Class 12

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-4.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-4

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1:
What is personality?
Answer:
The personality is derived from the latin word persona the mask used in theatre to change their persona. Personality is the physical and behaviour appearance of individual.

Question 2:
What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?
Answer:
Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings with regard to herself or himself. The Indian notion of self and the Western notion of self differ from each other by a number of important features. The most important distinction is the way the boundary is drawn between the self and the other.

In the Western view, this boundary appears to be relatively fixed on the other hand, the Indian view of self is Characterised by the shifting nature of this boundary. Thus, our self at one moment of time expands to fuse with the cosmos or include others. But at the next moment, it seems to be completely withdrawn from it and focused fully on individual self (e.g., our personal needs or goals).

The Western view seems to hold clear dichotomies between self and other, man and nature, and subjective and objective while the Indian view does not make such clear dichotomies. In the Western culture, the self and the group exist as two different entities with clearly defined boundaries i.e. individual members of the group maintain their individuality while in the Indian culture, the self is generally not separated from one’s own group; rather both remain in a state of harmonious co-existence.

In Western culture, on the other hand, they often remain at a distance. That is why many Western cultures are characterised as individualistic, whereas many Asian cultures are characterised as collectivistic.

Question 3:
What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development?
Answer:
Delay of gratification also known as self-control is a practice which means learning to delay or defer the more pleasurable or fun-loving needs and rewarding later.
It is considered important for adult development because any situations of life require resistance to situational pressures and control, over ourselves. Human beings can control their behaviour the way they want which is possible through what is commonly known as ‘will power’. Delay or defer the satisfaction of certain needs or practising self-control play a key role in the fulfilment of long-term goals.

Indian cultural tradition provides us with certain effective mechanisms (e.g. fasting in vrata or roza and non-attachment with worldly things) for developing self-control. A number of psychological techniques of self-control have been suggested which are:

•  Observation of own behaviour:
  This provides us with the necessary information that may be used to change, modify, or strengthen certain, aspects of self.
• Self-instruction:
  It is another important technique. We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want to. Such instructions are quite effective in self-regulation.
• Self-reinforcement:
  It involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes. For example, you may go to see a movie with friends, if you have done well in an examination. These techniques have been tried out and found quite effective with respect to self-regulation and self-control.

Question 4:
How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?
Answer:
Personality refers to psychophysical characteristics of a person that are relatively stable across situations and over time and make her or him unique. It also defines our existence and the ways in which our experiences are organised and show up in our behaviour.
A number of approaches and theories have been developed to understand and explain personality. The main approaches to the study of personality are:

• The type approach
• The trait approach
• The interactional approach
• Psychodynamic approach
• Post frendian approach
• Behavioural approach
• Cultural approach
• Humanistic approach

Question 5:
What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from the type approach?
Answer:
The trait approach is very similar to our common experience in everyday life. These theories are mainly concerned with the description or characterisation of basic components of personality. It tries to discover the ‘building blocks’ of personality. Human beings display a wide range of variations-in psychological attributes, yet it is possible to club them into a smaller number of personality traits. For example, when we come to know that a person is sociable, we assume that s/he will not only be cooperative, friendly and helpful, but also engage in behaviours that involve other social components.

Thus, trait approach attempts to identify primary characteristics of people. A trait is considered as a relatively enduring attribute or quality on which one individual differs from another. They include a range of possible behaviours that are activated according to the demands of the situation.

• The type approaches attempts to comprehend human personality by examining certain broad patterns in the observed behavioural characteristics of individuals while the trait approach focuses on the specific psychological attributes along which individuals tend to differ in consistent and stable ways.
• Each behavioural pattern of type approach refers to one type in which individuals are placed in terms of the similarity of their behavioural characteristics with that pattern while in trait approach refers to the degree of presence or absence of the concerned behavioural quality on which individuals can be rated.

Question 6:
How does Freud explain the structure of personality?
Answer:
According to Freud’s theory, there are three primary structural elements of personality which are id, ego, and superego. They reside in the unconscious as forces and they can be inferred from the ways people behave.

Id:
It is the source of a person’s instinctual energy. It deals with the immediate gratification of primitive needs, sexual desires and aggressive impulses. It works on the pleasure principle, which assumes that people seek pleasure and try to avoid pain. Freud considered much of a person’s instinctual energy to be sexual, and the rest as aggressive. Id does not care for moral values, society, or other individuals.

Ego:
It grows out of id, and seeks to satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in accordance with reality. It works by the reality principle and often directs the id towards more appropriate ways of behaving. The ego is patient, reasonable, and works by the reality principle. .

Superego:
The best way to characterise the superego is to think of it as the moral branch of mental functioning. The superego tells the id and the ego whether the gratification in a particular instance is ethical. It helps control the id by the internalising parental authority through the process of socialisation. Thus, in terms of individual functioning, Freud thought of the unconscious as being composed of three competing forces.In some people, the id is stronger than the superego; in others, it is the superego. The relative strength of the id, ego and superego determines each person’s stability. Freud also assumed that id is energised by two instinctual forces, called life instinct and the death instinct. He paid less attention to the death instinct and focused more on the life (or sexual) instinct The instinctual life force that energises the id is called libido. It works on the pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification.

Question 7:
How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?
Answer:
Homey was another disciple of Freud who developed a theory that deviated from basic Freudian principles. She adopted a more optimistic view of human life with an emphasis on human growth and self-actualisation. Homey’s major contribution lies in her challenge to Freud’s treatment of women as inferior. According to her, each sex has attributes to be admired by the other, and neither sex can be viewed as superior or inferior. She countered that women were more likely to be affected by social and cultural factors than biological factors.

She argued that psychological disorders were caused by disturbed interpersonal relationships during childhood. When parents’ behaviour toward a child is indifferent, discouraging, and erratic, the child feels insecure and a feeling called basic anxiety results. Deep resentment toward parents or basic hostility occurs due to this anxiety. By showing excessive dominance or indifference, or by providing too much or too little approval, parents can generate among children feelings of isolation and helplessness which interfere with their healthy development.

In contrast to that, Adler’s theory is known as individual psychology. His basic assumption is that human behaviour is purposeful and goal-directed. Each one of us has the capacity to choose and create. Our personal goals are the sources of our motivation. The goals that provide us with security and help us in overcoming feelings of inadequacy are important in our personality development. In Adler’s view, every individual suffers from feelings of inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferiority complex, which arise from childhood. Overcoming this complex is essential for optimal personality development

Question 8:
What is the main proposition of the humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualisation?
Answer:
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow have particularly contributed to the development of the humanistic perspective on personality. The most important idea proposed by Rogers is that of a fully functioning person. He believes that fulfilment is the motivating force for personality development. People try to express their capabilities, potential and talents to the fullest extent possible. There is an inborn tendency among persons that directs them to actualise their inherited nature.

Rogers makes two basic assumptions about human behaviour. One is that behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile. The second is that people (who are innately good) will almost always choose adaptive, self-actualising behaviour. Rogers views personality development as a continuous process. It involves learning to evaluate oneself and mastering the process of self-actualisation. He recognises the role of social influences in the development of self-concept.

When social conditions are positive, self-concept and self-esteem are high. In contrast, when the conditions are negative, the. self-concept and self-esteem are low. People with high self-concept and self-esteem are generally flexible and open to new experiences so that they can continue to grow and self-actualise. Maslow has given a detailed account of psychologically healthy people in terms of their attainment of self-actualisation, a state in which people have reached their own fullest potential.

Maslow had an optimistic and positive view of man who has the potential for love, joy and to do creative work. Human beings are considered free to shape their lives and to self-actualise. Self-actualisation becomes possible by analysing the motivations that govern our life. We know that biological, security and belongingness needs (called survival needs) are commonly found among animals and human beings. Thus, an individual’s sole concern with the satisfaction of these needs reduces her/him to the level of animals. The real journey of human life begins with the pursuit of self-esteem and self-actualisation needs. The humanistic approach emphasises the significance of positive aspects of life.

Question 9:
Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods?
Answer:
The main observational methods used in personality assessment are interviews, observation, ratings, nomination and situational tests.

Interview:
It is a commonly used method for assessing personality. This involves talking to the person being assessed and asking specific Qs. Diagnostic interviewing generally involves in-depth interviewing which seeks to go beyond the replies given by the person. Interviews may be structured or unstructured depending on the purpose or goals of the assessment. In unstructured interviews, the interviewer seeks to develop an impression about a person by asking a number of Qs. The way a person presents her/himself and answers the Qs carries enough potential to reveal her/his personality. The structured interviews address very specific Qs and follow a set procedure. This is often done to make objective comparisons of persons being interviewed. Use of rating scales may further enhance the objectivity of evaluations.

Observation:
Observation of behaviour is another method which is very commonly used for the assessment of personality. Use of observation for personality assessment is a sophisticated procedure that cannot be carried out by untrained people. It requires careful training of the observer and a fairly detailed guideline about the analysis of behaviours in order to assess the personality of a given person. For example, a clinical psychologist may like to observe her/his client’s interaction with family members and home visitors. With carefully designed observation, the clinical psychologist may gain considerable insight into a client’s personality.

Behavioural Ratings :
These are frequently used for the assessment of personality in educational and. industrial settings. Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people who know the assessee intimately and have interacted with her/him over a period of time or have had a chance to observe her/him. They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural qualities. The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms. It has been found that use of numbers or general descriptive adjectives in rating scales always creates confusion for the rater. In order to use ratings effectively, the traits should be clearly defined in terms of carefully stated behavioural anchors.

Nomination:
This method is often used in obtaining peer assessment. It can be used with persons who have been in long-term interaction and who know each other very well. In using nomination, each person is asked to choose one or more persons of the group with whom she/he would like to work, study, play or participate in any other activity. The person may also be asked to specify the reason for her/his choices.

Situational Tests :
A variety of situational tests have been devised for the assessment of personality. The most commonly used test of this kind is the situational stress test. It provides us with information about how a person behaves under stressful situations. The test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who are instructed to be non-c6operative and interfering. The test involves a kind of role-playing. The person is instructed to play a role for which s/he is observed. A verbal report is also obtained on what s/he was asked to do. The situation may be a realistic one, or it may be created through a video play. Problems faced in using these methods.

Observation and interview methods are characterised by the following limitations:

• Professional training required for the collection of useful data through these methods is quite demanding and time-consuming.
• The maturity of the psychologist is a precondition for obtaining valid data through these techniques.
• The mere presence of the observer may contaminate the results. As a stranger, the observer may influence the behaviour of the person being observed and thus not obtain good data. Behavioural ratings suffer from the following major limitations.
• Raters often display certain biases that colour their judgments of different traits. For example, most of us are greatly influenced by a single favourable or unfavourable trait. This often forms the basis of a rater’s overall judgment of a person. This tendency is known as the halo effect.
• Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle of the scale (called middle category bias) by avoiding extreme positions, or in the extreme positions (called extreme response bias) by avoiding middle categories on the scale. These tendencies can be overcome by providing raters with the appropriate training or by developing such scales in which the response bias is likely to be small.
  Nominations received may be analysed to understand the personality and behavioural qualities of the person. This technique has been found to be highly dependable, although it may also be affected by personal biases.

Question 10:
What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely * used structured personality tests? “
Answer:
Self-report measures is a fairly structured personality test. This was used by Allport who suggested that the best method to assess a person is by asking her/him about herself/ himself. This led to the use of self-report measures. These are fairly structured measures, often based on theory, that require subjects to give verbal responses using some kind of rating scale. The method requires the subject to objectively report her/his own feelings with respect to various items. The responses are accepted at their face value. They are scored in quantitative terms and interpreted on the basis of norms developed for the test.

The two most widely used structured personality tests are:

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):
This inventory is widely used as a test in personality assessment. Hathaway and McKinley developed this test as a helping tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but the test has been found very effective in identifying varieties of psychopathology. Its revised version is available as MMPI-2. It consists of 567 statements. The subject has to judge each statement as ‘true’ or ‘false’ for her/him. The test is divided into 10 subscales, which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion. In India, Mallick and Joshi have developed the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) along the lines of MMPI.

Eysenck Personality Qnaire (EPQ):
Developed by Eysenck this test initially assessed two dimensions of personality, called introverted-extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable. These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits. Later on, Eysenck added a third dimension, called psychoticism. It is linked to psychopathology that represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting with people and a tendency to defy social conventions. A person scoring high on this dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric and antisocial. This test is also widely used.

Question 11:
Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists?
Answer:
Projective technique is an indirect method of assessment of personality. This provides us with a real picture of an individual’s personality using the indirect method.
Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings. These techniques are based on the assumption that a less structured or unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to project her/his feelings, desires and needs onto that situation.

These projections are interpreted by experts. A variety of projective techniques have been developed; they use various kinds of stimulus materials and situations for assessing personality. Some of them require reporting associations with stimuli (e.g., words, inkblots), some involve story writing around pictures, some require sentence completions, some require expression through drawings, and some require a choice of stimuli from a large set of stimuli.

The projective tests of personality which are widely used by psychologists are:

1.The Rorschach Inkblot Test:
This test was developed by Hermann Rorschach. The test consists of 10 inkblots. Five of them are in black and white, two with some red ink, and the remaining three in some pastel colours. The blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form. Each blot is printed in the centre of white cardboard of about 7″? 10″ size. The blots were originally made by dropping ink on a piece of paper and then folding the paper in half (hence called the inkblot test). The cards are administered individually in two phases.

• In the first phase, called performance proper, the subjects are shown the cards and are asked to tell what they see in each of them.
• In the second phase, called inquiry, a detailed report of the response is prepared by asking the subject to tell where, how, and on what basis was a particular response made. Fine judgment is necessary to place the subject’s responses in a meaningful context. The use and interpretation of this test require extensive training. Computer techniques too have been developed for the analysis of data.

2. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):
This test was developed by Morgan and Murray. It is a little more structured than the Inkblot test. The test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card. Each picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations. Each picture is printed on a card. Some cards are used with adult males or females. Others are used with boys or girls. Still, others are used in some combinations. Twenty cards are appropriate for a subject, although a lesser number of cards (even five) have also been successfully used. The cards are presented one at a time. The subject is asked to tell a story describing the situation presented in the picture.

3. Sentence Completion Test:
This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences. The starting part of the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence. It is held that the type of endings used by the subjects reflects their attitudes, motivation and conflicts. The test provides subjects with several opportunities to reveal their underlying unconscious motivations. A few sample items of a sentence completion test are given below.

• My father ________.
• My greatest fear is ________.
• The best thing about my mother is _________.
• I am proud of ________.

Question 12:
Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice
of career. Using Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family.
Answer:
According to Carl Rogers’ terminology, People try to express their capabilities, potentials and talents to the fullest extent possible. There is an inborn tendency among persons that directs them to actualise their inherited nature. He made two assumptions about human behaviour. One is that behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile. The second is that people (who are innately good) will almost always choose adaptive, self-actualising behaviour.

He noted that self was an important element in the experience of his clients. Thus, his theory is structured around the concept of self. The theory assumes that people are constantly engaged in the process of actualising their true self. He recognises the role of social influences in the development of self-concept. When social conditions are positive, self-concept and self-esteem are high. In contrast, when the conditions are negative, the self-concept and self-esteem are low.

Thus, Arihant’s family will disapprove his choice of career as they want to be a doctor to satisfy their self-concept. Arihant’s family will want him to pursue a career of their inherited nature and will become stubborn about it even though they love him, They will try their best to stop him from choosing the career of a singer which is not in their inheritance.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-3.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-3

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1:
Notes on Piaget and Education.
Answer:
Piaget’s theory has had a major impact on education, especially during early childhood. Three educational principles derived from his theory continue to have a widespread influence on teacher training and classroom practices:

Discovery learning:
In a Piagetian classroom, children are encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment. Instead of presenting ready-made knowledge verbally, teachers provide a rich variety of activities designed to promote exploration-art materials, puzzles, table games, dress-up clothing, building blocks, books, measuring tools, musical instruments and more.

Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn:
A Piagetian classroom does not try to speed up development. Instead, Piaget believed that appropriate learning experiences build on children’s current thinking. Teachers watch and listen to their students, introducing experiences that enable them to practice newly discovered schemes and that are likely to challenge their incorrect ways of viewing the world. But teachers do not impose new skills before children indicate they are interested and ready.

Acceptance of individual differences:
Piaget’s theory assumes that all children go through the same sequence of development, but at different rates. Therefore, teachers must plan activities for individual children and small groups rather than just for the whole class. In addition, teachers evaluate educational progress by comparing each child to that child’s own previous development. They are less interested in how children measure up to normative standards, dr the average performance of same-age peers.

Question 2:
Discuss the Erikson’s theory: Initiative Versus Guilt.
Answer:
Erikson described early childhood as a period of‘ ‘vigorous unfolding.” Once children have a sense of autonomy, they become less contrary than they were as toddlers. Their energies are freed for tackling the psychological conflict of the preschool years: initiative versus guilt. As the word initiative suggests, young children have a new sense of purposefulness. They are eager to tackle new tasks, join in activities with peers and discover what they can do with the help of adults. And they also make strides in conscience development.

Erikson’s regarded play as a central means through which young children find out about themselves and their social world. Play permits preschoolers to try out new skills with little risk of criticism and failure. It also creates a small social organization of children who must cooperate to achieve common goals. Around the world, children act out family scenes and highly visible occupations-police officer, doctor and nurse. It is known Erikson’s theory builds on Freud’s psychosexual stages. In Freud’s well-known.

Oedipus and Electra conflicts, to avoid punishment and maintain the affection of parents, children form a superego, or conscience, by identifying with the same-sex parent. That is, they take the parent’s characteristics into their personality and as a result, adopt the moral and gender-role standards of their society. Each time the child disobeys standards of conscience, painful feelings of guilt occur.

For Erikson, the negative outcome of early childhood is an overly strict superego that causes children to feel too much guilt because they have been threatened, criticized, and punished excessively by adults. When this happens, preschoolers’ exuberant play and bold efforts to master new tasks break down. Although Freud’s Oedipus and Electra conflicts are no longer regarded as satisfactory explanations of conscience development.

Erikson’s image of initiative captures the diverse changes in young children’s emotional and social lives. The preschool years are, indeed, a time when children develop a confident self-image, more effective control over their emotions, new social skills, the foundations of morality and a clear sense of themselves as boy or girl.

Question 3:
What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing So Effective?
Answer:
Authoritative child-rearing seems to create an emotional context for positive parental influence. First, warm, involved parents who are secure in the standards they hold for their children provide models of caring concern as well as confident,’ self-controlled behavior.  Second, control that appears fair and reasonable to the child, not arbitrary, is far more likely to be complied with and internalized.

Finally, authoritative parents make demands and engage in autonomy granting that fits with their children’s ability to take responsibility for their own behavior. As a result, these parents let children know that they are competent individuals who can do things successfully for themselves, thereby fostering high self-esteem and cognitive and social maturity.

Question 4:
Characteristics of Adolescence.
Answer:
Like every important period during the life span, adolescence has certain characteristics that distinguish it from the periods that preceded it and the periods that will follow it. These characteristics are explained briefly below.

Adolescence is an important period:
As all periods in the life span are important, some are more important than others because of their immediate effects on attitudes and behavior, whereas others are significant because of their long-term effects. Adolescence is one of the periods when both the immediate effects and long-term effects are important. Some periods are important for their physical and some for their psychological effects. Adolescence is important for both. Accompanying these rapid and important physical developments, especially during the early adolescent period, rapid mental developments occur. These give rise to the need for mental adjustments and the necessity for establishing new attitudes, values and interests.

Adolescence is a transitional period:
Transition does not mean a break with or a change from what has gone before but rather a passage from one stage of development to another. This means that what has happened before will leave its mark on what happens now and in the future. Children, when they go from childhood to adulthood, must “put away childish things” and they must also learn new patterns of behavior and attitudes to replace those they have abandoned. However, it is important to realize that what happened earlier has left its mark and will influence these new patterns of behavior and attitudes.

The psychic structure of the adolescent has its roots in childhood and many of its characteristics that are generally considered as typical of adolescence appear and are already present during late childhood. The physical changes that take place during the early years of adolescence affect the individual’s behavioral level and lead to reevaluations and a shifting adjustment of values. During any transitional period, the individual’s status is vague and there is confusion about the roles the individual is expected to play.

The adolescent, at this time, is neither a child nor an adult. If adolescents behave like children, they are told to “act their age.” If they try to act like adults, they are often accused of being “too big for their behaviors” and are reproved for their attempts to act like adults. On the other hand, the ambiguous status of today’s adolescents is advantageous in that it gives them time to try out different lifestyles | and decide what patterns of behavior, values, and attitudes meet their needs best.

Adolescence is a period of change:
The rate of change in attitudes and behavior during adolescence parallels the rate of physical change. Dining early adolescence, when physical changes are rapid, changes in attitudes and behavior are also rapid. As physical changes slow down, so do altitudinal and behavioral changes.

There are five almost universal concomitants of the changes that occur during adolescence.

• The first is heightened emotionality, the intensity of which depends on the rate at which the physical and psychological changes are taking place. Because these changes normally occur more rapidly during early adolescence, heightened emotionality is generally more pronounced in early than in late adolescence.
• Second, the rapid changes that accompany sexual maturing make young adolescents unsure of themselves, of their capacities and of their interests. They have strong feelings of instability which are often intensified by the ambiguous treatment they receive from parents and teachers.
• Third, changes in their bodies, their interests, and in the roles the social group expects them to play create new problems.To young adolescents, these may seem more numerous and less easily solved than any they have had to face before. Until they have solved their problems to their satisfaction, they will be preoccupied with them and with themselves.
• Fourth, as interests and behavior patterns change, so do values. What was important to them as children seems less important to them now that they are near adults. For example, most adolescents no longer think that a large number of friends is a more important indication of popularity than friends of the type that are admired and respected by their peers. They now recognize quality as more important than quantity.
• Fifth, most adolescents are ambivalent about changes. While they want and demand independence, they often dread the responsibilities that go with independence and Q their ability to cope with these responsibilities.

Adolescence is a Problem Age:
While every age has its problems, those of adolescence are often especially difficult for boys and girls to cope with. There are two reasons for this. First, throughout childhood, their problems were met and solved, in part at least, by parents and teachers. As a result, many adolescents are inexperienced in coping with problems alone. Second, because adolescents want to feel that they are independent, they demand the right of coping with their own problems, rebuffing attempts on the part of parents and teachers to help them.

Because of their inability to cope with problems alone as well as they believe they can, many adolescents find that the solutions do not always come up to their expectations. As Anna Freud has explained, “Many failures, often with tragic consequences in these respects, are due not to the individual’s incapacity as such but merely to the fact that such demands are made on him at a time in life when all his energies are engaged otherwise, namely, in trying to solve the major problem created for him by normal sexual growth and development”.

