price of the factors of production decreases, the cost falls & there results higher profit expectation. So the supply increases even price remains constant. On the contrary, if the price of inputs rises, the supply gets reduced at the same price.

(b) Price of Related goods : The price of substitute goods & complementary goods also causes change in supply. If the price of substitutes falls, it reduces the supply of this goods & it raises the supply of the original goods in question. Its reverse case leads to decrease in supply.

(c) Change W Technology : In case of technological progress the cost of production gets reduced & its supply increases. In case of traditional technology, the supply gets decreased.

(d) Tax Policy : Imposition of tax on good leads to increase in the cost of production which reduces the supply of goods. On the other hand, if the tax rate on goods gets reduced, the supply of goods increases because of lower cost.

(e) Future Price Expectation : If the price of the goods is expected to rise in fixture, its quantity supplied at present gets reduced & in its reverse case i.e. expectation of fall in price in future, the supply at present price increases.
All these factors cause a change in supply of the goods. In all the case, the price of the goods remains unchanged, only the non-price factors leads to increase in or decrease in supply.

Group – C

Objective type Questions with Answers
I. Multiple Choice Questions with Answers :

Question 1.
In economics, supply of a goods refers to
(i) stock of the goods
(ii) total production of the goods
(iii) quantity offered for sale
(iv) All of the above
Answer:
(iii) quantity offered for sale

Question 2.
According to law of supply, supply of a goods & its price are
(i) inversely related
(ii) directly related
(iii) proportionately related
(iv) disproportionately related
Answer:
(ii) directly related

Question 3.
Supply made by the producer mainly depends on
(i) cost of production
(ii) price of the goods
(iii) willingness of the producer
(iv) ability to sell
Answer:
(ii) price of the goods

Question 4.
If the cost of production increases, the supply of goods
(i) increases
(ii) decreases
(iii) remains same
(iv) all of the above
Answer:
(ii) decreases

Question 5.
Supply is always quoted with
(i) cost of production & time period
(ii) price of goods & time period
(iii) technological development
(iv) transport cost
Answer:
(ii) price of goods & time period

Question 6.
The supply curve slopes
(i) upward from left to right
(ii) downward from left to right
(iii) like a vertical straight line
(iv) like a horizontal straight line
Answer:
(i) upward from left to right

Question 7.
When the seller has the fear of fall in price of a goods in future, its supply will
(i) increase
(ii) decrease
(iii) remains unaffected
(iv) cannot say
Answer:
(i) increase

Question 8.
Supply of commodity and stock of it are:
(i) Different concepts
(ii) All of the above
(iii) Same concepts
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(i) Different concepts

Question 9.
With the rise in price of the substitutes supply of a goods will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Decrease

Question 10.
With the rise in cost of production, supply tends to :
(i) Decrease
(ii) Increase
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of he above
Answer:
(i) Decrease

Question 11.
If the rise in price is expected in future, the supply of a commodity will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Decrease

Question 12.
If a fall in price in future is apprehended, the supply will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(i) Increase

Question 13.
Supply curve has a :
(i) Positive slope
(ii) Negative slope.
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above.
Answer:
(i) Positive slope

Question 14.
According to Law of Supply, there exists :
(i) Indirect relationship between price and quantity supplied.
(ii) Direct relationship between price and quantity supplied
(iii) All of the above
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(ii) Direct relationship between price and quantity supplied

Question 15.
If the price of a rare painting increases, its supply will:
(i) Increase
(ii) Decrease
(iii) Remain the same
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) Remain the same

Question 16.
Increase in supply refers to :
(i) Same supply at same price
(ii) Same supply at more price
(iii) More supply at same price
(iv) None of the above
Answer:
(iii) More supply at same price

II. Fill in the blanks :

Question 1.
Supply varies _____ with price.
Answer:
directly.

Question 2.
Price & _____ of a goods moves in same direction.
Answer:
supply

Question 3.
Supply curve & _____ schedule provides same information.
Answer:
supply

Question 4.
Supply curve has a _____ slope.
Answer:
positive

Question 5.
Supply of a goods depends on its _____
Answer:
price.

Question 6.
A fall in price of substitute goods leads to _____ in its supply.
Answer:
decrease

Question 7.
Supply of a goods _____ with the rise in price of its Substitutes.
Answer:
decreases

Question 8.
Supply tends to _____ with the rise in cost of production.
Answer:
fall

Question 9.
Supply of a commodity _____ if the rise in price is expected.
Answer:
decreases

Question 10.
Supply of a commodity _____ if a fall in prices in future is apprehended.
Answer:
increases

Question 11.
Supply curve has a _____ slope.
Answer:
positive

Question 12.
Supply remains _____ to any price change of rare paintings.
Answer:
Unchanged

Question 13.
_____ in supply refers to more supply at same price or same supply at less price.
Answer:
Increase

Question 14.
Decrease in supply refers to _____ supply at same price.
Answer:
less

III. Correct the Sentences :

Question 1.
Supply refers to the total quantities of goods produced during a particular time period.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply refers to the quantities of goods offered for sale at different prices during a particular time period.