Adolescence is a Time of Search for Identity:
Throughout the gang age of late childhood, conformity to group standards, is far more important to older children than individuality. As was pointed out earlier, in dress, speech, and behavior older children want to be as nearly like their gang-mates as possible. Any deviation from the group standard is likely to be a threat to group belonging. In the early years of adolescence, conformity to the group is still important to boys and girls. Gradually, they begin to crave identity and are no longer satisfied to be like their peers in every respect, as they were earlier.

However, the ambiguous status of the adolescent in the Indian culture of today presents a dilemma that greatly contributes to the adolescent “identity crisis” or the problem of ego identity. The ways adolescents try to establish themselves as individuals is by the use of status symbols in the form of cars, clothes, hand-held music systems, mobile phones, net chat and other readily observable material possessions. They hope, in this way, to attract attention to them and to be recognized as individuals while, at the same time, maintaining their identity with the peer group.

Adolescence is a Dreaded Age:
Many popular beliefs about adolescents have definite evaluative connotations and unfortunately, many of them are negative. Acceptance of the cultural stereotype of teenagers as sloppy, unreliable individuals who are inclined toward destructiveness and antisocial behavior has led many adults who must guide and supervise the lives of young adolescents to dread this responsibility and to be unsympathetic in their attitudes toward, and treatment of, normal adolescent behavior.

Popular stereotypes have also influenced the self-concepts and attitudes of adolescents toward themselves. The cultural stereotypes have also functioned as mirrors held up to the adolescent by society reflecting an image of himself that the adolescent gradually comes to regard as authentic and according to which he shapes his behavior. The acceptance of this stereotype and the belief that adults have poor opinions of them make the transition into adulthood difficult. By so doing, it leads to much friction with their parents and places a barrier between them and their parents which prevents them from turning to their parents for help in solving their problems.

Adolescence is a Time of Unrealism:
Adolescents have a tendency to look at life through rose-tinted glasses. They see themselves and others as they would like them to.be rather than as they are. This is especially true of adolescent aspirations. These unrealistic aspirations, not only for themselves but also for their families and friends, are, in part, responsible for the heightened emotionality characteristic of early adolescence.

The more unrealistic their aspirations are, the more angry, hurt, and disappointed they will be when they feel that others have let them down or that they have not lived up to the goals they set for themselves. With increased personal and social experiences and with increased ability to think rationally, older adolescents see themselves, their families and friends, and life in general in a more realistic way: As a result, they suffer less from disappointment and disillusionment than they did when they were younger.

This is one of the conditions that contribute to the greater happiness of the older adolescent. As adolescence draws to a close, it is not uncommon for both boys and girls to be plagued by over-idealism of the single, carefree life that they will soon give up as they achieve the status of adults. Feeling that this period of their lives is happier than what they will face in adulthood, with its demands and responsibilities, there is a tendency to glamorize adolescence and to feel that a happy, carefree age has been lost forever.

Adolescence is the Threshold of Adulthood:
As adolescents approach legal maturity, they are anxious to shed the stereotype of teenagers and to create the impression that they are near adults. Dressing and acting like adults, are hot always enough. So, they begin to concentrate on behavior that is associated with the adult status-smoking, drinking, using drugs and engaging in sex, for example. They believe that this behavior will create the image they desire.

Question 5:
Developmental tasks of adolescence.
Answer:
All the developmental tasks of adolescence are focused on overcoming childish attitudes and behavior patterns and preparing for adulthood. The developmental tasks of adolescence require a major change in the child’s habitual attitudes and patterns of behavior. Consequently, few boys and girls can be expected to master them during the years of early adolescence. This is especially true of late maturers.

The most that can be hoped is that the young adolescent will lay the foundations on which to build adult attitudes and behavior patterns. A brief survey of the important developmental tasks of adolescence will serve to illustrate the extent of the changes that must be made and the problems that arise from these changes.
Fundamentally, the necessity for mastering the developmental tasks in the relatively short time that adolescents have, as a result of lowering the age of legal maturity to eighteen, is the reason for much of the stress that plagues many adolescents.

It may be difficult for adolescents to accept their physiques if, from earliest childhood, they have a glamorized concept of what they wanted to look like when they are grown up. It takes time to revise this concept and to learn ways to improve their appearance so that it will conform more to their earlier ideals. Acceptance of the adult-approved sex role is not too difficult for boys; they have been encouraged in this direction since early childhood.

But for girls, who as children were permitted or even encouraged to play an egalitarian role, learning what the adult-approved feminine role is and accepting it is often a major task requiring many years of adjustment. Because of the antagonism toward members of the opposite sex that often develops during late childhood and puberty, learning new relationships with members of the opposite sex actually means starting from scratch to discover what they are like and how to get along with them. Even developing new, more mature relationships with age-mates of the same sex may not be easy.

Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults would seem, for the independence-conscious adolescent, to be an easy developmental task. However, emotional independence is not the same as independence of behavior. Many adolescents who want to be independent want and need the security that emotional dependence on their parents or some other adults gives. This is especially true for adolescents whose status in the peer group is insecure or who lack a close tie with a member of the peer group.

Economic independence cannot be achieved until adolescents choose an occupation and prepare for it. If they select an occupation that requires a long period, of training, there can be no assurance of economic independence even when they reach legal adulthood. They may have to remain economically dependent for several years until their training for their chosen vocations has been completed.

Schools and colleges put emphasis on developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence. However, few adolescents are able to use these skills and concepts in practical situations. Those who are active in the extracurricular affairs of their schools and colleges get such practice, but those who are not active in this way because they must take after-school jobs or because they are not accepted by their peers are deprived of this opportunity.

Schools and colleges also try to build values that are in harmony with those held by adults; parents contribute to this development. When, however, the adult-fostered values clash with peer values, adolescents must choose the latter if they want the peer acceptance on which their social life depends. Closely related to the problem of developing values in harmony with those of the adult world the adolescent is about to enter is the task of developing socially responsible behavior.

Most adolescents want to be accepted by their peers, but they often gain this acceptance at the expense of behavior that adults consider socially irresponsible. If, for example, it is the “thing to do” to cheat or to help a friend during an examination, the adolescent must choose between adult and peer standards of socially responsible behavior. The trend toward earlier marriages has made preparation for marriage one of the most important developmental tasks of the adolescent years.

While the gradual relaxing of social taboos on sexual behavior has gone a long way toward preparing adolescents of today for the sexual aspects of marriage, they receive little preparation-at home, in school, or in college-for the other aspects of marriage and even less preparation for the duties and responsibilities of family life. This lack of preparation is responsible for one of the major pieces of “unfinished business” which the adolescent carries into adulthood.

Question 6:
Physical changes during adolescence.
Answer:
Growth is not complete when puberty ends,.nor is it entirely complete at the end of early adolescence. However, there is a slowdown of the pace of growth and there is more marked internal than external development. This cannot be so readily observed or identified as growth in height and weight or the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Variations in Physical Changes:
Like all ages, there are individual differences in physical changes. Sex differences are especially apparent. Even though boys start their growth spurt later than girls, their growth continues longer, with the result that, at maturity, they are usually taller than girls. Because boys’ muscles grow larger than girls’ muscles, at all ages after puberty boys surpass girls in strength, and this superiority increases with age.

Individual differences are also influenced by age of maturing. Late maturers tend to have slightly broader shoulders than those who mature early. The legs of early-maturing boys and girls tend to be stocky; those of late maturers tend to be more slender. Early-maturing girls weigh more, are taller, and have greater weight for their height than do late-maturing girls.

Effects of Physical Changes:
As physical changes slow down, the awkwardness of puberty and early adolescence generally disappear. This is because older adolescents have had time to gain control of their enlarged bodies. They are also motivated to use their newly acquired strength and this further helps them to overcome any awkwardness that appeared earlier.

Because strength follows growth in’ muscle size, boys generally show their greatest increase in strength after age fourteen, while girls show improvement up to this age and then lag, owing more to changes in interests than to lack of capacity. Girls generally attain their maximum strength at about seventeen, while boys do not attain their maximum strength until they are twenty-one or twenty-two.

Concerns about Physical Changes:
Few adolescents experience body-cathexis or satisfaction with their bodies. However, they do experience more dissatisfaction with some parts of their bodies than with other parts. This failure to experience body-cathexis is one of the causes of unfavorable self¬concepts and lack of self-esteem during the adolescent years. Some of the concerns adolescents have about their bodies are carry-overs of concerns they experienced during puberty and which, in the early years of adolescence, are based on conditions that still prevail.

Concern about normalcy, for example, will persist until the physical changes on the surface of the body have been completed and adolescents can be sure that their bodies conform to the norms for their sex groups. Similarly, concern about sex appropriateness, so all-pervading in puberty, continues until the primary and secondary sex characteristics have completed their growth and development and, thus, give adolescents an opportunity to. see if their bodies conform to the cultural standard of sex-appropriateness.

Awareness of social reactions to different body builds leads to concern in adolescents whose changing bodies fail to conform to the culturally approved standards. Knowing that social reactions to endomorphic builds in both boys and girls are less favorable than they are to ectomorphic and mesomorphic -builds leads to concern on the part of adolescents whose body builds tend toward endomorphy. For many girls, menstruation is a serious concern. This is because they suffer physical discomforts such as cramps, weight gain, headaches, backaches, swollen ankles and breast tenderness and experience emotional changes, such as mood swings, depression, restlessness, depression, and a tendency to cry without apparent reason.

Because menstruation is commonly referred to as “the curse,” it is not surprising that this unfavorable social reaction will color girls’ attitudes. Furthermore, knowing that boys do not experience any such form of physical discomfort also colors girls’ attitudes – unfavorably and encourages them to believe that they are martyrs.
Acne and other skin eruptions are a source of concern to both boys and girls. With the increase in the severity of acne, there is an increase in concern.

This concern is often as great for boys, as for girls because they realize that acne mars their chances for physical attractiveness and because they cannot use cosmetics to cover it up as girls can. The tendency toward obesity that plagues most pubescent boys and girls continues to be a source of concern during the early adolescent years. In most cases, however, with increase in height and with efforts to control their appetites and the eating of “junk food,” older adolescents start to slim down and look less obese than they did during the puberty fat period.

In addition, careful selection of clothing helps to create tb; illusion that they are more slender than they actually are. It is unusual for adolescents, boys or girls, not to be concerned about their physical attractiveness. Few are satisfied with their appearance and many are concerned about what they can do to improve it. The reason for concern comes from the realization of the role attractiveness plays in social relationships. Adolescents realize, even more than children do, that people treat those who are attractive more favorably than they do those who are less attractive. They are also aware of the important role attractiveness -plays in the choice for leadership.

Consequently, when they feel that they are less attractive than they had hoped to be when their growth was complete or nearly complete, they are concerned about what they can do to improve their looks. Few adolescents escape being “looks-conscious” to the point where they spend proportionally more time and thought on how to improve their looks than most adults consider justified.

Question 7:
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning.
Answer:
At adolescence, young people first become capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning; When faced with a problem, they start with a general theory of all possible factors that might affect the outcome and deduce from it specific hypotheses (or predictions) “ about what might happen. Then they test these hypotheses in an orderly fashion to see which ones work in the real World. Notice how this form of problem-solving begins with possibility and proceeds to reality. In contrast, concrete operational children start with reality-with the most obvious predictions about a situation. When these are not confirmed, they cannot think of alternatives and fail to solve the problem.

Adolescents’ performance on Piaget’s famous pendulum problem illustrates this new approach. Suppose we present several school-age children and adolescents with strings of different lengths, objects of different weights to attach to the strings and a bar from which to hang the strings. Then we ask each of them to figure out what influences the speed with which a pendulum swings through its arc.
Formal operational adolescents come up with four hypotheses:

• the length of the string,
• the weight of the object hung on it,
• how high the object is raised before it is released and
• how forcefully the object is pushed.
  Then, by varying one factor at a time while holding all the others constant, they try out each possibility. Eventually, they discover that only string length makes a difference.

In contrast, concrete operational children experiment unsystematically. They cannot separate the effects of each variable. They may test for the effect of string length without holding weight constant, comparing, for example, a short, light pendulum with a long, heavy one. Also, school-age children fail to notice variables that are not immediately suggested by the concrete materials of the task-the height at which and forcefulness with which the pendulum is released.

Question 8:
What is Propositional Thought in adolescence?
Answer:
A second important characteristic of the formal operational stage is propositional thought. Adolescents can evaluate the logic of propositions without referring to real-world circumstances. In contrast, children can evaluate the logic of statements only by considering them against concrete evidence in the real world. In a study of propositional reasoning, a researcher showed children and adolescents a pile of tokens (plastic round coins) and asked whether statements about the tokens were t true, false, or uncertain.

In one condition, the researcher hid a token in her hand and presented the following propositions: “Either the token in my hand is green or it is not green:’ “The token in my hand is green and it is not green.” In another condition, the experimenter held either a red or a green token in full view and made the same statements.
School-age children focused on the concrete properties of the tokens. When the token was hidden from view, they replied that they were uncertain about both statements. When it was visible, they judged both statements to be true if the token was green and false if it was red.

In contrast, adolescents analyzed the logic of the statements. They understood that the “either-or” statement is always true and the “and” statement is always false, regardless of the poker token’s color. Although Piaget did not view language as playing a central role in children’s cognitive development, he acknowledged it is more important in adolescence. Abstract thought requires language-based systems of representation that do not stand for real things, such as those in higher mathematics. Secondary school students use these systems in algebra and geometry.

Question 9:
Social changes during adolescence.
Answer:
The most difficult developmental tasks of adolescence relates to social adjustments. These adjustments must be made to members of the opposite sex in a relationship that never existed before and to adults outside the family and school environments. To achieve the goal of adult patterns of socialization, the adolescent must make many new adjustments* the most important and, in many respects, the most difficult of which are those to the increased influence of the peer group, changes in social behavior, new social groupings, new values in friendship selection, new values in social acceptance and rejection and new values in the selection of leaders.

Increased Peer-Group Influence:
Because adolescents spend most of their time outside the home with members of the peer group, it is understandable that peers would have a greater influence on adolescent attitudes, speech, interests, appearance and behavior than the family has. Most adolescents, for example, discover that if they wear the same type of clothes as popular group members wear, their chances of acceptance are enhanced. Similarly, if members of the peer group experiment with alcohol, drugs, or tobacco, adolescents are likely to do the same, regardless of how they feel about these matters.

As adolescence progresses, peer-group influence begins to wane. There are two reasons for this. First, most adolescents want to become individuals in their own right and to be recognized as such. The search for identity discussed earlier in this chapter, weakens the influence of the peer group on the adolescent. The second reason for waning of peer-group influence is the result of the adolescent’s choice of peers as companions.

No longer are adolescents interested in large group activities, as was true during their childhood days. In adolescence, there is a tendency to narrow down friendships to smaller numbers though most adolescents want to belong to larger social groups for social activities. Because these social activities are less meaningful to adolescents than close, personal friendships, the influence of the larger social group becomes less pronounced than the influence of friends.

Changes in Social Behavior:
Of all the changes that take place in social attitudes and behavior, the most pronounced is in the area of heterosexual relationships. In a short period of time, adolescents make the radical shift from disliking members of the opposite sex to preferring their companionship to that of members of their own sex. Social activities, whether with members of the same sex or with the Opposite sex, usually reach their peak during the high-school years. As a result of broader opportunities for social participation, social insight improves among older adolescents. They are now able to judge members of the opposite sex as well as members of their own sex better than they could when they were younger. As a result, they make better adjustments in social situations and they quarrel less.

The greater the social participation of adolescents, the greater their social competency, as seen in their ability to dance, to canyon conversations, to play sports and games that are popular with agemates and to behave correctly in different social situations. As a result, they gain self-confidence which is expressed in poise and ease in social situations. Whether prejudice and discrimination will increase or decrease during adolescence will be greatly influenced by the environment in which adolescents find themselves and by the attitudes and behavior of their friends and associates.

Because adolescents, as a group, tend to be more “choosey” in the selection of associates and friends than they were as children, they find adolescents of different racial, religious, or socioeconomic backgrounds less congenial than those with similar backgrounds. However, they are more likely to ignore those they find uncongenial than to treat them in a way that expresses their feelings of superiority, as older children do.

New Social Groupings:
The gangs of childhood gradually break up at puberty and during early adolescence as the individual’s interests shift from the strenuous play activities of childhood tb the less strenuous and more formal social activities of adolescence. In their place come new social groupings. The social groupings Of boys as a rule are larger and more loosely knit while those of girls are smaller and more sharply defined.
The most common social groupings during adolescence are described below:

• Close Friends:
  The adolescent usually has two or three close friends, or confidants. They are of the same sex and have similar interests and abilities. Close friends have a marked influence on one another, though they may quarrel occasionally.
• Cliques:
  Cliques are usually made up of groups Of close friends. At first they consist of members of the same sex, but later include both boys and girls.
• Crowds:
  Crowds made up of cliques and groups of close friends, develop as interest in parties and dating grows. Because crowds are large, there is less congeniality of interest among the members and thus a greater social distance between them.
• Organized Groups:
  Adult-directed youth groups are established by schools and community organizations to meet the social needs of adolescents who belong to no cliques or crowds. Many adolescents who join such groups feel regimented and lose interest in them by the time they are sixteen or seventeen.

Gangs:
Adolescents who belong to no cliques or crowds and who gain little satisfaction from organized groups may join a gang. Gang members are usually of the same sex and their main interest is to compensate for peer rejection through antisocial behavior. There are changes in some of these social groupings as adolescence progresses. Interest in organized groups, whose activities are planned and to a large extent controlled by adults, wanes rapidly as independence-conscious adolescents present being told what to do. Only if the control of the activities of these groups is turned over to them, with minimum of adult advice and interference, will interest continue. Crowds tend to disintegrate in late adolescence and are replaced by loosely associated groups of couples. This is especially true of adolescents who go to work at the completion of high school.

At work they are in contact with people, of all ages, most of whom have friends and families of their own outside their jobs. Unless noncollege older adolescents have friends from their school days who live and work near enough to make contacts possible they may find themselves limited to a few friends connected with their work and out of touch with any group large enough to form a crowd. By contrast, the influence of the gang tends to increase as adolescence progresses. This influence is often expressed in violent behavior committed by gang members.

Adolescents want as friends those whose interests and values are similar to theirs, who understand them and make them feel secure and in whom they can confide problems and discuss matters they feel they cannot share with parents or teachers. Most adolescents claim they want “someone to be trusted, someone to talk to and someone who is dependable”. Because of these changed values, childhood friends will not necessarily be friends in adolescence. Nor are adolescents interested only in friends of their own sex. Interest in the opposite sex becomes increasingly stronger as adolescence progresses. As a result, by the end of adolescence, there is often a preference for friends of the opposite sex, though both boys and girls continue to have a few intimate friends of their own sex with whom they associate constantly.

Question 10:
What is Erikson’s theory: Identity versus Identity confusion?
Answer:
Erikson was the first to recognize identity as the major or personality achievement of adolescence and as a crucial step toward becoming a productive, happy adult. Constructing an identity involves defining who you are, what you value and the directions you choose to pursue in life. One expert described it as an explicit theory of oneself as a rational agent-one who acts on the basis of reason, takes responsibility for those actions, and can explain them.

This search for what is true and real about the self is the driving force behind many new commitments to sexual orientation; a vocation; interpersonal relationships; community involvement; ethnic group membership and moral, political, religious and cultural ideals. Erikson called the psychological conflict of adolescence identity versus identity confusion. Successful outcomes of earlier stages paves the way to its positive resolution.

Young people who reach adolescence with a weak sense of trust have trouble finding ideals to have faith in. Those with little autonomy or initiative do not engage in the active exploration required to choose among alternatives. And those who lack a sense of industry fail to select a vocation that matches their interests and skills.
Although the seeds of identity formation are planted early, not until adolescence do young people become absorbed in this task.

According to Erikson, in complex societies, teenagers experience an identity crisis—a temporary period of confusion and distress as they experiment with alternatives before settling on values and goals. Adolescents who go through a process of inner soul-searching eventually arrive at a mature identity. They sift through characteristics that defined the self in childhood and combine them with new commitments.

Then they mold these into a solid inner core that provides a sense of stability as they move through different roles in daily life. Once formed, identity continues to be refined in adulthood as people reevaluate earlier commitments and choices. Current theorists agree with Erikson that Qing of values, plans and priorities is necessary for a mature identity, but they no longer refer to this process as a “crisis”. For some young people, identity development is traumatic and disturbing, but for most it is not.

Exploration better describes the typical adolescent’s gradual, uneventful approach to identity formation. By trying out various life possibilities and moving toward making enduring decisions, young people forge an organized self-structure. Erikson described the negative outcome of adolescence as identity confusion. Some young people appear shallow and directionless, either because earlier conflicts have been resolved negatively or because society restricts their choices to ones that do not match their abilities and desires.

As a result, they are unprepared for the psychological challenges of adulthood. For example, individuals find it difficult to risk the self-sharing involved in
Erikson’s young adult stage-intimacy-if they do not have a firm sense of self (an identity) to which they can return.

Question 11:
What is adulthood?
Answer:
Introduction:
The word adult comes from the same Latin verb as the term adolescence-adolescere which means “to grow to maturity!” However, the word adult is derived from the past participle of the verb-adults -which means “grown, to full size and strength” or “matured.” Adults are, therefore, individuals who have completed their growth and are ready to assume their status in society along with other adults.

Various cultures have different ages at which children reach the adult status or the age of legal maturity, in most of the older cultures, they reached this status when their puberty growth was complete or nearly complete and when their sex organs had developed to the point where they were capable of procreation. Until recently, children were not considered legally adults until they reached the age of twenty-one years.

Question 12:
Characteristics of early adulthood.
Answer:
Early adulthood is a period of adjustments to new patterns of life and new social expectations. The young adult is expected to play new roles, such as that of spouse, parent, and breadwinner, and to develop new attitudes, interests and values in keeping with these new roles. These adjustments make early adulthood a distinctive period in the life span and also a difficult one.

It is especially difficult because, until now, most boys and girls have had someone’s parents, teachers, friends or others to help them make the adjustments they are faced with. Now, as adults, they are expected to make these adjustments for themselves. To avoid being considered “immature,” they hesitate to turn to others for advice and help when they find the adjustments too difficult to cope with successfully alone.

Early Adulthood is the “Settling-down Age”:
Childhood and adolescence are the periods of “growing up” and adulthood is the time for “settling down:” In past generations, it was assumed that when boys and girls reached the age of legal maturity, their days of carefree freedom were over and the time had come to settle down and assume the responsibilities of adult life. That meant settling into a line of work that would be the man’s career for the rest of his life, while the young woman was expected to assume the responsibilities of homemaker and mother- responsibilities that would be hers for the remainder of her life.

Today, it is recognized that “settling down” too early is often laying the foundations for discontent because of too early choices of careers or life-mates. Consequently, many young men try out different lines of work to see which meets their needs best and which will bring them lifelong satisfaction. While trying out different lines of work, many young men also try out different women to find out if they have the qualities they want for a lifelong spouse.

This trying out of different life patterns and different individuals to share their life patterns takes time. Consequently, young adults today usually start to settle down late than their parents did and much later than their grandparents did. The average adult of today has chosen a lifestyle and an individual to share that lifestyle by the early thirties, though many do so before then.

When adults of today start to settle down depends upon two factors. First, how soon they are able to find a lifestyle that meets their needs then and which they believe will meet their needs throughout life. A woman, who, since the days she played with dolls always wanted to be a wife and mother, will not need long after completing her education to choose these occupations as her life roles.

Similarly, a man who never wanted to be anything but a doctor will not have to go through the trial-and-error process to find a career that meets his needs as will his friends who frankly claimed, as Ijoys, that they did not know what they wanted to do when they reached the end of their schooling.

Early Adulthood Is the “Reproductive Age”:
Parenthood is one of the most important roles in the lives of most young adults. Those who were married during the latter years of adolescence concentrate on the role of. parenthood during their twenties and early thirties; some become grandparents before early adulthood ends. Those who do not marry until they have completed their education or have started their life careers do not become parents until they feel they can afford to have a family. This is often not until the early thirties. Also, if women want to pursue careers after marriage, they may put off having children until their thirties. For them, then, only the last decade of early adulthood is the “reproductive age.” For those who begin to have children early in adulthood or even in the closing years of adolescence and have large families, all of early adulthood is likely to be a reproductive age.

Early Adulthood is a “Problem Age”:
The early adult years present many new problems, different in their major aspects, from the problems experienced in the earlier years of life. With the lowering of the age of legal maturity to eighteen years, young adults have been confronted with many problems they are totally unprepared to cope with. While they are now able to vote, to own property, to marry without parental consent, and to do many things young people could not do when the age of legal maturity was twenty-one years, there is no Q about the fact that “this new-found freedom is creating unforeseen problems for the youthful adults and often for their parents, too”.There are many reasons why adjustment to the problems of adulthood is so difficult.

Three are especially common. First, very few young people have had any preparation for meeting the types of problems they are expected to cope with as adults. Education in high school and college provides only limited training for jobs, and few schools or colleges give courses in the common problems of marriage and parenthood. Even those who have had babysitting experience have limited preparation for parenthood because most babysitters are hired only for short times when parents are out of the home and their major responsibility is to keep the children safe and happy until the parents return. Second, just as trying to learn two or more skills simultaneously usually results in not learning any one of them well, so trying to adjust to two or more new roles simultaneously usually results in a poor adjustment to all of them.

It is difficult for a young adult to deal with the choice of a career and the choice of a mate simultaneously. Similarly, adjustment to marriage and parenthood makes it difficult for young adults to adjust to work if they marry while they are still students. Third and perhaps most serious of all, young adults do not have help in meeting and solving the problems that they had when they were younger. This is partly their own fault and partly that of their parents and teachers. Most young adults are too proud of their new status to admit that they cannot cope with it. So, they do not seek advice and help in meeting the problems this new status gives rise to. Similarly, most parents and teachers, having been rebuffed by adolescents who claimed they were capable of handling their own affairs, hesitate to offer help unless they are specifically asked to do so. That is why, as was stressed earlier, the shortening of adolescence has made the transition to adulthood especially difficult.

Early Adulthood is a Period of Emotional Tension:
When people are trying to get the lay of a new land in which they find themselves, they are likely to be emotionally upset. By the early or mid-thirties, most young adults have solved their problems well enough to become emotionally stable and calm. Should the heightened emotionality characteristic of the early years of adulthood persist into the thirties, it suggests that adjustments to adult life have not been satisfactorily made. When emotional tension persists into the thirties, it is generally expressed in worries. What young adults worry about will depend on what adjustment problems they are facing at the time and how much success or failure they are experiencing in meeting these problems. Their worries may be mainly concentrated on their work, because they feel they are not advancing as rapidly as they had hoped to, or their worries may be concentrated on marital or parenthood problems. When adults feel that they have not been able to cope with the problems in the major areas of their lives, they are often so emotionally disturbed that they contemplate or attempt suicide.

Early Adulthood is a Period of Social Isolation:
With the end of formal education and the entrance into the adult life pattern of work and marriage, associations with the peer groups of adolescents wane and, with them, opportunities for social contacts outside the home. As a result, for the first time since babyhood, even the most popular individual is likely to experience social isolation, or what Erikson has referred to as an “isolation crisis”. Many young adults, having become accustomed throughout childhood and adolescence to depending on peers for companionship, experience loneliness when responsibilities at home or at work isolate them from groups of their peers. Those who were most popular during their school and college days and who devoted much of their time to peer activities, find the adjustment to social isolation in adulthood especially difficult.

Whether the loneliness that comes from this isolation will be temporary or persistent depends on how quickly and how satisfactorily the young adult can establish new social contacts to replace those of school and college days. Isolation is intensified by a competitive spirit and a strong desire, to rise on the vocational ladder. To achieve success, they must compete with others thus replacing the friendliness of adolescence with the competitiveness of the successful adult-and they must also devote most of their energies to their work, which leaves them little time for the socialization that leads to close relationships. As a result, they become self-centered, which contributes to loneliness.

Early Adulthood is a time of commitments:
As young adults change their role from that of student and dependent, Characteristic of adolescence, to that of independent adult, they establish new patterns of living, assume new responsibilities and make new commitments. While these new patterns of living, new responsibilities and new commitments may change later, they form the foundations on which later patterns of living, responsibilities, and commitments will be established.

Early Adulthood is often a period of Dependency:
In spite of achieving the status of legal adulthood at age eighteen,- with the independence this status carries, many young adults are partially or totally dependent on others for varying lengths of time. This dependency may be on parents; on the educational institution they attend on part or total scholarship, or on the government for loans to finance their education.

Question 13:
Concepts of Adult Sex Roles Traditional Concepts.
Answer:

Traditional Concepts:
Traditional concepts of sex roles emphasize a prescribed pattern of behavior, regardless of individual interests or abilities. They emphasize masculine supremacy and intolerance toward any trait that hints of femininity or any work that is considered “woman’s work.”

• Men:
  Outside the home, the man holds positions of authority and prestige in the social and business worlds; in the home, he is the wage earner, decision maker, adviser and disciplinarian of the children, and model of masculinity for his sons.
• Women:
  Both in the home and outside, the role of the woman is other-oriented in that she gains fulfillment by serving others. She is not expected to work outside the home except in cases of financial necessity and then she does only work that serves others, such as nursing, teaching, or secretarial work.

Egalitarian Concepts:

Egalitarian concepts of sex roles emphasize the individuality and the egalitarian status of men and women. Roles should lead to personal fulfillment and not be considered appropriate for only one sex.

• Men:
  In the home and outside, the man works with the woman in a companionship relationship; He does not feel “henpecked” if he treats his wife as art equal, nor does he feel ashamed if she has a more prestigious or remunerative job than he does.
• Women:
  Both in the home and outside, the woman is able to actualize her own potential. She does not feel guilty about using her abilities and training to give her satisfaction, even if this requires employing someone else to take care of the home and children.

Erikson’S Theory: Intimacy Versus Isolation:

Erikson’s contributions have energized the study of adult personality development. His vision has influenced all contemporary theories. According to Erikson, adults move through three stages, each bringing both opportunity and risk-”a turning point for better or worse”. The psychological conflict of early adulthood is intimacy versus isolation, reflected in the young person’s thoughts and feelings about making a permanent commitment to an intimate partner.
In his definition of intimacy, Erikson stated that it should include
1. Mutuality of orgasm
2. with a loved partner
3. of the other sex
4. With whom one is able and willing to share a mutual trust
5. and with whom one is able and willing to regulate the cycles of work, procreation, and recreation.
6. so as to secure to the offspring, too, all the stages of satisfactory development Erikson pointed out, that sexual intercourse should not be assumed to be the most important aspect of intimacy between individuals. He was speaking here of far more than sexual intimacy. He was talking about the ability to relate one’s deepest hopes and fears to another person and to accept another’s need for intimacy in turn.

Those who have achieved the stage of intimacy are able to commit themselves to concrete affiliations and partnerships with others and have developed the “ethical strength to abide by such commitments, even though they may call for significant sacrifices and compromises”. This leads to solidarity between partners. Erikson was found quoting Freud’s response when asked what he thought a normal person should be able to do well: “Lieben und arbiten “to love and. to work.” To Freud, then sharing responsibility for mutual achievement and the loving feelings that result from them are the essence of adulthood. Erikson fully agreed with this.

Thus when Freud uses the term genitality to describe this same period he does not merely mean sexual intercourse; he is referring rather to the ability to share one’s deeply held values, needs, and secrets with another through the generosity that is so important in intimacy. The counterpart of intimacy is distantiation. This is the readiness all of us have to distance ourselves from others when we feel threatened by their behavior. Distantiation is the cause of most prejudices and discrimination. Propaganda efforts mounted by countries at war are examples of attempts to increase distantiation. It is what leads to isolation.

Most young adults vacillate between their desires for intimacy and their need for distantiation. They need social distance because they are not sure of their identities. They are always vulnerable to criticism, and since they can’t be sure whether the criticisms are true or not, they protect themselves by a “lone wolf ’ stance. Although intimacy may be difficult for some males today, Erikson believed that it used to be even more difficult for females.

“All this is a little more complicated with women, because women, at least in yesterday’s cultures, had to keep their identities incomplete until they knew their man”. Now that less emphasis occurs in the female gender role on getting married and pleasing one’s husband, and more emphasis is on being true to ones own identity, Erikson believed that both sexes have a better chance of achieving real intimacy.

Erikson believed that successful resolution of intimacy versus isolation prepares the individual for the middle adulthood stage, which focuses on Generativity-caring for the next generation and helping to improve society. In sum, both intimacy and Generativity emerge in early adulthood, with shifts in emphasis that differ among young people.

Question 14:
Middle Adulthood is a Time of Stress.
Answer:
Radical adjustments to changed roles and patterns of life, especially when accompanied by physical changes, always tend to disrupt the individual’s physical and psychological homeostasis and lead to a period of stress-a time when a number of major adjustments must be made in the home, business, and social aspects of their lives.
Categories of Stress in Middle Adulthood are:

• Somatic stress, which is due to physical evidence of aging.
• Cultural stress, stemming from the high value placed on youth, vigor, and success by the cultural group.
• Economic stress, resulting from the financial burden of educating children and providing status symbols for all family members.
• Psychological stress, which may be the result of the death of a spouse, the departure of children from the home, boredom with marriage, or a sense of lost youth and approaching death.

Most women experience a disruption in homeostasis during their forties, when normally they go through menopause and their last children leave home, thus forcing them to make radical readjustments in the pattern of their entire lives. For men, by contrast, the climacteric comes later-generally in the fifties-as does the imminence of retirement with its necessary role changes.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-2.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Describe the period of infancy.
Answer:
Infancy, or the period of the newborn, is, according to standard dictionaries, the beginning or the early period of existence as an individual rather than as a parasite in the mother’s body. Dictionaries also define an infant as a child in the first period of life.

According to Legal, standards, an infant is an individual who is a minor until reaching the age of legal maturity, which, in America today, is eighteen years. According to medical terminology, an infant is a young child, but no specific age limits are placed on when the individual ceases to be an infant and becomes a child.Many psychologists use the word infant in much the same way. as members of the medical profession do and, like them, fail to set an age limit on infancy.

This gives the period an ambiguous status in its lifespan. The word infant suggests extreme helplessness, and it will be limited to the first few weeks of life. During this period, the newborn’s complete helplessness gradually gives way to increasing independence. Further toddlerhood occupies the first two years of life following the brief two-week period of infancy. During the toddlerhood months, there is a gradual but pronounced decrease in helplessness. This does not mean that helplessness quickly disappears and is replaced by independence.

Instead, it means that every day, week and month the individual becomes more independent so that, when toddlerhood ends with the second birthday, the individual is a quite different person than when toddlerhood began. Because “baby” suggests too many people a helpless individual, it is becoming increasingly common to apply the label toddler to the individual during the second year of toddlerhood. A toddler is a baby who has achieved enough body control to be relatively independent.

Characteristics Of Infancy:

Each period in the life span is characterized by certain developmental phenomena that distinguish it from the periods that precede and follow it. While some of these phenomena may be associated with other periods, they appear in a distinctive form during infancy. Following are the five most important characteristics of this period.

Infancy Is the Shortest of All Developmental Periods:
Infancy begins with birth and ends when the infant is approximately two weeks old, by far the shortest of all developmental periods. It is the time when the fetus must adjust to life outside the uterine walls of the mother where it has lived for approximately nine months. According to medical criteria, the adjustment is completed with the fall of the umbilical cord from the navel; according to physiological criteria, it is completed when the infant has regained the weight lost after birth and according to psychological criteria.It is completed when the infant begins to show signs of developmental progress in behavior. Although most infants complete this adjustment in two weeks or slightly less, those whose birth has been difficult or premature require more time.
In spite of its shortness, infancy is generally subdivided into two periods: the period of the Partunate and the period of the neonate.

Period of the Partunate :
(from birth to fifteen to thirty minutes after birth): This period begins when the fetal body has emerged from the mother’s body and lasts until the umbilical cord has been cut and tied. Until this is done, the infant continues to be a parasite and makes no adjustments to the postnatal environment the environment outside the mother’s body.

Period of the Neonate :
(from the cutting and tying of the umbilical cord to approximately the end of the second week of postnatal life): The infant is now a separate, independent individual and is no longer a parasite. During this period, the infant must make adjustments to the new environment outside the mother’s body. Even in difficult births, it seldom takes more than forty-eight hours for the fetus to emerge from the mother’s body. By contrast, it requires approximately two weeks adjusting to the new environment outside the mother’s body.

Infancy Is a Time of Radical Adjustments :
Although the human life span legally begins at the moment of birth, birth is merely an interruption of the developmental pattern that started at the moment of conception. It is the graduation from an internal to an external environment. Like all graduations, it requires adjustments on the individual’s part. It may be easy for some infants to make these adjustments but so difficult for others that they will fail to do so. Miller has commented, “In all the rest of his life, there will never be such a sudden and Complete change of locale”.

Infancy Is a Plateau in Development:
The rapid growth and development which took place during the prenatal period suddenly come to a stop with birth. In fact, there is often a slight regression, such as loss of weight and a tendency to be less strong and healthy than at birth. Normally this slight regression lasts for several days to a week, after which the infant begins to improve. By the end of the infancy period, the infant’s state of development is usually back to where it was at the time of birth. The halt in growth and development, characteristic of this plateau, is due to the necessity for making radical adjustments to the postnatal environment.

Once these adjustments have been made, infants resume their growth and development. While a plateau in development during infancy is normal, many parents, especially those of firstborn children, become concerned about it and fear that something is wrong with their child. Consequently, the infancy plateau may become a psychological hazard, just as it is a potential physical hazard.

Infancy Is a Preview of Later Development :
It is not possible to predict with even reasonable accuracy what the individual’s future development will be on the basis of the development apparent at birth. However, the newborn’s development provides a clue as to what to expect later on.

Infancy Is a Hazardous Period :
Infancy is a hazardous period, both physically and psychologically. Physically, it is hazardous because of the difficulties of making the necessary radical adjustments to the totally new and different environment. The high infant mortality rate is evidence of this. Psychologically, infancy is hazardous because it is the time when the attitudes of significant people toward the infant are crystallized. Many of these attitudes were established during the prenatal period and may change radically after the infant is born, but some remain relatively unchanged or are strengthened, depending on conditions at birth and on the ease or difficulty with which the infant and the parents adjust.

Question 2.
How to do adjustments of infancy?
Answer:
Infants must make four major adjustments before they can resume their developmental progress. If they do not make them quickly, their lives will be threatened. While these adjustments are being made, there is no developmental progress. Instead, the infant remains on a plateau or may even regress to a lower stage of development, These adjustments are:

Temperature Changes:
There is a constant temperature of 100°F in the uterine sac, while temperatures in the hospital or home may vary from 60 to 70°F.

Breathing:
When the umbilical cord is cut, infants must begin to breathe on their own.

Sucking and Swallowing:
The infant must now get nourishment by sucking and swallowing, instead of receiving it through the umbilical cord. These reflexes are imperfectly developed at birth and the infant often gets less nourishment than is needed and thus loses weight.

Elimination:
The infant’s organs of elimination begin to work soon after birth; formerly, waste products were eliminated through the umbilical cord. Every newborn infant finds adjustment to postnatal life difficult at first. Some have trouble adjusting to temperature changes and develop colds, which may turn into pneumonia. Others find breathing difficult and must be given oxygen. Most choke when they attempt to suck and swallow and many regurgitate more than they are able to retain, in which case they get less nourishment than they need to grow or even to retain their birth weight. Few have any real trouble eliminating urine, but many have difficulties with fecal elimination.

Question 3.
What is Length of Gestation Period?
Answer:
The fourth condition that influences infants’ adjustments to postnatal life is the length of the gestation period. Very few infants are born exactly 280 days after conception. Those who arrive ahead of time are known as premature -often referred to in hospitals as “preemies”- while those who arrive late are known as postmature, or post-term babies.

Postmaturity occurs less often than in the past because it is now possible to induce labor when x-rays/scanning show that the fetus is large enough and well enough developed to adjust successfully to postnatal life. Induced labor is also used as a means of preventing possible birth complications and birth injuries, especially brain damage, which can result if the fetal head is allowed to grow too large.

It is now recognized that birth weight alone is not enough to determine prematurity. Instead, gestation age, body length, bone ossification, head circumference, irritability, reflex, nutritional state and neurological assessment are also used. When infants are 20 or more inches long and weigh 8 or more pounds, they are considered postmature. It they are less than 19 inches long and weigh 5 pounds 8 ounces or less, they are regarded as premature.

The more they deviate from the norm for their sex and racial group on the minus side, the more premature they are considered to be. On the other hand, the more they deviate on the plus side, the more postmature they are considered to be. Unless damaged at birth, the postmature infant usually adjusts more quickly and more successfully to the postnatal environment than the infant born at full term.

However, because the chances of birth damage increase as Postmaturity increases, the advantages that come from the speed and ease of adjustment are far outweighed by the possibilities of birth damage. Prematurely born babies usually experience complications in adjusting to the postnatal environment and these may have a serious effect on future adjustment. Furthermore, every difficulty that the normal, full-term infant faces in adjusting to the new environment is magnified in the case of the premature baby.

Question 4.
How the Toddlerhood is the True Foundation Age?
Answer:
While the whole of childhood, but especially the early years, are generally regarded as the foundation age, toddlerhood is the true foundation period of life because, at this time, many behavior patterns, many attitudes and many patterns of emotional expression are being established. Early scientific interest in the importance of these foundations came from the work of Freud, who maintained that personality maladjustments in adulthood had their origins in unfavorable childhood experiences.

Erikson also contended that “childhood is the scene of man’s beginning as man, the place where our particular virtues and vices slowly but clearly develop and make themselves felt.” According to Erickson, how babies are treated will determine whether they will develop “basic trust” or “basic distrust”-viewing the world as safe, reliable and nurturing or as full of threat, unpredictability and treachery. The first two years are critical in setting the pattern for personal and social adjustments. “Providing a rich social life for a twelve- to a fifteen-month-old child is the best thing you can do to guarantee a good mind”.

There are four reasons why foundations laid during the toddlerhood years are important. First, contrary to tradition, children do not outgrow undesirable traits as they grow older. Instead, patterns established early in life persist regardless of whether they are good or bad, harmful or beneficial. Second, if an undesirable pattern of behavior or unfavorable beliefs and attitudes have started to develop, the sooner they can be corrected the easier it will be for the child.

Third, because early foundations quickly develop into habits through repetition, they will have a lifelong influence on a child’s personal and social adjustments. And, fourth, because learning and experience play dominant roles in development, they can be directed and controlled so that the development will be along lines that will make good personal and social adjustments possible.

Question 5.
Notes on: Basic Trust versus Mistrust.
Answer:
Freud called the first year the oral stage and regarded gratification of the infant’s need for food and oral stimulation vital. Erikson accepted Freud’s emphasis on feeding, but he expanded and enriched Freud’s view. A healthy outcome during infancy, Erikson believed, does not depend on the amount of food or oral stimulation offered but rather on the quality of the caregiver’s behavior. A mother who supports her baby’s development relieves discomfort promptly and sensitively.

For example, she holds the infant gently during feedings, patiently waits until the baby has had enough milk, and weans when the infant shows less interest in the breast or bottle. Erikson recognized that no parent can be perfectly in tune with the baby’s needs. Many factors affect her responsiveness – feelings of personal happiness, current life conditions (for example, additional young children in the family) and culturally valued child-rearing practices.

But when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving, the psychological conflict of the year-basic trust versus mistrust is resolved on the positive side. The trusting infant expects the world to be good and gratifying, so he feels confident about venturing out and exploring it. The mistrustful baby cannot count on the kindness and compassion of others, so she protects herself by withdrawing from people and things around her.

Question 6.
Notes on: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt.
Answer:
In the second year, during Freud’s anal stage, instinctual energies shift to the anal region of the body. Freud viewed toilet training, in which children must bring their anal impulses in line with social requirements, as crucial for personality development. Erikson agreed that the parent’s manner of toilet training is essential for psychological health. But he viewed it as only one of many important experiences for newly walking, talking toddlers. Their familiar refrains-” No!” and “Do it Myself’ -reveal that they have entered a period of budding selfhood.

Toddlers want to decide for themselves-not just in toileting but in other situations as well. The great conflict of toddlerhood, autonomy versus shame and doubt, is resolved favorably when parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices. A self-confident, secure 2-year-old has been encouraged not just to use the toilet but to eat .with a spoon and to help pick up his toys. His parents do not criticize or attack him when he fails at these new skills. And they meet his assertions of independence with tolerance and understanding.

For example, they grant him an extra 5 minutes to finish his play before leaving for the grocery store and wait patiently while he tries to zip his jacket. According to Erikson, the parent who is over- or under-controlling in toileting is likely to be so in other aspects of the toddler’s life. The outcome is a child who feels forced and ashamed and doubts his ability to control his impulses and act competently on his own. In sum, basic trust and autonomy grow out of warm, sensitive parenting and reasonable expectations for impulse control starting in the second year.

Question 7.
State the Physical Hazards of infancy.
Answer:
Some of the physical hazards of infancy are of only temporary significance, while others can affect the individual’s entire life pattern. The most serious physical hazards are those relating to an unfavorable prenatal environment, a difficult and complicated birth, a multiple birth, postmaturity and prematurity and conditions leading to infant mortality.