Question 2.
Stock is a part of the supply.
Answer:
Incorrect :
Correct: Supply is a part of the stock.

Question 3.
Supply Schedule is a numerical statement of law of supply.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 4.
Supply varies indirectly with price.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply varies directly with price.

Question 5.
Price & supply of a good moves in opposite direction.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Price & supply of a goods moves,in same direction.

Question 6.
Supply curve & supply schedule provides same information.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 7.
Supply curve has a negative slope.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply curve has a positive slope.

Question 8.
Price of a goods depends on its supply.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply of a goods depends on its price.

Question 9.
Supply of a goods is more when its price is higher.
Answer:
Correct:

Question 10.
A fall in price of a substitute goods leads to increase in its supply.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: A fall in price of substitute goods leads to decrease in its supply.

Question 11.
Change in supply can be explained on same supply curve.
Answwer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Change in supply can be explained on different supply curve.

Question 12.
Supply curve shifts upward in case of increase in supply.
Answer:
Incorrect:
Correct: Supply curve shifts downward in case of increase in supply.

Question 13.
Supply of a commodity and stock of it are same concepts.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a commodity and stock of it are different concepts.

Question 14.
Supply of a goods increases with the rise in price of its substitutes.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a goods decreases with the rise in price of its substitutes.

Question 15.
Supply tends to increase with the rise in cost of production.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply tends to fall with the rise in cost of production.

Question 16.
Supply of a commodity increases if the rise in price is expected in future.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a commodity decreases if the rise in price is expected.

Question 17.
Supply of a commodity decreases if a fall in price in future is apprehended.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply of a commodity increases if a fall in prices in future is apprehended.

Question 18.
Supply curve has a negative slope.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply curve has a positive slope.

Question 19.
According to Law of supply there exists direct relationship between price and quantity supplied.
Answer:
Correct.

Question 20.
If the price of a rare painting increases, its supply increases.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Supply remains unaffected to any price change of rare paintings.

Question 21.
Increase in supply refers to same supply at same price or same supply at more price.
Answer:
Incorrect.
Correct: Increase in supply refers to more supply at same price or same supply at less price.

Question 22.
Decrease in supply refers to less supply at same price.
Answer:
Correct.

IV. Answer the following questions in one word :

Question 1.
What is supply ?
Answer:
Supply refers to quantity of commodity offered for sale at different given prices during a prticular time period.

Question 2.
What is supply function ?
Answer:
The supply function shows the functional relationship between the supply of a goods & its price-level, while other things remaining constant.

Question 3.
What sort relationship exists between price of a goods & its quantity supplied ?
Answer:
There exists direct relationship between price of a goods & its quantity supplied.

Question 4.
What happens to supply of a goods if the price of its substitute rises ?
Answer:
The supply of goods decrease if the price of its substitutes rises.

Question 5.
What happens to supply of a goods if its price of inputs rises ?
Answer:
The supply of goods decreases if its price inputs rises.

Question 6.
What happens to supply of goods if higher price is expected in future.
Answer:
The supply of goods decreases if higher price is expected in future.

Question 7.
What is a supply schedule ?
Answer:
Supply schedule is a tabular expression showing various quantities of goods offered for sale at each prices during time period.

Question 8.
What is law of supply ?
Answer:
Law of supply states that more is supplied at higher price & less is supplied at lower price in an unchanged situation.

Question 9.
What similarity exists between supply schedule & supply curve ?
Answer:
Both supply schedule & supply curve explains law of supply.

Question 10.
What supply curve ?
Answer:
Supply curve is a n upwards sloping curve showing more quantities supplied at higher price & vice-versa.

Question 11.
What is the slope if supply curve ?
Answer:
Supply curve has positive slope.

Question 12.
In which case law of supply does not operate ?
Answer:
In case of Auction sale, the law of supply does not operate.

Question 13.
What is the shape of the supply curve ?
Answer:
Supply curve slopes upward from left to right.

Question 14.
State a reason for which supply curve slopes upward ?
Answer:
Profit motive of the producer causes upward sloping of supply curve.

Question 15.
What is change in supply ?
Answer:
Change in supply refers to increase or decrease in supply that happens due to the factors other than the price of goods.