Unfavorable Prenatal Environment:
As a result of unfavorable conditions in the prenatal environment, the infant may have difficulty adjusting to postnatal life. Excessive smoking on the part of the mother, for example, can affect the development of the fetus. Prolonged and intense maternal stress is another important factor, causing the infant to be tense and nervous.

Difficult and Complicated Birth:
A difficult or complicated birth frequently results in temporary or permanent brain damage. If the birth requires the use of instruments, as in the case where the fetus is so large that it has to be aided in its passage down the birth canal or if the fetus lies in a foot first or a transverse position, the chances of brain damage from the use of instruments to aid delivery are always present. A cesarean section or a precipitate birth, on the other hand, is likely to result in anoxia, a temporary loss of oxygen to the brain. If anoxia is severe, the brain damage will be far greater than if anoxia lasts for only a few seconds.

The more complicated the birth and the more damage there is to the brain tissue, the greater the effect on the infant’s postnatal life and adjustments. Severe and persistent brain damage will have adverse effects on all adjustments during infancy and often into childhood or even throughout life. The effects of brain damage are most frequently shown in uncoordinated behavior, hyperactivity, learning difficulties, and emotional problems. Multiple Birth Children of multiple births are usually smaller and weaker than singletons as a result of crowding during the prenatal period, which inhibits fetal movements. These babies tend to be born prematurely, which adds to their adjustment problems.

Postmaturity:
It is hazardous only when the fetus becomes so large that the birth requires the use of instruments or surgery, in which case the hazards are due to the conditions associated with birth rather than to postmaturity per se. One study of babies born more than three weeks after term reported that they experienced neonatal adjustment problems and were also socially maladjusted and required special schooling by the age of seven.

Prematurity:
Prematurity causes -more neonatal deaths than any other condition. Prematurely born infants are also especially susceptible to brain damage at birth because the skull is not yet developed enough to protect the brain from pressures experienced during birth. Anoxia is another common problem since the premature baby’s respiratory mechanism is not fully developed. The problems of adjustment every newborn infant must face are exaggerated in the premature.For example, they require nearly three times as much oxygen as full-term infants because their breathing is characterized by jerks and gasps.

They often have difficulty in expanding their lungs and muscular weakness makes breathing difficult. Because sucking and swallowing reflexes are underdeveloped, the premature infant will require special feeding with a medicine dropper or tube. The premature’s body temperature is not yet properly, controlled and special equipment is needed to duplicate as nearly as possible the constant temperature of intrauterine life.Infant Mortality UnQably the most serious of the physical hazards of infancy is infant mortality. The most critical times for death during the period of infancy are the day of birth (when two-thirds of all neonatal deaths occur and the second and third days after birth. Neonatal deaths have been reported to be most common during the months of June and July but, to date, no satisfactory explanation for this has been given.

The causes of infant mortality are numerous and varied.Some neonatal deaths are due to conditions that detrimentally affected the prenatal environment and thus impaired normal development. Some are the result of difficult and complicated births, such as those requiring the use of instruments or cesarean section. Some are the result of brain damage, anoxia, or excessive medication of the mother during labor. And some-but fewer than in the past are due to unfavorable conditions in the postnatal environment; a radical temperature change may cause pneumonia, for example, or a substitute for the mother’s milk may cause diarrhea or other digestive disturbances.

Question 8.
State Psychological Hazards of infancy.
Answer:
Even though psychological hazards tend to have less effect on the infant’s adjustment to postnatal life than physical hazards, they are nonetheless important because of their long-term effects. Psychological scars acquired during infancy can cause the individual lifelong adjustment problems. Relatively few of the potential psychological hazards of infancy have received more attention.

Traditional Beliefs about Birth Difficult births, for example, are believed to result in “difficult children” – those who are hard to handle and whose behavior tends to deviate from that of children born with a minimum of difficulty. For centuries it has been believed that children of multiple births have to be different and inferior to singletons and that premature are doomed to be physical and mental weaklings.

Time of birth on the future development of the child, while there is little scientific evidence to substantiate the belief that there is a “best time” to be born, there is evidence that, because the mother’s health plays an extremely important role during the prenatal period, any unfavorable condition during her pregnancy may and often does prove to be hazardous to her unborn child.

A baby who is born within a year after the birth of a sibling is subject to a less favorable prenatal environment than would have been the case had the interval between births been longer. The mother has not had time to recover fully from the previous birth, and such an infant tends to be lethargic at birth which affects postnatal adjustments. Throughout the early years of life, babies born soon after the birth of an older sibling are likely to receive less of their much-needed attention and stimulation because of the other demands on the mother’s time.

Helplessness To some parents the helplessness of the newborn infant is appealing while, to most, it is frightening, So long as the infants are in the hospital and under the care of doctors and nurses, parents are not too concerned about their helplessness. However, when they take them home from the hospital and assume responsibility for their care, infantile helplessness becomes a serious psychological hazard. The reason for this is that parents wonder if they are capable of assuming care of their newborn babies and this, in turn, makes them nervous and anxious.

Anxiety and insecurity are quickly transmitted to the infants through the way mothers handle them and this affects their postnatal adjustments. The helplessness of the newborn is more of a psychological hazard in the case of firstborns than of later-born children. By the time parents have had several children; they accept the helplessness of the newborn in a more relaxed way and are not so likely to be disturbed by it as they are for the firstborn infant.

The individuality of the Infant To most adults, being different is interpreted as being inferior. When parents steep themselves in child-care literature before the arrival of their first child, or when they set up norms of behavior based on what their earlier-born children did at different ages, they tend to judge a newborn infant in. these terms.

Parental concern is then expressed in their treatment of the infant. This, in turn, affects the infant’s adjustments to postnatal life and tends to increase the severity of the problems that concerned the parents. Under such conditions, the infant’s individuality becomes a psychological hazard which, unless parents accept individuality as normal, will play havoc with the adjustments made not only during infancy but also as childhood progresses.

Developmental Lag Some infants lag behind are those born prematurely or those who were injured at birth. Instead of regaining lost birth weight by the end of the first week or sooner, they may continue to lose weight or rest on a plateau with no improvement at all. Even worse, they may show such a pronounced lag that instead of being allowed to go home with their parents three to four days after birth, as is usual, they are kept in the hospital and may even have to have special nursing care.

Even a healthy, full-term infant may show developmental lag should there be some minor and temporary illness or should the mother’s milk be inadequate and the formula substituted is not suited to the infant’s needs. Plateau in Development Even though a plateau in development is normal immediately after birth, many first-time parents are unaware of this. As a result, they are concerned when their baby seems to be making no progress.

However, it often leaves some psychological obstacles, three of which are common and serious. First, it makes parents believe their infant is delicate and, as a result, should have extra care and attention. This encourages over protectiveness which, once developed, often persists as a habit. Second, it weakens parents’ confidence in their ability to assume full care of the infant after leaving the hospital . If by then the infant has not regained lost birth weight, this lack of confidence is greatly increased. And third, parents feel that they must handle the infant as little as possible and with great care to prevent further loss of weight or failure to gain weight. As a result, they deprive the infant of one of the essentials of development, stimulation of the different areas of the body.

Lack of Stimulation There is increasing scientific evidence that newborn infants need the stimulation of different areas of their bodies and of different sense organs if they are to develop as they should. This, of course, is not a “new-fangled idea” because, in the days when babies were born at home, they were picked up, rocked, talked to and sung to as part of their routine care.

Because it is customary today for babies to be born in hospitals, they are often deprived of the stimulation received by babies born at home or even by those whose mothers have them in their hospital rooms under the rooming-in plan. And, until very recently, premature infants were kept in isolettes or incubators where they received only the minimum of stimulation.

New-Parent Blues States of depression often called “new-parent blues,” are almost universal among new parents. These depressive states tend to be more pronounced in mothers than in fathers and in parents of first babies than in those who have already had one or more children. In new mothers, depressive states are partly physical and partly psychological. The glandular changes accompanying pregnancy and childbirth, fatigue from labor and childbirth and the generally weakened condition that persists even after normal childbirth all contribute to maternal states of depression.

For most fathers, new-parent blues are more psychological than physiological. They are often concerned about the extra expenses they must meet, especially if the mother must give up her job. Many men also are concerned about how the pattern of their lives will change as a result of parenthood and what effect this will have on their marital relationship. New-parent blues can and often do play havoc with the infant’s adjustments to postnatal life. The new baby senses the tensions of the parents, especially of the mother, and this makes it nervous and prone to crying. Many infants cry more after they get home than they did in the hospital.

Question 9.
Write the characteristics of early childhood.
Answer:
Just as certain characteristics of toddlerhood make it a distinctive period in the life span, so certain characteristics of early childhood set it apart from other periods. These characteristics are reflected in the names that parents, educators, and psychologists commonly apply to this period.

Names Used by Parents:
Early childhood is considered as a problem age or a troublesome age. While toddlerhood presents problems for parents, most of these centers around the baby’s physical care. With the dawn of childhood, behavior problems become more frequent and more troublesome than the physical-care problems of toddlerhood. As to why behavior problems dominate the early childhood years is that young children are developing distinctive personalities and are demanding independence which, in most cases, they are incapable of handling successfully.

In addition young children are often obstinate, stubborn, disobedient, negativistic, and antagonistic. They have frequent temper tantrums, they are often bothered by bad dreams at night and irrational fears during the day, and they suffer from jealousy. Due to these problems, early childhood seems less appealing age than toddlerhood to many parents. The dependency of the baby, so endearing to parents as well as to older siblings, is now replaced by resistance on the child’s part to their help and a tendency to reject demonstrations of their affection.

Furthermore, few young children are as cute as babies, which also make them less appealing. Early childhood is referred to the toy age because young children spend much of their waking time playing with toys. Studies of children’s play have revealed that toy play reaches its peak during the early childhood years and then begins to decrease when children reach school age. This, of course, does not mean that interest in playing with toys ends abruptly when the child enters school. Instead, with entrance into first grade, children are encouraged to engage in games and modified forms of sports, none of which require the use of toys. When alone, however, children continue to play with their toys well into the third or even fourth standard.

Names Used by Educators:
The early childhood years is referred as preschool age to distinguish it from the time when children are considered old enough, both physically and mentally, to cope with the work they will be expected to do when they begin their formal schooling Even when children go to nursery school or kindergarten, they are labeled preschoolers rather than school children. In the home, daycare center, nursery school, or kindergarten, the pressures and expectations young children are subjected to are very different from those they will experience when they begin their formal education in the first standard. The early childhood years, either in the home or in a, preschool, are a time of preparation.

Names Used by Psychologists:
A number of different names are used to describe the outstanding characteristics of the psychological development of children during the early years of childhood. One of the most commonly applied names is the pregang age, the time when children are learning the foundations of social behavior as a preparation for the more highly organized social life they will be required to adjust to when they enter first standard. Since the major development that occurs during early childhood centers around gaining control over the environment, many psychologists refer to early childhood as the exploratory age, a label that implies that children want to know what their environment is, how it works, how it feels and how they can be a part of it.

This includes people as well as inanimate objects. One common way of exploring in early childhood is by asking Qs: thus this period is often referred to as the Qing age. Imitation of the speech and actions of others are more pronounced during early childhood. For this reason, it is also known as the imitative age. However, in spite of this tendency, most children show more creativity in their play during early childhood than at any other time in their lives. For that reason, psychologists also regard it as the creative age.

Question 10.
State the developmental tasks of early childhood.
Answer:
Although the foundations of some of the developmental tasks young children are expected to master before they enter school are laid in toddlerhood, much remains to be learned in the relatively short four-year span of early childhood. When toddlerhood ends, all normal babies have learned to walk, though with varying degrees of proficiency; have learned to take solid foods and have achieved a reasonable degree of physiological stability.

The major task of learning to control the elimination of body wastes has been almost completed and will be fully mastered within another year or two. While most babies have built up a useful vocabulary, have reasonably correct pronunciation of the words they use, can comprehend the meaning of simple statements and commands, and can put together several words into meaningful Sentences, their ability to communicate with others and to comprehend what others say to them is still on a low level.

Much remains to be mastered before they enter school. Similarly, they have some simple concepts of social and physical realities, but far too few to meet their needs as their social horizons broaden and as their physical environment expands. Few babies know more than the most elementary facts about sex differences and even fewer understand the meaning of sexual modesty. It is questionable whether any babies, as they enter early childhood, actually know what is sex-appropriate in appearance and they have only the most rudimentary understanding of sex-appropriate behavior.

This is equally true of concepts of right and wrong. What knowledge they have is limited to home situations and must be broadened to include concepts of right and wrong in their relationships with people outside the home, especially in the neighborhood, in school, and on the playground. One of the most important and, for many young children, one of the most difficult of developmental tasks of early childhood, is learning to relate emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people.

The emotional relationships that existed during toddlerhood must be replaced by more mature ones. The reason for this is that relationships to others in . toddlerhood are based on babyish dependence on others to meet their emotional needs, especially their need for affection. Young children, however, must learn to give as well as to receive affection. In short, they must learn to be outer-bound instead of self-bound.

Question 11.
What are the influences on physical growth and health during childhood?
Answer:
While discussing growth and health in early childhood, heredity remains important, environmental factors continue to play crucial roles. Emotional well-being, good nutrition, relative freedom from disease and physical safety are essential.

Heredity and Hormones:
The impact of heredity on physical growth is evident throughout childhood. Children’s physical size and rate of growth are related to those of their parents. Genes influence growth by controlling the body’s production of hormones. The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, plays a critical role by releasing two hormones that induce growth. The first is growth hormone (GH), which from birth on is necessary for development of all body tissues except the central nervous system and genitals. Children who lack GH reach an average mature height of only 4 feet, 4 inches. When treated with injections of GH starting at an early age, these GH-deficient children show catch-up growth and then grow at a normal rate, reaching a height much greater than they would have without treatment.

The second pituitary hormone affecting children’s growth, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), stimulates the thyroid gland (located in the neck) to release thyroxine, which is necessary for normal development of the nerve cells of the brain and for GH to have its full impact on body size. Infants born with a deficiency of thyroxine must receive it at once or they will be mentally retarded. At later ages, children with too little thyroxine grow at a below-average rate. By then, the central nervous system is no longer affected because the most rapid period of brain development is complete. With prompt treatment, such children catch up in body growth and eventually reach normal size.

Emotional Well-Being:
In childhood as in infancy, emotional well-being can have a profound effect on growth and health. Preschoolers with very stressful home lives (due to divorce, financial difficulties, or a change in their parents’ employment status) suffer more respiratory and intestinal illnesses and more unintentional injuries than others.
Extreme emotional deprivation can interfere with the production of GH and lead to psychosocial dwarfism, a growth disorder that appears between 2 and 15 years of age.

Typical characteristics include very short stature, decreased GH secretion, immature skeletal age and serious adjustment problems, which help distinguish psychosocial dwarfism from normal shortness. When such children are removed from their emotionally inadequate environments, their GH levels quickly return to normal and they grow rapidly. But if treatment is delayed, the dwarfism can be permanent.

Nutrition :
With the transition to early childhood, many children become unpredictable and choosy eaters. This decline in appetite is normal. It occurs because growth has slowed. Furthermore, preschoolers’ wariness of new foods may be adaptive. By sticking to “familiar foods, they are less likely to swallow dangerous substances when adults are not around to protect them. Parents need not worry about variations in amount eaten from meal to meal. Preschoolers compensate for a meal in which they ate little with a later one in which they eat more.

Even though they eat less, preschoolers need a high-quality diet. They require the same foods adults do-only smaller amounts. Fats, oils and salt should be kept to a minimum because of their link to high blood pressure and heart disease in adulthood. Foods high in sugar should also be avoided. In addition to causing tooth decay, they lessen young children’s appetite for healthy foods and increase their risk of being overweight and obese.

The social environment powerfully influences young children’s food preferences. Children tend to imitate the food choices of people they admire-adults as well as peers. A pleasant mealtime climate also encourages healthy eating. Repeated exposure to a new food (without any direct pressure to eat it) increases children’s acceptance. Sometimes parents bribe their children, saying, “Finish your vegetables and you can have an extra cookie.” This practice causes children to like the healthy food less and treat more. Too much parental control over children’s eating limits their opportunities to develop self-control.

Infectious Disease:
In well-nourished children, ordinary childhood illnesses have no effect on physical growth. But when children are undernourished, disease interacts with malnutrition in a vicious spiral, and the consequences for physical growth can be severe. Infectious Disease and Malnutrition. Illnesses such as measles and chicken pox, which typically do not appear until after age 3 in industrialized nations, occur much earlier. Poor diet depresses the body’s immune system, making children far more susceptible to disease. Of the 10 million annual worldwide deaths in children under age 5, 99 percent are in developing countries and 70 percent are due to infectious diseases. Disease, in turn, is a major cause of malnutrition and through it, hinders physical growth. Illness reduces appetite and limits the body’s ability to absorb foods. These outcomes are especially severe in children with intestinal infections.

In developing countries, diarrhea is widespread and increases in early childhood because of unsafe water and contaminated foods, leading to growth stunting and several million childhood deaths each year. Most growth retardation and deaths due to diarrhea can be prevented with nearly cost-free oral rehydration therapy (ORT), in which sick children are given glucose, salt, and water. Immunization  In industrialized nations, childhood diseases have declined dramatically during the past half-century, largely due to the widespread immunization of infants and young children. All children were guaranteed free immunizations, a program that has led to a steady improvement in early childhood immunization rates. The inability to pay for vaccines, however, is only one cause of inadequate immunization.

Misconceptions also contribute for example, the notion that vaccines do not work or that they weaken the immune system. Furthermore, some parents have been influenced by media reports suggesting that the measles-mumps-rubella vaccine has contributed to a rise in a number of children diagnosed with autism. Yet large-scale studies show no association between immunization and autism. Public education programs directed at increasing parental knowledge about the importance and safety of timely immunizations are badly needed. Diseases that spread most rapidly are diarrhea and respiratory infections the illnesses most frequently suffered by young children. The risk that a respiratory infection will result in otitis media, or middle ear infection, is almost double that of children remaining at home.

Childhood Injuries:
Unintentional injuries – auto collisions, pedestrian accidents, drownings, poisonings, firearm wounds, bums, falls, and swallowing of foreign objects-are the leading cause of childhood mortality in industrialized countries. Among injured children and youths who survive, thousands suffer pain, brain damage, and permanent physical disabilities. Auto and traffic accidents, drownings, and bums are the most common injuries during early childhood. Motor vehicle collisions are by far the most frequent source of injury at all ages, ranking as the leading cause of death among children more than 1-year-old.

Question 12.
Notes on Factors Related to Childhood Injuries.
Answer:
We are used to thinking of childhood injuries as “accidental.” But a close look reveals that meaningful causes underlie them and we can, indeed, do something about them. Individual differences exist in the safety of children’s behaviors. Because of their higher activity level and a greater willingness to take risks during play, boys are more likely to be injured than girls. Temperamental characteristics-irritability, inattentiveness, and negative mood are also related to childhood injuries. Children with these traits present special childrearing challenges. They are likely to protest when placed in auto seat restraints, to refuse to take a companion hand when crossing the street, and to disobey even after repeated adult instruction and discipline.

Poverty, low parental education, and more children in the home are also strongly associated with injury. Parents who must cope with many daily stresses often have little time and energy to monitor the safety of their youngsters. And their homes and neighborhoods pose further risks. Noise, crowding, and confusion characterize run-down, inner-city neighborhoods with few safe places to play. Poverty, rapid population growth, overcrowding in cities and heavy road traffic combined with weak safety measures are major causes. Safety devices, such as car safety seats and bicycle helmets, are neither readily available nor affordable in most developing countries. This indicates that besides reducing poverty and teenage pregnancy and upgrading the status of child care, additional steps must be taken to ensure children’s safety.

Preventing Childhood Injuries. Childhood injuries have many causes, so a variety of approaches are needed to control them. Laws prevent many injuries by requiring car safety seats, child-resistant caps on medicine bottles, flameproof clothing, and fenced-in backyard swimming pools.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 1 Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long answers with questions

Question 1:
What do mean by Life span development? Explain the same on today’s concept.
Answer:
Life Span Development or Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies intraindividual changes and interindividual changes within these intraindividual changes. Its task, as La Bouvier has pointed out, is “not only description but also explication of age-related changes in behavior in terms of antecedent-consequent relationships”.

Developmental psychologists study developmental change covering the life span horn conception to death. By so doing, they attempt to give a complete picture of growth and decline. Others cover only a segment of the life span-childhood, adulthood, or old age. In this book, an attempt will be made to cover all segments and show the important developmental changes at different periods during the entire life span.

Siegel during the early years, as has explained, “Life span psychology was preoccupied with ages and stages. Investigators sought to learn the typical age at which various stages of development occurred”. The areas inr which research was mainly concentrated were those considered significant for human evolutional adaptation. For the most part, research studies were concentrated on preschool and school-age children and on adolescents. Only later did research extend downward, first to birth and then to conception and later upward, to adulthood, old age and finally to middle age.

The two major reasons for the uneven emphasis of developmental psychology,

The study of a particular period in the developmental pattern has been greatly influenced by the desire to solve some practical problem or problems associated with that period. Research in the area of middle age, for example, is an outgrowth of the realization that good adjustments in the latter years of life depend on how well one has adjusted to the physical; and psychological changes, that normally occur in the middle years.

Since the focus of interest in life span psychology has changed over the years, there are gaps in our knowledge of the different developmental phenomena characteristic of the different periods. These gaps are also due in part to difficulties in studying the different patterns of behavior characteristic of a given period, especially difficulties in getting representative samplings of subjects of a given age and in finding a suitable method for the study of behavior patterns.

The reason for the uneven emphasis is that it is – harder to study people at some stages of life than at others. Getting middle-aged and elderly subjects, for example, is far more difficult than getting preschool or school-age children or even adolescents.

Life Span psychologists have six major objectives:

• to find out what are the common and characteristic age changes in appearance, in behavior, in interests, and in goals from one developmental period to another;
• to find out when these changes occur;
• to find out what causes them;
• to find out how they influence behavior;
• to find out whether they can or cannot be predicted and
• to find out whether they are individual or universal.

Question 2:
Discuss the early approaches towards Life span development.
Answer:
Early forerunners of the scientific study of development were baby biographies, journals kept to record the early development of a child. One early journal, published in 1787 in Germany, contained Dietrich Tiedemann’s (1897/1787) observations of his son’s sensory, motor, language and cognitive behavior during the first 21/2 years. Typical of the speculative nature of such observations was Tiedemann’s erroneous conclusion, after watching the infant suck more on a cloth tied around something sweet than on a nurse’s finger, that sucking appeared to be “not instinctive, but acquired”.

It was Charles Darwin, the originator of the theory of evolution, who first emphasized the developmental nature of infant behavior. In 1877 Darwin published notes on his son Doddy’s sensory, cognitive and emotional development, during his first twelve months. Darwin’s journal gave “baby biographies” scientific respectability; about thirty more were published during the next three decades.

By the end of the nineteenth century, several important trends in the western world were preparing the way for the scientific study of development. Scientists had unlocked the mystery of conception and were arguing about the relative importance of “nature” and “nurture” (inborn characteristics and experiential influences). The discovery of germs and immunization made it possible for many more children to survive infancy.

Laws protecting children from long workdays let them spend more time in school and parents and teachers became more concerned with identifying and meeting children’s developmental needs. The new science of psychology taught that people could understand themselves by learning what had influenced them as children. Still, this new discipline had far to go.

For example, adolescence was not considered a separate period of development until the early twentieth century, when G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in child study, published a popular (though unscientific) book called Adolescence (1904/1916). Hall also was one of the first psychologists to become interested in aging. In 1922, at age 78, he published Senescence: The Last Half of Life. Six years later, Stanford University opened the first major scientific research unit devoted to aging. But not until a generation later did the study of aging blossom.

Since the late 1930s a number of important long-term studies discussed in the second half of this book, such as those of K. Warner Schaie, George Vaillant, Daniel Levinson and Ravenna Helson, have focused on intelligence and personality development in adulthood and old age.

Question 3:
Explain the meaning and development of changes.
Answer:
Development means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. As Van den Daele has pointed out, “development implies qualitative change”. This means that development does not consist merely of adding inches to one’s height or of improving one’s ability. Instead, it is a complex process of integrating many structures and functions.

There are two essentially antagonistic processes in development take place simultaneously throughout life – growth, or evolution and atrophy, or involution. Both begin at conception and end at death. In the early years, growth predominates, even though atrophic changes occur as early as embryonic life. In the latter part of life, atrophy predominates, though growth does not stop; hair continues to grow and cells continue to be replaced. With aging, some parts of the body and mind change more than others.

The human being is never static. From conception to death, change is constantly taking place in physical and psychological capacities. As Piaget has explained, structures are “far from being static and given from the start.” Instead, a maturing organism undergoes continued and progressive changes in response to experiential conditions and these result in a complex network of interaction.

As development is continuous, as Bower has pointed out, in the sense that it is a cyclic process with competencies developing and then disappearing, only to appear at a later age, it is not continuous in the sense that it increases constantly but rather in a series of waves with whole segments of development reoccurring repetitively. Bower has explained, newborns walk if held and then this ability disappears only to reappear at eight or ten months of age.

He explains that the “various explanations of repetitive processes in development thus seem to differ depending on the specific repetition to be explained. What all the explanations have in common, however, is that they preserve the assumption that psychological growth, in spite of its apparent reversals, is a continuous and additive process”. When regression to an earlier stage occurs, there is usually a cause for it, as in the regression to the awkwardness that occurs with the rapid growth at puberty.. ‘

The pattern of change resembles a bell-shaped curve, rising abruptly at the start and then flattening out during the middle years, only to decline slowly or abruptly in old age. It is important to recognize that at no time can this pattern be represented by a straight line, though plateau periods of short or long duration may occur in the development of different capacities.

Question 4:
What is the Goal of Life span Changes?
Answer:
It is to enable people to adapt to the environment in which they live. To achieve this goal, self-realization, or, as it is sometimes called, ‘Self-actualization,” is essential. However, this goal is never static. It may be considered an urge-the urge to do what one is fitted to do, the urge to become the person, both physically and psychologically, that one wants to be.

The way people express this urge depends on the individual’s innate abilities and training, not only during the early, formative years of childhood but also as he or she grows older and comes under greater pressures to conform to social expectations. Since self-realization plays an important role in mental health, people who ‘make good personal and social adjustments must have opportunities to express their interests and desires in ways that give them satisfaction but, at the same time, conform to accepted standards. Lack of these opportunities will result in frustrations and generally negative attitudes toward people and toward life in general.

Question 5:
Discuss Researches on Life span Change.
Answer:
Research on developmental changes during childhood and adolescence has been far more extensive than studies of changes that occur during the later years. Among the reasons for this uneven emphasis is the fact that the many prevailing traditional beliefs about children and adolescents have acted as a spur to researchers, who have set up studies designed to prove or disprove these beliefs.

Traditional beliefs concerning the post-adolescent years are less numerous and have had less impact on the direction of research. Further, developmental changes occurring at middle age were regarded as purely physiological and, therefore, outside the scope of psychological research. Changes occurring in old age affected a relatively small percentage of the population and were thus considered less important than changes that occur during the early years. It is now recognized that changes occurring at any developmental stage are worthy of study.

The most important incentive to research about developmental changes has been the nature-nurture controversy which has raged for decades. How important a role maturation based on genetic factors plays in bringing about developmental changes as compared with environmental pressures and experiences has been the focal point of interest and many research studies have been devoted to trying to find a satisfactory solution to this controversy.

The research on developmental changes at all stages has been the emergence of a large number of new theories about the causes and effects of such changes. These theories are not always backed up by adequate evidence and a great deal of research is motivated by the desire to substantiate or refute material that has widespread acceptance in the field.

Any new theory can lead to controversy and experimentation, but of all theories, none have provided a more powerful incentive to research than Piaget’s developmental theories, especially his theories about cognitive development. Other views that have inspired numerous studies are Kohlberg’s stages of moral development and Gesell’s stages of equilibrium and disequilibrium.

Question 6:
Attitudes toward Life span Changes
Answer:
Changes of a physical or psychological nature are constantly taking place; many people are only vaguely aware of them unless they occur abruptly or markedly affect the pattern of their lives. The changes of old age, for example, usually occur at a much slower pace than those of childhood or adolescence. However, they still require readjustments on the part of all individuals. But, when individuals can make these adjustments relatively slowly, they themselves or others may not be conscious of them.

Thus when changes are rapid, on the other hand, the individual is only too well aware of them, as are others. During the puberty growth spurt at the end of childhood and the beginning of adolescence, such comments as “My, how you have grown since last saw you!’’ are evidence of how others notice these changes. Similarly, in senescence, when the downward movement begins to accelerate, the elderly are aware of the fact that their health is “failing” and that their minds are “slipping.” Constant readjustment to these changes is necessary in the scheduled pattern of their lives.

They must slow down as the incapacities and infirmities of old age catch up with them and they must frequently forgo some of the activities that formerly played important roles in their lives. As there is, a tendency for most people to regard the past as better than the present. And even though most children look forward to the day when they will be “teenagers,” when that time comes they often long for the carefree days of their childhood.

Similarly, many men who look forward to retirement wish, when the mandatory age for retirement arrives, that they could go back to earlier years when their usefulness and prestige were recognized by the social group. As and when people become aware of the changes taking place in them, they develop definite attitudes toward these changes. Whether these attitudes will be favorable or unfavorable depends on a number of factors, the most important of which are described below.

Question 7:
Write the aspects that influence attitudes toward Life span changes.
Answer:

Appearance:
Developments that improve one’s appearance are welcome and lead to favorable attitudes while those that detract from one’s appearance are resisted and every possible attempt is made to camouflage them.

Behavior:
As and when behavior changes are disconcerting, as during puberty and senescence, they affect attitudes toward the changes unfavorably. The reverse is true when changes are favorable, as occurs, for example, when the helplessness of babyhood gradually gives way to the independence of childhood.

Cultural Stereotypes:
From mass media, people learn cultural stereotypes associated with different ages and they use these stereotypes to judge people of those ages.

Cultural Values:
Each culture has certain values associated with different ages. Because maximum productivity is associated with young through early middle-age adulthood, attitudes toward this age group are more favorable than attitudes toward other ages.

Role Changes:
Attitudes toward people of different ages are greatly influenced by the roles they play. When people change their roles to less favorable ones, as in the case of retirement or widowhood, social attitudes toward them are less sympathetic.

Personal Experiences:
Personal experiences have a profound effect on an individual’s attitude toward developmental changes. Since the authority and prestige of middle-aged executives decreases as they approach retirement their attitudes toward aging are, for example, unfavorably affected. These attitudes are intensified by unfavorable social attitudes.

Question 8:
What are the Obstacles in Studying Life-Span Development?
Answer:
All studies of the Life span are beset by obstacles in varying degrees. The five most common and most serious of these are discussed below.

Representative Samples of Subjects:

The first obstacle scientists encounter in studying development during the life span is securing representative samples of subjects at different age levels, although it is relatively easy to get representative samples of subjects from among schoolchildren and college students. In the case of newborn infants, however, researchers often meet with strong parental objections.

Getting older adolescents and young adults who are not attending school to volunteer as subjects is also difficult because they may not be available for study at any one particular place. This difficulty increases with advancing age, which is why so many of the studies relating to the latter years of life have been made on men and women living in institutions, people who unQably are not representative of the general population.

Recruiting young adults, middle-aged adults, or the elderly as voluntary participants in experiments has likewise been a difficult task, even when they are paid for their time. Many persons shy away from any testing programme, partly because of a lack of personal interest but mainly because they are afraid they will not do well and, as a result, create an unfavorable impression. Relying on those who are willing to participate may be creating a bias just as using institutional cases does.

Establishing Rapport with Subjects:

The second obstacle scientists encounter in studying development during the lifespan is establishing rapport with subjects at different age levels. There is no guarantee that scientists will be able to elicit the information they are seeking from any group unless they are able to establish rapport with their subjects. Therefore, there is no guarantee that the data they obtain is as accurate or as comprehensive as it might have been had a better relationship existed between subjects and experimenters.

The reason for this is that obtaining information from subjects of any age is extremely difficult because most people resent having a stranger pry into their personal affairs. Even schoolchildren and college students, who often take tests or fill out Qnaires as part of their classroom work* show their resentment by being uncooperative or even by falsifying the information they give. This is even truer of adults of all ages. Their resentment at participating in a scientific study may be partially overcome if they are paid to do so, but they tend to regard the experimenter as an invasion of privacy.

As a result, it is questionable whether data obtained from many studies is a true picture of the involved individuals’ attitudes, feelings and values. Only when good rapport can be established with the subjects and when there is evidence of cooperation on their part can great confidence be placed in the results of these studies.

Methodology:

The third obstacle scientists encounter in studying development during the life span is securing a satisfactory method. This is because no one method can be used satisfactorily for studying people at all ages or for investigating all areas of development. Some of the methods that must be resorted to, for lack of better ones, are of dubious scientific value.

Because of the wide age range of subjects and the variety of different areas of development that must be studied to give a composite picture, assorted methods have had to be used. Some have been borrowed from medicine, from the physical sciences and from related social sciences, especially anthropology and sociology. Some have made use of laboratory settings and others of the naturalistic settings of the home, school, community, or work environment. Some are regarded as reliable, while others, especially the retrospective and introspective techniques, are of questionable value.

Regardless of the method used, most of the studies have been cross-sectional comparisons of the same abilities at different stages of development. As such, they do not give evidence about developmental trends or about intraindividual variability. Nor is it possible, when using cross-sectional comparisons, to assess the relative behaviour constellations of individuals at an early age and similar behavior in adult life. One of the most serious problems connected with the cross-sectional approach is that it is almost impossible to get comparable groups of subjects for study at different age levels.

This can bias the result of studies, especially studies of old age. When mental abilities are studied using the cross-sectional approach, mental decline is reported to be far greater than when the same mental abilities are studied using the longitudinal approach. This, in turn, has given scientific backing to the popular belief that mental decline in old age is not only great but also universal.

Another serious problem associated with the cross-sectional approach is that it does not take into consideration cultural changes which always play a major role in the patterns of physical and mental development. This results in a tendency to interpret any change that may appear as an age change. Cultural changes affect values, among other things. A comparison of adolescents of today with members of the older generation showed that the latter tend to disapprove more strongly of extravagance than adolescents do.

This might be interpreted to mean that members of the older generation have become rigid with age. In reality, the difference is one of cultural values. When members of the older generation were growing up, high value was placed on prudent spending of money and on having a nest egg for the proverbial rainy day. Today, adolescents are growing up in a culture dominated by the philosophy of “earn more and spend more”. Because of the rapid change in cultural values taking place at the present time, children often consider their parents’ values old-fashioned.

Accuracy of Data Obtained:

The fourth obstacle scientists encounter in studying development during the life span is ensuring that the data obtained from the studies will be accurate. Inaccuracies may result when a biased sampling of subjects gives a false picture of the normal developmental pattern at a particular age. This can happen, for example, when institutionalized elderly people are used for the study and the subjects try to present as favorable a picture of them as they can and either consciously or unconsciously, distort their introspective or retrospective reports.

It can also occur when the only method available for studying a certain area of development is less than satisfactory. In the measurement of intelligence, it is still questionable if the results are accurate for the first two years of life. There is even controversy about the accuracy of intelligence tests for older age levels. Observational techniques for the study of behavior during the preschool years are Qed for accuracy because of the tendency of observers to draw inferences from their study of children’s behavior and speech.

Ethical Aspects of Research:

The fifth obstacle scientists encounter in studying development during the lifespan involves the ethical aspects of research. Today there is a growing trend to take this into account and it has been a stumbling block to certain kinds of studies, which, in the past, were made without consideration of their fairness to the subjects studied. With the trend nowadays toward considering the rights of subjects, emphasis in being placed on asking their consent to participate in experiments, or, for the very young, the consent of their parents or guardians.

Such consideration also applies to high school and college students; they no longer are expected to take time from their studies to participate in experiments unless they are paid to, do so. Thus there is a tendency to bias the sampling because only those who need the money or those who feel that the money is worth their while are willing to accommodate the researcher.

Question 9:
Write characteristics of the pre-natal period.
Answer:
In spite of the fact that the first developmental period in the life span is next to the shortest of all-the shortest is the period of the newborn or infancy- it is in many respects one of the most, if not the most, important periods of all. This period, which begins at conception and ends at birth, is approximately 270 to 280 days in length, or nine calendar months.

Although it is relatively short, the prenatal period has six important characteristics, each of which has a lasting effect on development during the life span. They are as follows:

The hereditary endowment, which serves as the foundation for later development, is fixed, once and for all, at this time. While favorable or unfavorable conditions, both before and after birth may and probably will affect too. some extent the physical and psychological traits that make up this hereditary endowment, the changes will be quantitative, not qualitative.

Favorable conditions in the mother’s body can foster the development of hereditary potentials while unfavorable conditions can stunt their development, even to the point of distorting the pattern of future development. At few, if any other times in the life span are hereditary potentials so influenced by environmental conditions as they are during the prenatal period.

The sex of the newly created individual is fixed at the time of conception and conditions within the mother’s body will not affect it, as is true of the hereditary endowment. Except when surgery is used in sex transformation operations, the sex of the individual, determined at the time of conception, will not change. Such operations are rare and only partially successful.

Proportionally greater growth and development take place during the prenatal period than at any other time throughout the individual’s entire life. During the nine months before birth, the individual grows from a microscopically small cell to an infant who measures approximately twenty inches in length and weighs, on average, 7 pounds. It has been estimated that weight during this time increases eleven million times. Development is likewise phenomenally rapid. From a cell that is round in shape, all the bodily features, both external and internal, of the human being develop at this time. At birth, the newly born infant can be recognized as human even though many of the external features are proportionally different from those of an older child, an adolescent, or an adult.

The prenatal period is a time of many hazards, both physical and psychological. While it cannot be claimed that it is the most hazardous period in the entire life span-many believe that infancy’s more hazardous-it certainly is a time when environmental or psychological hazards can have a marked effect on the pattern of later development or may even bring development to an end.

The prenatal period is the time when significant people form attitudes toward newly created individuals. These attitudes will have a marked influence on the way these individuals are treated, especially during their early, formative years. If the attitudes are heavily emotionally weighted, they can and often do play havoc with the mother’s homeostasis and, by so doing, upset the conditions in the mother’s body that are essential to the normal development of the newly created individual.

Question 10:
What is the importance of conception?
Answer:
At the time of conception, four important conditions are determined that influence the individual’s later development. What role each of these conditions plays in the individual’s development will explain why the time of conception is probably the most important period in the life span.

Hereditary Endowment:

The first important happening at the time of conception is the determination of the newly created individual’s hereditary endowment. The contributions to this endowment from both parents and from both maternal and “paternal ancestors. Because the hereditary endowment is determined once and for all at the time of conception, its importance is far greater than it Would be if it were subject to later change.

The determination of hereditary endowment affects later development in two ways. First, heredity places limits beyond which individuals cannot go. If prenatal and postnatal conditions are favorable and if people are strongly motivated, they can develop their inherited physical and mental traits to their maximum potential, but they can go no further. Montagu has stressed, “Where we control the environment, we to some extent control heredity. Heredity, it has been said, determines what we can do and environment what we do do”.

The second important thing about the hereditary endowment is that it is entirely a matter of chance: there is no known way to control the number of chromosomes from the maternal or paternal side that will be passed on to the child. Scheinfeld has pointed out that the birth of a given individual depends on the union of a particular ovum with a particular sperm.

Sex:
Determination of the individual’s sex happens during conception. It is known that the sperm cell-that is, the father-determines the sex of a child. At conception, the zygote receives 23 chromosomes from the sperm and 23 from the ovum. (Figure 1 and 2)They align themselves in pairs: 22 pairs are autosomes, or nonsex chromosomes; the twenty-third pair is sex chromosomes, which determine if the new human being will be male or female. In females, this pair is called XX; in males, it is called XY.

The X is a relatively long chromosome, whereas the Y is short and carries little genetic material. When gametes are formed in males, the X and Y chromosomes separate into different sperm cells. In females, all gametes carry an X chromosome. Therefore, the sex of the new organism is determined by whether an X-bearing or a Y-bearing sperm fertilizes the ovum.

Sex depends on the kind of spermatozoon that unites with the ovum. Once the male and female cells have united, nothing can be done to change the sex of the newly formed individual. Whether this individual is male or female will have a lifelong effect on the individual’s patterns of behavior and personality.
There are three reasons why the sex of an individual is important to lifelong development.

First, each year children come under increasing cultural pressures from parents, teachers, their peer group and society at large to develop attitudes and behavior patterns that are considered appropriate for members of their sex. Children who learn to behave in ways that are considered appropriate for their sex are assured of social acceptance. By contrast, children who fail to conform are subjected to criticism and social ostracism.

Second, learning experiences are determined by the individual’s sex. In the home, at school and in playgroups, children learn what is considered appropriate for members of their sex. A boy who learns to play girls’ games is labeled a “sissy” and girls who prefer boys games are known as “tomboys.”Third and perhaps most important of all, is the attitude of parents and other significant family members toward individuals because of their sex.

Studies of sex preferences for offspring have revealed that the traditional preference for a boy, especially for the firstborn, still persists. Strong preferences for a child of a given sex have marked influences on parents’ attitudes, which in turn affect their behavior toward the child and their relationships with the child. Number of Offspring:

The third important happening at the time of conception or shortly thereafter is the determination of the number of offspring there will be. While most humans are singletons, multiple births also occur. Meredith has reported that out of 80 births is twins, 1 out of every 9,000 is triplets and 1 out of every 570,000 is quadruplets. There are more frequent multiple births among blacks and fewer among Chinese, Japanese and other Mongoloid- race groups than there are among whites.

When a ripe ovum is fertilized by one spermatozoon, the result will be a singleton, unless the fertilized ovum (zygote) splits into two or more distinct parts during the early stages of cell cleavage. When this happens, the result will be identical (uniovular) twins, triplets, or other multiple births. If two or more ova are released simultaneously and are fertilized by different spermatozoa, the result will be nonidentical {also called biovular or fraternal) twins, triplets, or other multiple births.

Approximately one-third of all twins are identical. Because the chromosomes and genes of the two or more zygotes from which individuals of nonidentical multiple births develop are not the same, their mental and physical make-ups are different. By contrast, those of identical multiple births come from the same zygote and consequently, they have the same assortment of chromosomes and genes. Children of identical multiple births are always of the same sex, while those of nonidentical multiple births may be of the same or opposite sex. Effects on Development:

Most studies of the effects of multiple births on development have been limited to twins for the reason that triplets, quadruplets and other multiple births occur very infrequently and the mortality rates among them are much higher than among twins, thus making studios of them difficult if not impossible.

However, there is reason to assume that the effects of multiple birth on triplets, quadruplets, and other multiples is much the same as on twins though the former feel these effects to a greater extent. The reason that multiple births affect the pattern of development is not only that there are differences in heredity but that both the prenatal environment and the postnatal environment of singletons are different from those of children of multiple births. This contributes to different patterns of development, different patterns of behavior and differences in personality.

Question 11:
Write Some Common Developmental Characteristics of Twins.
Answer:
Developmental lag: In physical, mental, motor, and speech development, twins tend to lag behind singletons of the same age. Log in motor and speech development may be due to brain damage or to prematurity but it is more likely to be due to parental over-protectiveness.

Physical Development:
Twins tend to be smaller, age for age, than singletons. This is generally due to the fact that they are premature. They also suffer from brain damage and other physical defects more often than singletons.

Mental Development:
Mental similarities between identical twins are much greater than between nonidentical twins and this persists into old age. Identical twins also show strong similarities in terms of special abilities, such as musical and artistic aptitudes.

Social Development:
Twins tend to compete for adult attention, to imitate each other’s speech and behaviour and to depend on each other for companionship during the preschool years. As they grow older, sibling rivalry and competition develop. One twin usually takes on the role of leader, forcing the other into the role of follower. This affects their relationships with other family members and with outsiders.

Personality Development:
Many twins have difficulty in developing a sense of personal identity. This is especially true of identical twins and of nonidentical twins of the same sex. Others enjoy the close relationship of twinship and the attention they receive as a result of their similarity in appearance. This leads to self-satisfaction and self-confidence.

Behavior Problems:
Behavior problems have been reported to be more common among twins than among singletons of the same age. It is thought that this is a result of the way twins are treated, both at home and outside the home. Behavior problems have also been reported to be more common among nonidentical than among identical twins. It has been suggested that this is because rivalry is stronger between nonidentical than identical twins. Long-Term Effects of Twinship Those that have been made rarely go beyond the tenth year of the twins’ lives have indicated the following long-term effects. There is a tendency for the developmental lag in physical development to end before children reach puberty and often much earlier.

Generally, the firstborn twin continues to be larger, brighter, and better adjusted socially throughout the childhood years. The smaller the twins at birth, the longer the developmental lag tends to persist. The mutual dependency or “twinning relationship” so common among young twins and the one-sided dependency of the smaller on the larger twin generally give way to social relationships similar to those of singletons before the twins enter school. Those who attend daycare centers or preschools tend to abandon these patterns of dependency earlier than twins whose environment is limited to the home. F rate mal twins are more vulnerable to external pressures and to have less support from the twinship relationship than do identical twins not only when they are young but also as they grow older.

Question 12:
What are the hazards during the prenatal period?
Answer:
At no other time during the life span are there more serious hazards to the development-or hazards” of a more serious nature than during the relatively short period before birth. These may be physical or psychological. Physical hazards have received more scientific attention because they are more easily recognized.
However, psychological hazards are sometimes as serious as physical hazards since they affect the attitudes of significant people toward the developing child. Furthermore, they often intensify physical hazards.

Physical Hazards :
Each of the three major subdivisions of the prenatal period involves particular physical hazards. While these do not affect all individuals by any means, they do occur with some. frequency and can be serious enough to affect the development of the individual throughout life. Davis and
(a) Common Physical Hazards during the Prenatal Period :
Period of the Zygote

Starvation:
The zygote will die of starvation if it has too little yolk to keep it alive until it can lodge itself in the uterine wall or if it remains too long in the tube.

Lack of Uterine Preparation:
Implantation can not occur if, as a result of glandular imbalance, the uterine walls are not prepared in time to receive the zygote.

Implantation in the Wrong Place:
If the zygote becomes attached to a small fibroid tissue in the uterine wall or to the wall of the Fallopian tube, it can not get nourishment and will die. Period of the Embryo:

Miscarriages:
Falls, emotional shocks, malnutrition, glandular disturbances, vitamin deficiency, and serious diseases, such as pneumonia and diabetes, can cause the embryo to become dislodged from its place in the uterine wall, resulting in a miscarriage. Miscarriages that are due to unfavorable conditions in the prenatal environment are likely to occur between the tenth and eleventh weeks after conception.

Developmental Irregularities:
Maternal malnutrition vitamin and glandular deficiencies excessive use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco, and diseases, such as diabetes and German measles, interfere with normal development, especially that of the embryonic brain. Period of the Fetus:

Miscarriages:
Miscarriages are always possible up to the fifth month of pregnancy; the most vulnerable time is when the woman’s menstrual period would normally occur.

Prematurity:
Fetuses who weigh less than 2 pounds 3 ounces have less chance of surviving than heavier fetuses and a greater chance of developing malformations.

Complications of Delivery:
Maternal stress affects uterine contractions and is likely to lead to complications during birth.

Developmental Irregularities:
Any of unfavorable environmental conditions present during the period of the embryo will also affect the development of fetal features and retard the whole pattern of fetal development.

Conditions Influencing Physical Hazards:
Certain conditions have been found to increase the likelihood that physical hazards will occur or accentuate them. The first of these conditions is the timing of their appearance. It has been recognized by doctors for many years that if the mother-to-be contracts rubella during the first trimester of pregnancy the chances of developmental irregularities in her unborn child, especially in the form of an eye or a malformation of the heart, will occur. Female hormones, such as estrogen and progestin, when taken in the early stages of pregnancy may disturb the normal cardiovascular development of the fetus and cause congenital heart diseases.

It is reported that the second and third lunar months, when the heart is developing rapidly, are the most serious times. This is not true if these hormones are taken after the fourth lunar month. The second condition that increases the likelihood of physical hazards is if the condition is intense or greater than is normal. Some conditions that are known to affect the developing child during the prenatal period are described below others are suspected of affecting development. Maternal malnutrition can play havoc with normal development, especially the development of the fetal brain. Excessive smoking and drinking are detrimental to normal development, especially during the periods of the embryo and fetus. This is true also of taking drugs. Maternal age has been reported to be a condition that intensifies the possibility of physical hazards during the prenatal period.

The reason for this is that as women approach menopause, they frequently have endocrine disorders which slow down the development of the embryo and fetus, causing such developmental irregularities as cretinism, Down’s syndrome, heart malformations and hydrocephalus all of which involve physical and mental defects. The incidence of Down’s syndrome increases as age advances in women. Older women also tend to have smaller babies and to have more complications at birth than do younger women. While paternal age may likewise cause developmental irregularities or stillbirths, this is likely to happen only when paternal age is over sixty years.

Certain kinds of work are more likely to disturb prenatal development than others. Chemicals and other hazards faced by women working in such places as hospitals, beauty parlors and factories may be responsible for the increasing number of birth defects and miscarriages during recent years. Multiple births are more hazardous than single births. Fetuses of multiple births are crowded during the prenatal period and this inhibits the normal fetal activity essential for development. Prematurity is also more likely in the case of multiple births, as is the possibility of developmental irregularities. Because multiple births are more common among blacks than among whites, this may account in part for the higher infant mortality rate and the greater incidence of developmental irregularities among blacks than among whites.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Objective Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Caste system of
(a)Social Harmony
(b) Social order
(c) Social Institution
(d) Above all
Answer:
(a) Social Harmony

Question 2.
Caste is a ranked social diversion in which the membership of an Individual is determined by birth. Who said this?
(a) A.L.Agrawal
(b) M.N.Srinivas
(c) Karl Marx
(d) None of these
Answer:
(a) A.L.Agrawal.

Question 3.
“Caste system from a comparative standpoint as a part of the medieval economic organisation”. Who said this?
(a) A.L.Agrawall
(b) M.N.Srinivas
(c) Karl Marx
(d) Above all
Answer:
(b) M.N.Srinivas

Question 4.
Who says, “that unchangeable division of labour on the basis of caste is a fundamental quality of the Indian social system”?
(a) A.L.Agrawall
(b) M.N.Srinivas
(c) Karl Marx
(d) Above all
Answer:
(c) Karl Marx

Question 5.
Who said that more than three thousand castes are seen in India?
(a) A.L.Agrawall
(b) J.H.Hutton
(c) GS.Ghurye
(d) Above all
Answer:
(b) J.H.Hutton

Question 6.
Who said this opinion that two hundred kinds of caste are seen in every linguistic area?
(a) J.H.Hutton
(b) G S.Ghurye
(c) L.K.Krishna
(d) Above all
Answer:
(b) G S.Ghurye

Question 7.
Who said this caste system was not only found in Indian society but also it was seen in ancient Egyptian society?
(a) L.K.Krishnalyer
(b) G S.Ghuiye
(c) Sir E.A.Gant
(d) J.H.Hutton
Answer:
(a) L.K.Krishnalyer

Question 8.
Who says that every caste and sub-caste are generally known as an endogamous group, smart has described the Indian caste system as the racial institution of the Aryans and compared in to the kin class of ancient Greek and Roman society.
(a) Sir E.A.Gant
(b) A.LAgrawall
(c) M.N.Srinivas
(d) J.H.Hutton
Answer:
(a)Sir E.A.Gant

Question 9.
Caste as derived from a
(a) Partiguege word caste
(b) Breed
(c) Race
(d) Above all
Answer:
(d) Above all

Question 10
Caste in derived from Sanskrit roof
(a) Jana
(b) Caste
(c) Casta
(d) Above all
Answer:
(a) Jana

Question 11.
Who says that A caste is a closed and rigid social class?
(a) Madan and Mazumdar
(b) C.H.Cooley
(c) MacIver and page
(d) Above all
Answer:
(a) Madan and Mazumdar

Question 12.
Which of the following characteristics of caste?
(a) Segmental Division of society
(b) Hierarchy
(c) Restrictions in Social habits
(d) Above all
Answer:
(d) Above all

Question 13.
Which of the following merits of the caste system?
(a) Determination of social status
(b) Fixation of occupation
(c) Guarantee of social society
(d) Above all
Answer:
(d) Above all

Question 14.
Which of the following Dysfunction of the caste system?
(a) Derives of mobility of labour
(b) Untouchability
(c) Retards social solidarity
(d) Above all
Answer:
(d)Above all

Question 15.
Which of the following factors affects the caste system?
(a) Modem Education
(b) Industrialisation
(c) Urbanization
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 16.
Which of the following Recent changes in the caste system?
(a) Dectioned superiority of Brahmins
(b) Change in the Restriction regarding social Habits
(c) Changes in the Restriction regarding marriage
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 17.
Which of the following caste and class?
(a) Stratification
(b) Structure
(c) Occupation
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 18.
A joint family has the following size _________.
(a) Small
(b) Medium
(c) Large
Answer:
(c) Large

Question 19.
Property in a joint family is ___________.
(a) Common
(b) Independent
(c) None of the above.
Answer:
(a) Common

Question 20.
Joint family promotes ___________.
(a) Quarrel
(b) Status of women
(c) Personality
Answer:
(a) Quarrel

Question 21.
Joint family limits ___________.
(a) Reproduction
(b) Social mobility
(c) Litigation.
Answer:
(b) Social mobility

Question 22.
Which one is not a factor of disorganization of a Joint Family?
(a) Family conflict
(b) Industrialisation,
(c) None of the above.
Answer:
(b) Industrialisation.

Question 23.
Which of the following is not a feature of the joint family?
(a) Joint property
(b) Common religion
(c) Common occupation
(d) Small size.
Answer:
(d) Small size.

Question 24.
Which of the following are the merits are of the joint family system?
(a) It ensures economic progress
(b) It provides an opportunity for leisure
(c) It secures the economy of expenditure
(d) It helps in the development of personality.
Answer:
(a) It ensures economic progress.

Question 25.
A joint Family system is criticised because it
(a) denies privacy of the newlywed couple.
(b) prevents property from being divided
(c) becomes a home for ideas.
(d) provides little time to women for leisure.
Answer:
(a) denies privacy to the newlywed couple.

Question 26.
Which of the following factors are responsible for the disintegration of the joint family system in India?
(a) Industrialisation
(b) Social Legislation
(c) Education of women
(d) Women franchise
Answer:
(a) Industrialisation.

Question 27.
Village Community is
(a) A group of people
(b) A geographical area.
(c) A developed community.
Answer:
(a) A group of people

Question 28.
Who said this, “the real India lives in villages”.
(a) A.R.Desai
(b) M.N.Srinivas
(c) R.K.Mukhi
Answer:
(a) A.R.Desai

Question 29.
Who said this, “ a village is a body of people living in a restricted area, at some distances from other similar groups with extremely poor roads between them, the majority of people being engaged in agricultural activity, all closely dependent upon each other economically and otherwise, having a vast body of common experience must have some sense of unity”.
(a) M.N.Srinivas
(b) R.M.Mukherji
(c) R.N.Sharma
Answer:
(a) M.N.Srinivas

Question 30.
Who said this, “a whole within a large whole”?
(a) Prof Mekin Marriot
(b) R.M.Mukherji
(c) M.N.Srinivas
Answer:
(a) Prof Mekin Marriott.

Question 31.
Topographical factors are
(a) Land
(b) Rural Economy
(c) Peace
Answer:
(a) Land

Question 32.
Economic factors is
(a) Rural Economy
(b) Land
(c) Peace
Answer:
(a) Rural Economy

Question 33.
Social factors is
(a) Peace
(b) Rural economy
(c) Water
Answer:
(a) Peace

Question 34.
Mention any one important characteristic of village community.
(a) Caste system
(b) Primary relations
(c) Above all
Answer:
(c) Above all

Question 35.
Who said that “A group of persons permanently residing in a geographical area and whose members have developed community consciousness and have their own cultural, social and economic relations which separate it from other communities.”
(a) M.N. Srinivas
(b) Maclver
(c) A.R. Desai
Answer:
(a) M.N. Srinivas

Question 36.
India lives in her villages, Who said this?
(a) M.K. Gandhi
(b) Srinivas
(c) Spencer
Answer:
(a) M.K. Gandhi

Question 37.
‘Real India is found in rural society’ Who said this?
(a) A.R.Desai
(b) M.N.Srinivas
(c) GillinandGillin
Answer:
(a) A.R.Desai

Question 38.
Which of the following is the characteristic of a village community?
(a) community sentiment
(b) non-agricultural economy
(c) culture
Answer:
(a) community sentiment

Question 39.
Which of the following is the characteristic of the urban community?
(a) namelessness
(b) class extraness
(c) large people
Answer:
(a) namelessness

Question 40.
Which of the following factors is responsible for the village community?
(a) industrialisation.
(b) development of transport and communication.
(c) social legislation
Answer:
(b) development of transport and communication

Question 41.
In a community sentiment, there is
(a) strong sense of belongingness,
(b) sense of we-feeling
(c) sense of own community
Answer:
(a) strong sense of belongingness

Question 42.
The village community
(a) consists of a group of families.
(b) prescribes geographical area
(c) develops community consciousness:
Answer:
(a) consists of a group of facilities

Question 43.
Who said that “The urban community limited geographical area, inhabited by a largely and closely settled population having many common interests and institutions under a local government authorised by the state,”
(a) Havard Woolston
(b) M.N. Srinivas
(c) Maclver
Answer:
(a) Harvard Woolston

Question 44.
In a town.
(a) The population of that place should be more than 5000
(b) The density of the population should not be less than 400
(c) Not less than 75% of the adult-age population is engaged in non-agricultural activities.
Answer:
(a) The population of that place should be more than 5000

Question 45.
Village community.
(a) Has been in existence since the pre-historic age.
(b) Arose when people began to lead to settled life?
(c) Arose when people became politically conscious.
Answer:
(b) Arose when people began to lead to settled life.

Question 46.
The primitive village community was.
(a) small in size
(b) based on cultural ownership of land
(c) based on joint family system
Answer:
(a) small in size

Question 47.
Which of the following statements is not true?
(a) The primitive village community was small in size, and the modem village community is large in size.
(b) In the primitive village community there was individual ownership of land, in the modem it is collective.
(c) In primitive village community land was cultivated joint in the modem it is not so cultivated.
Answer:
(c) In primitive village community land was cultivated joint in the modem it is not so cultivated.

Question 48.
In the modern community the bond of kinship has broken down because
(a) The village people have become rich
(b) agriculture has become mechanised
(c) Urbanisation has affected village life
Answer:
(b) Agriculture has become mechanised.

Question 49.
It is true to say that under the impact of urbanization the rural way of life.
(a) is withering
(b) is not withering
(c) has withered away
Answer:
(c) has withered

Question 50.
Which of the following is not a feature of the village community?
(a) Faith in religion
(b) Nuclear family system
(c) Community Consciousness
Answer:
(b) Nuclear family system

Question 51.
The village people have deep faith in religion because
(a) There are simple people
(b) They are untouched by modem urbanisation
(c) They are illiterate
Answer:
(a) They are simple people

Question 52.
Villages will grow on a place where
(a) Water facilities are available.
(b) Land is fertile
(c) People are intelligent
Answer:
(c) People are intelligent.

Question 53.
The characteristics of Indian villages are
(a) mechanical codes of cultivation.
(b) conservation
(c) poverty and illiteracy
Answer:
(c) poverty and illiteracy

Question 54.
In the modern village community of India.
(a) Casteism has got strengthened
(b) Caste system has lost its hold
(c) Inter-caste marriages are common
Answer:
(a) Casteism has got strengthenes.

Question 55.
Which of the following statements is true?
(a) City is an open area with a large population
(b) City is a place where people are engaged in different occupations,
(c) There is no exact definition of a City.
Answer:
(c) There is no exact definition of City

Question 56.
The occupational criterion to distinguish the City from the village was used by
(a) Maclver
(b) Gist and Halbert
(c) Zimmerman and Sorokin.
Answer:
(a) Maclver

Question 57.
The concept of the rural-urban continuum suggests that
(a) The village and city are poles apart
(b) The differences between village and city are not qualitative per se.
(c) A definite line of demarcation can be drawn between village and city.
Answer:
(c) A definite line of demarcation can be drawn between village and city.

Question 58.
Village life differs from city life is that
(a) The city encourages impersonal rather than personal relationships.
(b) There is more cooperation in the city than in the village.
(c) The village people are polite, but the city people are not.
(d) The village life is peaceful city life is not.
Answer:
(d) The village life is peaceful city life is not.

Question 59.
The village is no longer a community of India
(a) The bond of kinship has disappeared
(b) Panchayat system has died out
(c) Community consciousness has decreased.
Answer:
(c) Community consciousness has decreased.

Question 60.
Which of the following statements is not true?
(a) In India the villages are passing through a transitional period.
(b) The village people in India are divided into political groups.
(c) Rural values have disappeared.
Answer:
(c) Rural values have disappeared.

Question 61.
Which of the following factors is responsible for breaking rural rules?
(a) the mechanisation of agriculture.
(b) political party system
(c) education of the rural people.
Answer:
(b) political party system

Question 62.
Which of the following factors is responsible for breaking rural values?
(a) politically motivated
(b) an emphasis on the importance of the need for rural uplift.
(c) a sign of imbalance in Indian society.
Answer:
(a) politically motivated

One Word Answer Questions

Question 1.
Mention one of the characteristics of caste.
Answer:
Hierarchy

Question 2.
Mention one of the theory of the caste system.
Answer:
Traditional Theory

Question 3.
Mention one function of the caste system.
Answer:
Fixation of occupation

Question 4.
Mention one Dysfunction of the caste system.
Answer:
Derives of mobility of labour

Question 5.
Mention one factor affecting the caste system.
Answer:
Modem Education

Question 6.
Mention one recent change in the caste system.
Answer:
Dectioned superiority of Brahmins.

Question 7.
Mention one Distinction between caste and class.
Answer:
Stratification

Question 8.
Mention one of the characteristics of a joint family.
Answer:
Common kitchen

Question 9.
Mention one of the functions of the Joint family.
Answer:
Provides social security.

Question 10.
Mention one of the dysfunctions of the Joint family.
Answer:
Encourages idleness

Question 11.
Mention any one of the recent changes of the Joint family.
Answer:
Industrialization

Question 12.
Hindu Marriage Act.
Answer:
1955

Question 13.
Child Marriage Act.
Answer:
1976

Question 14.
Equal Remuneration Restraint.
Answer:
1976

Question 15.
Dowry Protection Act.
Answer:
1961

Question 16.
Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act.
Answer:
1971

Question 17.
Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act.
Answer:
1986

Question 18.
The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act
Answer:
1956

Question 19.
The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act.
Answer:
1956

Question 20.
The Hindu Succession Act
Answer:
1956

Question 21.
The Hindu Women’s Right of Property Act.
Answer:
1973

Question 22.
Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act.
Answer:
1986

Question 23.
Pre-mutual Diagnostic Techniques Regulation and Prevention of Misuse Act.
Answer:
1992

Question 24.
A village community is a definite geographical area.
Answer:
Village community

Question 25.
Who said thus “the real India lives in villages.
Answer:
A.R. Desai

Question 26.
Who said thus “a whole within a large whole”.
Answer:
Prof Makim Marriot.

Question 27.
Arose when people began to lead a settled life.
Answer:
Village community

Question 28.
The occupational criterion to distinguish the city from the village was used by.
Answer:
Maclver

Question 29.
In the unity, the people in the midst of the multitude feel.
Answer:
Secure

Question 30.
The trend in India today is towards.
Answer:
Urbanisation.

Correct The Sentences

Question 1.
A caste is a closed and rigid Social class by C.H. Cooley.
Answer:
A caste is a closed and rigid social class by Madan and Mazumdar.

Question 2.
When a class is somewhat strictly hereditary are may call out a caste by Madan and Mazumdar.
Answer:
When a class in somewhat strictly hereditary are may call out a caste by C. H. Cooley.

Question 3.
Caste is derived from a portiguage word caste.
Answer:
Caste is derived from the Portuguese word caste.

Question 4.
Caste is an exgamous grory.
Answer:
Caste is an endogamous grory.

Question 5.
A caste is merely a flexible social class.
Answer:
A caste is merely a rigid social class.

Question 6.
Caste system is based upon social and religious stratification.
Answer:
Right

Question 7.
Caste bears a nominal name.
Answer:
Caste bears a particular name.

Question 8.
Caste is a fixed occupation.
Answer:
Right

Question 9.
Caste system plays a vital role on individual life.
Answer:
Right

Question 10.
Caste system provides nominal security.
Answer:
Caste system provide, adequate security.

Question 11.
Joint family property is held by a male member
Answer:
Joint family property is held jointly by all the male members.

Question 12.
Joint family take food cooked at separate health.
Answer:
Joint family take food cooked at one common health.

Question 13.
Joint family is a small size
Answer:
Joint family is large in size.

Question 14.
Joint family is regarded as a sufficient unit.
Answer:
Joint family is regarded as a self- supplement unit.

Question 15.
Joint family provides to not security.
Answer:
Joint family provides all security.

Question 16.
Tarward is a patrilocal Hindu Joint family.
Answer:
Tarward is a matrilocal Hindu Joint family. ,

Question 17.
Illom is a matrilocal Hindu Joint family.
Answer:
Illom is aprutrilocal Hindu joint family.

Question 18.
Hindu Widows Remarriage Act 1857.
Answer:
Hindu Windows Remarriage Act 1856

Question 19.
Villages will grow in a place where water facilities are available.
Answer:
Villages will grow in a place where the land is fertile.

Question 20.
The village community has been in existence since the prehistoric age.
Answer:
Village community arose when people began to lead a settled life.

Question 21.
The primitive village community was an isolated community.
Answer:
The primitive village community was small in size. ‘

Question 22.
The primitive village community was an isolated community.
Answer:
The primitive village community was small in size, the modem village community is large in size.

Question 23.
City is a large, dense and homogeneous area.
Answer:
City is a large, dense and heterogeneous area.

Question 24.
The city ends where the village begins.
Answer:
The city begins where the village ends.

Question 25.
The transition from a rural to an urban community is gradual.
Answer:
The transition from a rural to an urban community is gradual.

Question 26.
The city is more homogeneous than the village.
Answer:
The city is more heterogeneous than the village.

Question 27.
City dwellers are good neighbours.
Answer:
City dwellers are night dwellers, not neighbours.

Question 28.
In village status is ascribed in city it is achieved.
Answer:
In a village status is achieved in city it is ascribed.

Question 29.
A village is a dependent unit.
Answer:
A village is not a dependent unit.

Question 30.
Villagers have a high standard of living.
Answer:
The village has a low standard of living.

Question 31.
The degree of community sentiment is low in the village.
Answer:
The degree of community sentiment is high in the village.

Question 32.
There is no definite locality of the village.
Answer:
There is no definite locality of the village.

Question 33.
The degree of the neighbourhood is high in the towns.
Answer:
The degree of the neighbourhood is high in the village.

Question 34.
The inequalities of the towns are less than the village.
Answer:
Equalities of the towns are less than the village.

Question 35.
Village culture is dynamic.
Answer:
Village culture is static.

Question 36.
The village is characterised more by formal and secondary relations.
Answer:
The village is characterised more by formal and primary relations.

Question 37.
Police law and court play important role in the village’s social control.
Answer:
Police, law and court play important role in the town social control.

Question 38.
In the towns, the relationship tends to move towards primary groups.
Answer:
In the towns, the relationship moves towards primary groups.

Question 39.
The city is a static counterpart of the village.
Answer:
The city is a dynamic counterpart of the village.

Fill in The Blanks

1. Caste bears a ________ name.
Answer: Particular

2. Caste system is divided into many __________.
Answer: Sub- castes

3. Caste system is based upon social and __________ stratification.
Answer: religious.

4. Caste system is not only _________ for its members.
Answer: Important

5. The caste system plays a vital role in the development of_________ a social nation.
Answer: Hindu

6. Caste system performs many __________ functions on community life.
Ans: religious

7. Caste system opposes __________
Answer: Democracy

8. Caste system hinders the __________ of human personality.
Answer: development

9. Caste system creates obstacle of the __________country.
Answer: Unity

10. Caste system and joint family are two __________parts of the Hindu society.
Answer: Important

11. Joint family is the __________habitation.
Answer: Common

12. Joint family take food cooked at one common ___________.
Answer: Hearth.

13. Joint family have common property which is shared by ___________.
Answer: all

14. Joint family is regarded as a self-sufficient __________.
Answer: Large ‘

15. Joint family is regarded as a self-sufficient __________.
Answer: unit

16. Joint family provides security to those members who are mentally and__________ weak.
Answer: Physically.

17. The members of joint family set more leisure time as it is based upon the principle ___________.
Answer: Division of labour!

18. Joint family provides psychological ___________to its members.
Answer: Security

19. Joint family satisfies the basic needs of its ___________ i.e. food, clothing and shelter.
Answer: members

20. Joint family is the _____________of quarrels,
Answer: centre

21. The joint family is very conservative in ____________.
Answer: nature

22. Joint family was the centre of ___________,___________ and ___________.
Answer: Production, distribution, consumption.

23. The women in the Joint Family lead a miserable___________.
Answer: Life

24. Joint family is more ___________ as compared to all other types of family.
Answer: conservative

25. Joint family had developed many new features as well as new __________ problems.
Answer: consequential

26. Tarward is a Hindu joint family.
Answer: matrilocal

27. Illom is the _________ Hindu joint family
Answer: patrilocal.

28. Village community arose when people began to lead a _________ life.
Answer: Settled

29. The primary village community was __________ in size.
Answer: Small

30. City is a _________ group.
Answer: Heterogeneous

31. Village community is a __________ community
Answer: Homogeneous.

32. God made __________and man-made ___________.
Answer: Country, city

33. Indian village community is ___________ community.
Answer: Little

34. Village is a __________ of life.
Answer: Way

35. Farmers and countrymen are almost ___________.
Answer: Same

36. Village community is a __________ republic.
Answer: Little

37. Rural community is similar to _________ water in a poll and the urban community __________ to water in a kettle?
Answer: Calm, boiling

38. Each village has primary ___________.
Answer: Relationship

39. The members of a village community _________.
Answer: Sentiment

40. Rural economy is a major __________.
Answer: Characteristic

41. Village has _________ size.
Answer: Small

42. __________ is an important base of stratification of Indian villages.
Answer: The caste system

43. The primary occupation of an Indian village is __________.
Answer: Closed

44. The villagers have much ____________upon religion.
Answer: Close

45. There is no clear ___________ of either the town or the village regarding their end and start.
Answer: Definition

46. Village is characterised by the __________ relationship.
Answer: Primary

47. The village the inequality of is very less demarcated than the town which leads to less conflicts in the village.
Answer: Classes

48. Village the primary __________ like family.
Answer: Groups

49. In the village the status of an individual is likely to be the _________ of the family.
Answer: Status

50. Jajman system is the __________ village community.
Answer: Traditional

51. Village is a necessity.
Answer: Historical

52. Village runs smoothly where there is a greater degree of ___________ among its members.
Answer: Co-operation

53. Population constitutes an important aspect of __________ community.
Answer: Rural

54. The sense of __________ in the village community is given considerable importance.
Answer: Neighbourhood

55. Caste is an important base of ____________ or rural Community.
Answer: Unique.

56. Joint family is an __________ feature in village community.
Answer: Important

57. The people of the village community are ____________ conservative in their outlook.
Answer: Primary

58. In the village community there is no or ___________ specialization.
Answer: Little

59. The Indian villages are _________ ridden.
Answer: Caste

60. The villagers are deeply influenced by ___________.
Answer: Religion.

61. Village differs from town on the basis of __________ problems.
Answer: Social.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Short Answer Questions

Very Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
What is Caste?
Answer:
A caste is a closed and rigid social class.

Question 2.
Define Caste.
Answer:
C.H Cooley when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary we may call it a caste.

Question 3.
Caste – Panchayat.
Answer:
There is a caste-panchayat or caste connect for every caste to supervise the conduct and behaviour of active members. Such a caste panchayat is constituted by some eminent members of the caste and works as a powerful weapon.

Question 4.
Mention two features of the caste system.
Answer:

• Endogamy,
• Hereditary occupation.

Question 5.
Mention two functions of the caste system.
Answer:

1. Maintenance of Race party,
2. (ii) Religious functions

Question 6.
Mention two Dysfunction of the caste system.
Answer:

1. Denies of mobility of labour,
2. Untouchability

Question 7.
Mention two factors affecting caste system.
Answer:

• Modem Education,
• Industrialisation

Question 8.
Mention two recent changes on the caste system.
Answer:

• Declined superiority of Brahmins
• Change in the Restrictions regarding social Habits.

Question 9.
What is the class?
Answer:
Class is a system in which a person’s social status in completely depends upon his activities. According to him, class is determined by its possession of such objective usually economic criteria like wealth, occupation and income etc.

Question 10.
Define class.
Answer:
According to Maclver and page “A social class any portion of a community marked off from the rest by social states.”

Question 11.
Mention two distinctions between caste and class
Answer:
Caste is based on the birth of a person whereas not is based on a person’s status. The caste is closed and rigid. But the structure of the class is open and flexible.

Question 12.
What is the village?
Answer:
A village is a community consisting of a group of people residing permanently in a definite geographical area and the members of which love developed community consciousness and cultural, social and economic relations, which separate them from other communities.

Question 13.
Define village community.
Answer:
According to Prof M.N. Srinivas, a village is a body of people living in a restricted area, at some distances from others similar with extremely poor roads between them, the majority of people being engaged in agricultural activity all closely dependent upon each other economically and otherwise, having a vast body of common experience must have some sense of unity.

Question 14.
Characteristics of the village community.
Answer:
The Indian village community has some specific characteristic features. We can have a better idea on the Indian village community when we come across its characteristics. The important characteristics are as follows:

• Small size
• Definite locality
• Community sentiment.
• Primary relation
• Neighbourhood
• Joint family system.

Question 15.
Types of villages.
Answer:
There are many types of villages in India. Some important types are given below:

1. Nucleated
2. Dispersed
3. Linear village

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Discuss the characteristics of the caste system.
Answer:
The membership of every caste is determined by birth. The members of a particular caste cannot marry outside their caste. There are marriage restrictions regarding food, drink and social intercourse in every caste. There is a hereditary occupation for every caste. There is a hierarchical gradation on the caste system in which the Brahmins occupy the top position.

Question 2.
Discuss the functions of the caste system.
Answer:
The caste system has occupied the highest place in the Indian social system.

• Determination of social status
• Fixation of occupation.
• Guarantee of social security
• Control over Behaviour.
• Provide mental security.
• Maintenance of Race purity.

Question 3.
Discuss the Dysfunctions of the caste system.
Answer:
Besides the mentioned functions caste system discharge many dysfunctions, also
1. Denies of mobility of labour
2. Untouchability
3. Retards social solidarity
4. Obstacle to social utility
5. Obstacle to social progress.
6. Oppose to Democracy.

Question 4.
Discuss the factors affecting the caste system.
Answer:
Under the impact of certain powerful functions caste system is undergoing drastic changes on modem India.

• Modem Education
• Urbanization
• Rigid Development of Transportation and communication.
• Social reform movement
• Political movement
• Religious movement

Question 5.
Recent changes in the caste system. Discuss.
Answer:
Change is a universal law of nature. The law of nature has been prevailing from the permissive period till now. Declined superiority of Brahmins. Change on the Restrictions regarding social Habits. Changes on the Restrictions regarding marriage. Change in the Restrictions regarding occupation. Change in caste structure.

Question 6.
The distinction between caste and class.
Answer:
Though caste and class function is two opposing groups yet there are many similarities between them. Caste is based on the birth of a person. Where as not is based on a person’s status power and occupation in class. The structure of caste is closed and rigid. But the structure of the class is open and flexible. There are some restrictions regarding the selection or choice of occupation on the caste system. But on the other hand in the class system, there is no restrictions regarding the choice of occupation.

Question 7.
Mention the various characteristics of a joint family.
Answer:
The various characteristics of a joint family are the following:

Large size :
The size of the joint family is also large. A single-family consists of only a husband wife and children. But a joint family consists of parents, children and other near relatives.

Common residence:
All the members of the joint family usually live in a common home which means they live under the same roof.

Common kitchen :
In every joint family, there is a common kitchen as the members of the joint family eat food cooked at one health.

Common property:
In a joint family, the own production and consumption of wealth of all the members of the family have equal rights on both movable and immovable property.

Common religion:
The members of a joint family believe in the same religion and worship similar deities. They perform jointly the religious rites and duties.

Rule by Karta:
A joint family is guided and regulated by the head or Karta controls and directs all the members. There is the supreme authority of the family.

Question 8.
Discuss the merits of joint family in India.
Answer:

Simple division of labour:
Every member of the family is given work according to his abilities without being compelled. There is separate work on the basis of age and sex.

Leisure:
It provides opportunities for leisure to its members. Due to the division of labour, the assigned work is completed within little time and takes rest.

Social insurance:
In joint families, orphans, widows, old and sick people get an opportunity to maintain a comfortable life.

Social virtues :
It fosters great virtues as sacrifice, love, affection, co-operation broadens among the members.

Socialism:
According to H. Maine, the joint family is like a corporation the trustee of which is the father or the head of the family. Everyone gets according to his capacity and also gets as per their need.

Question 9.
Discuss the dysfunctions of joint family.
Answer:
The dysfunctions of joint family are discussed below:
In a joint family, the condition of women is very inconvenient. They can neither talk nor express their views independently. Women are not permitted to move outside the family so their personality is not developed. A joint family encourages safety among the members. All the members of the joint family are sure of economic security. Therefore, some, members do not work for the progress of the family.

A joint family is the centre of the conflict. It creates conflict among the members at any time. Joint family acts as a great obstacle of social change. The members of the joint family are more conservative and they do not accept any change of society easily. They strictly follow the old traditional customs, folkways and modes. In that way, it hinders social change.

A joint family hinders the economic progress of society because those who work hard are not properly rewarded. There is always dissatisfaction among the earning members. It checks and hinders the economic progress of the family. A joint family disorganises society by creating of certain social problems. It creates social problems like population growth, juvenile delinquency, unemployment, divorce and so on.

Question 10.
Briefly discuss the changes in the joint family.
Answer:
Firstly, there has been a change in the traditional characteristics i.e. common residence and common kitchen of a joint family. Now- a – days joint family is found to be seen without these two characteristics. Secondly, there have been changes in the size of the joint family. As in the past joint family, today does not consist of many large families. Thirdly, there have been changes in the position of women in joint families.

Traditionally the condition of women was very pitiable in a joint family but now it is not so. There is much improvement in their status as a joint family. Fourthly, there have been changes in the absolute authority of the head. At present, the head of the joint family is no more enjoying such absolute power. Fifthly, there is a change in the role of joint family in providing recreation and entertainment to its members.

Question 11.
Write a short note on Illom.
Answer:
Illom is a kind of Hindu joint family found among the Nambudri Brahmins of Kerala. The property of Illom is impartible. Division of property in the Illom is not so easy as it requires, the consent of all the members of the family. The property is headed by the Illom as a whole. The continuation of the Illom is facilitated by the custom, according to which the eldest brother alone marries a girl from his own caste.

while all other brothers marry Nayar women, who along with their children stay in their matrilocal families. Only when the eldest son fails to have a child the next senior brother marries a girl of his own caste for the continuation of the family. In Illom the female members of the family have equal rights with men in the property. A female can set aside any alienation of property.

Question 12.
Write a short note on Tarwad.
Answer:
The matrilineal Hindujoint family of the Nayars of Kerala is known as the Tarward. lt is composed of a woman, her sons and daughters, daughter’s daughter and sons and so on. It does not include the children of son. All the male and female members of the Tarwad own its property.The property of a Tarwad is practically impartible though partition is theoretically allowed.

The eldest male member of the Tarwad is its manager and is known as the Kamavan. All the junior members of the Tarwad have rights to maintenance in the family property Kamavan has absolute authority over the family property but he cannot permanently alienate it. He may be removed from his position if required.

Question 13.
What is a Joint family?
Answer:
A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof who eat food cooked at one hearth who hold property on common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.

Question 14.
Define Joint family
Answer:
A joint family is one which consists of males having a common male ancestor, female offspring are not married and women brought in the group of marriage. All of these persons might live in common households near to one another. In any case so long as the joint family holds together its members are expected to contribute to the support of the where and to receive from it a share of the local product.”

Question 15.
Features of Joint family.
Answer:
(1) Common Habitation.
(2) Common Kitchen
(3) Common property
(4) Common worship.
(5) Exercise of Authority.

Question 16.
Impact of Industrialization of Joint Family.
Answer:
Industrialisation refers to the birth of the factory system of production. The growth of industries has contributed to the growth of the cities. As a result of industrialisation, people have started moving towards the industrial areas in search of employment. It has affected the character and the growth of a joint family.

Question 17.
Three important functions.
Answer:
A joint family has the responsibility to provide all sorts of facilities for the welfare of its members and society. It acts as an important institution because of the advantages it provides to its members.

• Provides social security
• Ensures economy of expenditure.
• Provides division of work.
• Provides Psychological security.

Question 18.
Three important dysfunctions of Joint Family.
Answer:
In spite of the advantages of a Joint Family, the Joint Family also suffers from a serious setback. Its disadvantages are in countable strength. The significant among them are : (1) Encourages idleness.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Social Inequality, Exclusion and Movement Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 4 Social Inequality, Exclusion and Movement Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is caste? What are the important features of the caste system?
Answer:
The word ‘Caste’ owes, its origin to see. Spanish word ‘Caste’ means ‘breed’ race, strain or a complex of hereditary qualities. The Portuguese applied this term to the classes of people. In India, it is known by the name of Jati. The English word ‘caste’ is an adjustment in the original term.

Definition of Caste:

• Maclver: “When a status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot without any type of changing it, then class, takes the extreme forms of caste.”
• A. W. Green: “Caste is a system of stratification which mobility up and down the status ‘ladder, at last, may not occur.”
• Lundberg: “ A caste is nearly a rigid social class in to which members are bom from which they can withdraw or escape only with extreme difficulty.”

Important features of caste:
The caste system is highly complex in nature. The following have been the main traditional features of the caste system.

Caste – As a hierarchical Division of Society :
The Hindu society is a gradational one. It is divided into several small groups called castes and sub-castes. A sense of ‘highness’ and ‘lowness’ or ‘superiority’ and ‘inferiority’ is associated – with this gradation or ranking. The Brahmins are placed at the top of the hierarchy and are regarded as ‘pure’ supreme or superior.

The degraded caste or the so-called ‘untouchable’ (Harijans) have – occupied the other end of the hierarchy. All over India neither the supremacy of the Brahmins nor the degraded position of the – Harijans or outcastes has been questioned. It is taken for granted, but regarding the exact position of the intermediary castes, there are disputes ‘on the part of the members.

Caste – As a segmental division of society :
The Hindu society is a caste-ridden society. It is divided into a number of segments called, castes, It is not a homogeneous society. Castes are groups that defined boundaries of their own. The status of an individual is determined by his birth and not by selection or by accomplishment. No amount of power, prestige, and self can change the position of man.

The membership of the caste is hence unchangeable, acquirable, inalienable, unattainable, and non-transferable. Further, each caste in a way has its own way of life. Each caste has its own customs, traditions, practices, and rituals. It has its own informed rules, regulations, and procedures. Their members also. The caste used to help its members when they were found in distress. Indeed, the caste was its own ruler.

Caste Panchayat :
During the early days in every village, every caste used to have its own Caste Panchayat. It consisted of five chosen members who enjoyed much social privilege and respect. The Caste Panchayat used to perform a number of functions; It used to make the members comply with caste rules and regulations. Setting caste disputes and giving its final verdict on the issues referred to it, were also its other functions.

It was giving punishments to those who violated caste rules and obligations. Matters such as breaking the marriage promise, refusal on the part of the husband to take the wife to his house, cruelty to the wife, adultery on the part of the wife, killing the cow, insulting the Brahmins having illicit sexual relations with other caste people, etc. were dealt with by the Panchayat.

It was giving punishments such as arranging dinner parties for fellow caste-men, imposing frames, purification, pilgrimage, casting, etc. for the offenders. The Caste Panchayat was also striving to promote the welfare of the caste members. Safeguarding the interests of the caste members was yet another function of the Panchayat. These Caste Panchayats have become weak and ineffective nowadays.

Restrictions on food habits:
The caste system has imposed certain restrictions on the food habits of the members, they differ from caste to caste. Who should accept what kind of food and from whom? is often decided by caste. For example, in North India, a Brahmin would accept ‘Pakka’ food (cooked in ghee) only from some castes lower than his own.

But he would accept ‘kachcha’ food (prepared with the use of water) at the hands of no other caste except his own. As a matter of rule and practice, no individual would accept kachcha food prepared by an inferior caste man. Generally, any kind of food that is prepared by the Brahmins, is acceptable to all caste people.

This factor explains why the Brahmins dominated the hotel industry for a long time. Further, restrictions are also they’re still on the use of certain vegetables for certain castes. Even today, some traditional Brahmins do not consume onions, garlic, cabbage, carrot, beetroot, etc. Eating beef is not allowed except for the Harijans.

Restrictions on social relations :
The caste system puts restrictions on the range of social relations also. The idea of pollution makes this point clear. It means a touch of a lower caste man. (particularly Harijan) would pollute or defile a man of a higher caste man. In Kerala for a long time, Nayar could approach Anambra Brahmin but would not touch him.

Further, Taiwan was expected to keep himself at a distance of 36 steps from the Brahmin and a Pulaya a distance of 96 paces. In Tamilnadu, the Shanar toddy tapper was expected to keep a distance of 24 paces while approaching a Brahmin. This has resulted in the practice of untouchability. This practice has made the lower caste people to be segregated completely from the higher caste.

Social and religious disabilities of certain castes :
In the traditional caste society, some lower caste people (particularly, the Harijans) suffered from certain civil or social, and religious disabilities. Generally, the impure castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city or village. In South India, certain parts of the towns or villages are not accessible to the Harijans.

It is recorded that during the Peshwa rule in Maharastra the Mahars and Mangs were not allowed within the gates of Poona before 9 a.m. and after 3. p.m. The reason was during that time their bodies would cast too long shadows which if were to fall on the Brahmins would defile them. Socially Harijans or the so-called untouchables are separated from other members.

Even today, in many places they are not allowed to draw water from the public wells, during the early days, public places like hotels, hostels, public lecture halls schools, temples, and theatres were not kept open, for the lower caste people. Entrance to temples, and theatres were not kept open for the lower caste people. Entrance to temples and other places of religious importance was forbidden for them.

Educational facilities’ legal rights and political representation were denied to them for a long time. In South India, restrictions were placed on the mode of constructing houses of the lower caste people, and their types of dresses and patterns of ornamentation. The Toddy – tappers of Malabar were not allowed to cany umbrellas, to wear shoes or golden ornaments, or milk cows. They were forbidden to cover the upper part of their body.

The civil and religious privileges of certain castes :
If the lower caste people suffer from certain disabilities, some higher caste people like Brahmins enjoy certain privileges. Now there the Brahmins suffered from the disabilities acted above. They are given more liberty because they are believed to bom ‘pure’ and ‘ superior’. The Brahmins never saluted others, but they always had the privilege of being saluted by others.

They never even bowed to the idols of the lower caste people. Education and teaching were almost monopolies of the higher caste people. Chanting the Vedic mantras was a great privilege of the Brahmins. The upper caste people in general enjoyed social, political, legal, and religious privileges.

Restrictions on occupational choice:
In the caste-ridden society, there is a gradation of occupations also. Some occupations are considered to be superior and sacred while certain others degrading and interior. For a long time occupations were very much associated with the caste system. Each caste had its own specific occupation.

The caste members were expected to continue the same occupations. The caste members were expected to continue the same occupation. Occupations were almost hereditary. Weaving, shoe-making, oil-grinding, sweeping, scavenging, curing, hides, tanning, washing clothes, barbering, pottery, etc. were considered to be somewhat degrading.

Learning priesthood, and teaching were the prestigious professions that mostly the Brahmins pursued. Individual talents, aptitudes, interests, enterprise, abilities, and achievements were neglected. But agriculture, trade, and labor in the field were thrown open to all the castes. At the same time, no caste would allow its member to take up to any profession which is either degrading or impure.

Restrictions on marriage:
The caste system imposes also restrictions on marriage. A caste is an endogamous group. Endogamy is a rule of marriage according to which an individual has to many within his or her group. Each caste is subdivided into several sub-castes: which are again endogamous. For, example, layers, Iyengars, Smarthas, Madhava, Hawanga Brahmins, Kota, Shiva, Kandavara Brahmins, etc. are all Brahmin sub-castes which are again endogamous.

Similarly, the Vikkaliga caste consists of Morasu, Halikar, Nanaba, Gangadiga, and other sub-castes. According to the rule of endogamy a Shivallu Brahmin, for example, has to marry a Shivallu girl, an Iyengar, an Iyengar girl, and so on. Inter-caste marriages were strictly forbidden to them. Even at present, inter-caste marriages have not become popular.

Violation of the rule of endogamy was strictly dealt with during the early days. This mle of endogamy has resulted in a clause in breeding. Some workers like Hutton have regarded endogamy as the very essence of the caste system. The exception to this rule of endogamy is seen in places like the hill parts of Punjab and also in Malabar. The caste provides for some kind of exogamous marriage also.

Occupations are fixed :
Every caste regards some occupation as its own hereditary and exclusive calling and tries to debar the others from exercising it. The original and exclusive occupation of Brahmins was to perform priestly duties. The Kshatriyas and Vaisyas were to occupy themselves with defense and commerce and the function of Shudras was to serve the other three castes. In course of time, many adjustments and changes have, however, been made in these rigid pursuits of occupations.

Question 2.
Explain the functions of the caste system.
Answer:
By functions of the caste system, we refer to those positive consequences of the system which are helpful for the society; the consequences that help in preserving social structure maintaining its continuity and bringing about peace and harmony. The caste system has many such functions or advantages. It is because of its functions that the system has been the pivot pillar of Indian social structure from time immemorial.

The functions of caste can be looked into from two viewpoints i.e.,

• from the individual point of view and
• from the social point of view.
  These functions of the caste system are discussed below.

Functions of the caste system from the viewpoint of the individual:

The caste system provides fixed social status to individuals:
Under the caste system, the social status of an individual is determined from his birth by his caste. As caste is based on the principle of birth, an individual by virtue of his in a particular caste, automatically becomes a member of it and gets the traditional status of that caste in society by ascription. This scripture’s status of the individual is fixed for all times, neither poverty nor wealth can alter his status. A Brahmin enjoys a high status in society because of his birth in it.

The caste system provides social security to individuals:
Caste provides social security to the individual from his birth to death. It provides him with an occupation, acts as a trade union, a benefit society, health insurance, and also provides for his funeral if it is needed.

Caste guides individual behavior:
The caste system like many other social institutions guides the behavior of the individual by providing ready-made behavior patterns in matters like diet, ceremonial observances, rituals at birth, marriage, imitation, death, etc.

Caste provides mental security to individuals:
It provides psychological security in the form of fixed social status. Making every provision for man’s happiness from birth to death it guarantees mental peace to individuals.

Caste determines the occupation of individuals:
What kind of occupation will be followed by an individual in his future life is determined by his caste from his birth. Every caste has some caste occupations which its members follow.

Functions of the caste system from the viewpoint of society:
Besides performing some functions for the individual caste system also performs some important functions from society’s point of view.
These functions are as follows:

Caste system transmits and preserves culture :
Every society as a distinct social system must have to transmit culture from one generation to another with little change.lt also preserves culture for transmission from one generation to another.

Caste system integrates society:
The caste system helps in the integration of society. It integrates different, diverse, racial religious, linguistic, and ethnic groups into a vast society. The caste system is capable enough in integrating different groups is such a way that it becomes part of the social whole and at the same time retains its own distinctive character and identity.

Brings stability to society:
The caste system has been responsible ging in society. It saved Hindu society from being disrupted by foreign invasions and upheavals of all kinds in the past Hindu society remained stable for a long time because it believed in the caste system.

The caste system also brings political stability to society:
It acts as an apolitical stabilizer in society. It provides a constitution for the Hindus. The caste system has been responsible for the preservation of India from barbarism and despotism. It acts as a sure basis for orderly government.

The caste system serves as a device for the division of labor:
The caste system continues to act as a unique system of division of labor in Hindu society. It has made arrangements for all kinds of occupations ranging from education to scourging. This distribution of occupations is supported by religious beliefs as a result it has become acceptable to people.

Maintains purity of blood:
Endogamy is the main principle of the caste system. By its insistence on endogamy, the caste system prevents hybridization and thereby purity of blood is maintained. Hence, it is said that the caste system has served as a method for maintaining the purity of blood.

Question 3.
Discuss the dysfunctions of the caste system.
Answer:
By dysfunctions of the caste system, we refer to the negative consequences of the system that are harmful or detrimental to society as a whole. In a rudimentary sense, the dysfunctions of the caste system are in fact, disadvantages or demerits of the system. Along with its advantages, the caste system has a number of negative effects on social life. As has rightly been remarked by ‘P.N. Bose, the caste system has acted essentially to impose that attitude of mind needed to raise men from savagery but to stop them halfway on progress.

Some of its important dysfunctions are as follows:

Barriers on the way of modernization:
Modernization essentially needs a change in attitude and outlook along with socio-economic development. But the caste system stands as a great barrier. It also hinders economic development as well. Under this system, a man is not permitted to take up a profitable occupation.

Political disunity:
The caste system encourages individuals’ loyalties toward one’s own caste and sub-castes which creates Casteism. This Casteism stands as an obstacle in achieving complete political unity. Disunity among castes and thereby among Indians encourages many foreigners to invade India. It is found that in the past 2500 years India was a victim of foreign invasion at least 125 times.

The caste system perpetuates social inequalities :
The caste system by its differential distribution of privileges and disabilities to different caste people perpetuates social inadequacies. Higher caste people used the caste system as an instrument to maintain their privileged position in society. It creates permanent feelings of inferiority and insecurity in the minds of lower-caste people.

The caste system encourages the pitiable condition of women :
Another important dysfunction of the caste system is that it implies severe hardship on women. In a caste-based society when a caste wants to increase its “Status in the caste hierarchy follow certain customs like child marriage, the seclusion of women, and other which entails hardships for women. Because of the practice of the above custom women suffer a lot.

The caste system creates untouchability:
The caste system is solely responsible for the creation of untouchability in society. This untouchability is the ugliest expression of the caste system. It keeps a large number as untouchables who suffer from all civil and religious disabilities.

The caste system stands as an obstacle in the way of social progress as it does not allow changes to be introduced easily. Here the individual is not free to choose an occupation of his own liking and conform to the age-old customs and traditions. Any violation of this is seriously dealt with. This rigidity has almost paralyzed Hindu society.

Retards economic progress:
The caste system acts as an important stumbling block in the way of economic progress. An individual is compelled to follow his caste occupations against his liking. This leads to immobility and inefficiency and thereby economic backwardness.

Question 4.
Discuss the recent changes in the caste system.
Answer:
Under the impact of social, political, and economic forces a number of changes have taken place in the caste system.

Firstly, there has been a steep decline in the supremacy of the Brahmin in society. Under the caste system, the Brahmin in society. Under the caste system, the Brahmin occupies the highest position. In fact, the whole system revolved around the prestige of the Brahmin. But. today he does not enjoy the same high and dominant social position that he once used to.

The second important change in the system is the greater fluidity in its status structure. Traditionally caste, society was a closed and rigid society. Each caste had its own traditional status in the hierarchy of castes, which was more or less permanently fixed. But at present, the people of lower castes are adopting the lifestyles of higher castes and claiming an actually adverse highest status in society.

Thirdly, as a result of this governmental policy or protective discrimination, the socioeconomic conditions of the Harijans have been considerably improved. In the fourth place, there are changes in the functions of caste for example in a caste society ascription of social status to its members by virtue of their birth in it. was one of the traditional functions of caste.

But under the changed conditions of modem society, both is no longer regarded as the basis of social prestige. Today wealth and achievement have replaced birth as the basis of social status. As a result, caste has lost its traditional function of determining the status of individuals in society.

Fifthly, there is a relaxation in the miles of regulating marriage. Every caste or sub- caste was an endogamous group the members of which were put in ketkars words forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group. But at present, the barriers of endogamy are no longer inexorable. They are now increasingly being violated.

Sixthly, there are changes in ideas about pollution and other restrictions on food, drink, etc. But at present, these rules along with the ideas of pollution by touch have lost their significance in Hindu society. In the seventh place, there is a change in the restrictions regarding the choice of occupation was not free.

Each caste had its own traditional occupation. But nowadays people follow occupations, which they consider more creative than traditional ones.  Finally, the caste system has lost its grip on the minds of the people. Now they do not seem to be convinced of the theory that the caste system is a divine or dawned institution.

Question 5.
Discuss the factors affecting the caste system.
Answer:
Changes in the caste system are due to many forces of modernization operating in Indian society, which can be discussed briefly as follows.

The system of modem education:
The system of modem education has given a heavy blow to the institution of caste. Modem education being essentially scientific and rational in nature has neglected all sorts of blind beliefs and faiths. Not the divine sanctions but the scientific laws govern the life and attitude of a modem-educated man.

He fought the principles of equality, fraternity, and democracy which directly go against the caste system. Again the common’ educational institutions and public schools at the primary level have made a Brahmin child feel equal to that of a Sudra child or a child from an untouchable caste.

He sits by his side, talks with him, plays with him, and enjoys many leisure hours with him which never gives a scope for the development of the idea of untouchability in his mind. Besides, as modem education is imparted through co-educational institutions, it encourages inter-caste marriage and at the same time, the untouchability principle cannot be followed in the classroom which affects the very basis of the caste system.

Industrial economy:
The industrial economy has also played an equally important role in undermining the importance of the caste system. The caste system is mainly based on the rural economy but the industrial economy strikes at the root of the caste system. Specialized caste occupations can not survive in the face of large-scale industrialization.

For example, weaving caste people with their traditional caste occupations cannot compete with modem textile mills. Hence, as a result of industrialization caste occupations are not followed by its members. Now members of all castes are engaged in modem factories. And while working in factories it is not possible to observe caste rules. Besides now- a- days there is much freedom in the choice of occupations.

Urbanization:
Urbanization is an offshoot of industrialization. It is possible to observe caste rules in an urban city. In an urban area, one is not interested in knowing another caste. The concept of purity and pollution has no value in urban areas. Hence, urbanization strikes at the root of the caste system by not allowing the observance of caste rules and restrictions.

Modern means of transportation:
Geographical isolation was a favorable condition for the continuation of the caste system. But due to the development of the modem transportation system, the spatial mobility of the people increased which ultimately put an end to the caste system. Besides while traveling by the modem means of transportation like buses and trains, it is not possible to observe caste rules and restrictions. The principle of palliation to touch has no meaning nowadays.

The increasing importance of wealth:
In present-day modem society, wealth is relating birth as the basis of social status. As a result, caste is no more the basis of individual status, In our modem society, a rich Sudra is more respected than a poor Brahmin. Wealth is the main criterion in the determination of social status.

New social movements:
In the past, a number of movements have been launched that struck at the root of the caste system. Raja Ram Mohan Roy started ‘Brahmo Samak’ and Dayananda Saraswati started ‘ Arya Samaj ’ which brings a lot of changes in the caste system. Ideas of these Samaj influence the intelligence of the country against the caste system as a result of which a number of changes are being introduced in the caste system.

Political change:
India national freedom movement launched a strong public opinion against the caste system. After independence, all discriminatory practices based on caste were abolished and a democratic pattern of society was established. Besides because of the spread of ideologies like capitalism and communalism new groups based on class interest emerged in the country which put an end to the caste system.

Introduction of New Legal System:
The introduction of a new legal system by the Britishers has played an important role in weakening -the influence of caste in India, under this new system the principle of equality before the law was established. As a result of which the age-old discrimination against the Sudra caste has been removed. Besides, the establishment of the Judicial Court put an end to the Caste Panchayat as a result of which caste cannot be enforced. Further, a number of acts have been passed which affect the caste system vehemently.

Constitution of India:
Indian constitution possesses a very serious threat to the very existence of the caste system. Different constitutional provisions under different articles of the Indian Constitution have helped in the eradication of the caste system. Article 15 of the constitution declares that all citizens are equal as a result of which the principle of inherited inequality of the caste system receives a major setback. Thus, because of the impact of the above factors, a number of changes are being introduced in the caste system. Caste rigidity is being broken down.

Question 6.
The distinction between caste and class.
Answer:
To explain the distinction between caste and class. Warner and Dorns say that caste may be defined as a rank order of superior super- ordinate orders with inferior subordinate orders that practice endogamy, prevent vertical mobility and inequality distribute desirable and undesirable social symbols whereas.

The class may be defined as a rank order of superior and inferior orders which allows both exogamy and endogamy, permits movements either up or down the status to which he has bom, it also unequally distributes the lower and higher evaluated symbols. The above quotation throws enough light on the difference between – caste and class.

The following points make the distinction more specific and clear.

The stratification in a caste society is based on birth whereas stratification is based on wealth in a class society. As the individual has no control over his birth, hence his caste position is essentially an ascribed one whereas his class position is mainly an achieved one, as the acquisition of wealth depends mainly on his abilities and hard work.

In a caste-based society, occupation was fixed for various castes. The members of each caste are required to follow their traditional caste occupations. But in a class-based society, no such restrictions are imposed on the choice of occupations. Here, it is individuals, that occupation determines their Class.

The caste system is believed to have a divine origin and is supported by religion. It is based on different religious dogmas like Karma, Karmaphala, Rebirth, etc. But the class system is believed to be secular in nature hence here nothing to do with religion. Another distinction between caste and class is regarding their structure.

The structure of the caste system is closed whereas the structure of the class system is open. As the case of an individual is determined by his change from one caste to another is impossible, but mobility from one class to another is quite easy as it is determined by individuals’ occupations and wealth.

The caste system imposed certain restrictions on the members of different castes in respect of food, drink, and social intercourse. But in a class system, no such restrictions are found to exist. In a caste-based society, there is an existence of Caste Panchayat which maintains the caste structure by punishing those who violate the customs and traditions of their respective castes.

But no such organization is found to exist in a class society. The caste system is based on un-democratic principles of inherited inequality, hence stands as an obstacle in the smooth function of democracy. But the class system is not based on such undemocratic principles and created no such problems for the smooth functioning of democracy.

Question 7
Who are the Scheduled Castes? Discuss the constitutional provisions to safeguard the right of the Scheduled Caste.
Answer:
Indian society is stratified on the basis of the caste system. It has divided society into different segments. At the top of the caste hierarchy, there are Brahmins. The Sudras are at the bottom being the lower caste. It is said that all Sudras are not untouchables but all untouchables are Sudras.

The Scheduled Castes who comprise the bulk of untouchables are technically outside the four-fold vama scheme. These castes were imputed with the maximum degree of ritual and social impurity, while their occupations were treated as the lowest (defiling occupation) in the hierarchy.

Constitutional Safeguards:
Realizing the age-old backwardness of the SCs and STs the constitution of India and the five-year plans have regarded their progress as a major objective of national policy. The Constitution of India prescribes protection and safeguards for the SCs and STs and even for the OBCs with the object of removing their social disabilities and promoting their various interests.

The main safeguards are:

• Abolition of untouchability
• Protection from social injustice and various forms of exploitation.
• Throwing open religious institutions of a public character to all sections.
• Removal of restrictions on access to shops restaurants wells tanks and roads.
• Giving them the right to move freely.
• Right to acquire property
• Right to admission to educational institutions and receiving grants out of the state funds,
• Permitting the state governments to make reservations for them in services.
• Giving them special representation in the LokSabha and VidhanSabha.
• Setting up separate departments and advisory councils.
• Prohibiting forced labor and
• Making special provisions for the administration and control of the scheduled area.

The Government of India set up three Parliamentary Committees the first in 1968, the second in,1971, and the third in 1973 to examine the constitutional safeguards for the welfare of the SCs and STs. The state Government has separate departments to look after the welfare of the SCs and STs. It appears that their status has improved socially, economically, and politically very little.

Socially they have not changed their evil customs, economically more than 30 percent SCs live below the poverty line, educationally they are backward, politically they are not organized. After all, it is said that there are some trends of upward mobility among the SCS enjoying high administrative positions. Broadly speaking the SCs have registered little progress in the last decades.

Question 8.
Describe the tribal development and welfare measures adopted by Government.
Answer:
After independence, various efforts were made to improve the socioeconomic conditions of the tribal and to sustain the constitutional safeguard given to them. A number of safeguards are provided to the Scheduled Tribe to facilitate the implementation of the Directive Principles of State Policy and Article 46 of the constitution.

Article 40 provides for the promotion of the Educational and economic interests of SCs, STs, and Tribal areas. It makes provision for the inclusion of a fifth scheduled in the constitution for incorporating processions for the administration of Scheduled Areas. Article 275 relates to grants from the union Government to certain states for the welfare of STS and providing them with better administration.

Article 330 and Article 332 make provisions for reservation of the House of People and state legislative Assemblies respectively. In accordance with the constitutional provision, a commissioner is required to be appointed by the Union government for the SCs and STs. A number of commissions, committees, and working groups were formed from time to time to evaluate the conditions of Scheduled Tribes.

The different programs and schemes initiated by the government during the different plan periods can be grouped broadly into six categories economic, educational, health, sanitation, family welfare communication, housing, socio-cultural and political. If the first plan was mostly as part of the Community Development various programs were initiated with particular reference to health; housing etc.

The welfare of Scheduled Tribes:
The Indian Constitution has made important provisions for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes. The Central Government and State Governments have made an incessant effort in the direction of tribal welfare. Special programs for their welfare and development have been undertaken in the successive five-year plans.

The primary objective of the Community Development Programme was to achieve rural development. This was envisaged by making available the required services at people’s doors. But there were remote inaccessible areas and there was an almost total absence of additional infrastructural facilities.

Therefore special efforts and greater financial investments were required to extend the services available under the Community Development Programmes to tribal areas. Initially, 43 such blocks were selected for the purpose soon it was realized that it would not be possible to sustain such an intensive development approach for long.

The Tribal Development Blocks were introduced for the development of tribal areas. These Tribal Development blocks were expected to have their role in matters of economic development, education, health, and communication by the end of the Third Five-year plan. There were more than 500 such Tribal Development Blocks serving around 40 percent of the TDBS to other areas of tribal concentration that took place after the third five-year plan.

In the Fourth Five year plans a series of programs such as Small arguments Development Agencies (SFDA), Marginal Farmers, and Agricultural Development Agencies were conceived and implemented. The above-mentioned programs were introduced on an experimental basis in tribal areas.

The Tribal Development Agencies were identified on the same pattern as that of the Small farmer’s Development Agencies Each Tribal Development Agencies cornered a group of Tribal Development Blocks. During the fourth plan, six Tribal Agencies were started and another two were added during the fifth plan.

These Agencies were expected to incorporate elements of economic development, social service, and other progressive measures. In actual practice, the TDAs could not do anything other than agriculture development and construction of roads but the experience gained from the TDAS provided valuable means for evolving better policies and programs for the development of Scheduled Tribes.

The approach and strategy for tribal development were revised comprehensively on the eve of the Fifth Five plan. It was thought as recommended by the Shilo AO Committee that Tribal Development Blocks as an instrument of tribal development. Unsuitable to tackle complex tribal problems.

Besides the situation in tribal areas in terms of resource target groups, local priorities were different from non-tribal areas. Even within the tribal areas problems faced by the tribal people are not uniform in nature. To tackle the complex and diverse tribal problems effectively a comprehensive program of development known as Tribal Sub-plan Areas. A development block was taken as the smallest unit of development under this new strategy.

This unit is known as the Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP). The Tribal Sub-plan Approach includes.

Integrated Tribal Development projects comprising generally administrative units like subdivisions/Districts/ tehsils. With to percent or more scheduled tribal population. Pockets of tribal concentration have a total population of 10,000 or more and an ST population of 50 percent or more.

Primitive Tribal group projects :
The tribal sub-plan continued as the main instrument for the development of STs. The sixth plan attached primary importance to poverty alleviation among the STs effort was made under TSP to raise at least 50 percent of STs Effort was made under TSPs to raise at least 50 percent of the tribal population above the poverty line.

The major objective of Tribal Development has remained as follows.

To take up family-oriented programs in order to raise productivity levels of the beneficiary families in the fields of agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry small-scale industries, etc. To liberate tribals from the exploitation of land grabbing, money-lending, debt bondage, forest- labor, etc. To improve the quality of life through education and training programs and To provide infrastructural facilities in tribal areas.

The constitution of India provides for a number of safeguards for the STS mainly to facilitate the implementation of the Directive Principles contained in Article 46 of the constitution. The important safeguards provided in the constitution include Article 46 promotion of Educational and Economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and other weaker sections 330 (Reservation of seats for Scs and Sts in the House of People 332 reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Legislative Assemblies of the states 335 1 claims of the SCs and STs to service to posts, etc.

Programs for which central assistance is given can be divided into three groups namely education, economic upliftment, and health. The services provided to tribals under these programs are free education, provision for educational equipment Ashram schools scholarship, etc.

Question 9.
Discuss the causes of the Agrarian unrest of the peasant movement.
Answer:
The peasant movement has been caused by various factors.
Those are:

• Feeling of relative deprivation towards the Zamindars, enamdars during the British rule.
• Foreign invasion atrocities towards the peasants and also exploitation of different kinds instigated the peasants to fight.
• Destruction of cottage industries of the farmers.
• The increasing burden of debt.
• An increasing number of landless and the unemployed
• Anti-Farmer measures of the Government.
• Increasing political awareness among the farmers.
• Use the modem technology.
• The exploitation of the tribals.
• Indian fanners at the beginning of the 21 st century, have faced the toughest challenges. So they agitated due to having the above factors.

Santha! Insurrection (1855-56):
There is the first peasant movement took place in India. The Santhals are a group of tribals largely concentrated in Bihar. They are mainly agriculturalists, Due to the establishment of the permanent settlement of 1793 by the Britishers, lands were taken away by that which the Santhals had cultivated for centuries.

The Zamindars took to land on auction from the British Government and gave it to the peasants for cultivation. They increased the land tax and the common peasantry was oppressed by them. Thus was unbearable for the Santhals and they took to insurrection. They go against Zamindar’s money lenders and traders. The Santhal insurrection was very strong but due to various reasons, it was suppressed.

The Blue mutiny (1859-1862):
Poor peasants and small landlords opposed indigo planters in Bengal. In this, they were helped by moneylenders whose own credit, and resources stood threatened by the structure of the monopolistic right of the planters.

The Pabna and Boora uprisings (1872-1875):
Rich cultivators benefiting from the commercialization of agriculture and producing cash crops protested to secure further their occupancy rights granted nominally in 1859.1n thus they succeeded by 1885 when the Bengal Tenancy Act was passed later by the middle twentieth century such tenants were transformed into rent-receivers.

The Mappila /Moplah Rebellions (1836-1921):
The Moplah peasant movement was engineered in 1921 among the peasants of the Malabar district in Kerala. The Moplah tenants were Muslims. They moved on to agitation against the Hindu landlords and the British Government. The land tenure system in Malabar was quite unfavorable to the Maplah tenants. They protested for the security of tenure. Thus was granted in 1887 and 1929.

But only a rich tenantry benefited from these movements. 1921 Moplah agitation was the Khilafat movement which constituted a wider part of the national struggle for Independence. The Moplahs took an active part in the Khilafat movement and Moplah tenants became so much mixed that the government issued prohibitory notices on all Khilafat meetings on 5th February 1921. This displeased the Maplahs and ended up with the agitation of the Maplah peasantry.

The Deccan Riots (1875):
Up against a heavy land revenue demand of the state. (1840-1870) Cultivators lost their lands to moneylenders from the town. The symbiosis of peasants with rural money lenders was upset as the dependence of these latter on the moneylenders was upset the dependence of these latter on money lenders of the towns developed. The protest against the standards of legal authority which allowed such land transfer took the farm of anti-moneylender riots.

Punjab Agrarian Riots (1907):
The state intervened to prevent the alienation of land from peasants to moneylenders in 1900 but Urban middle classes protested in nationalist idiom against government intervention. Riots broke out against money lenders. The government appeared pro-peasant as the peasants rioted against agriculturalist moneylenders who were landlords. Landlords were over the long term supported by British rule.

Peasant movement in India (1918-1922):
The peasants of eastern Uttar Pradesh defied large landlords through a tenant movement for the security of tenure, and oppressive traditions of forced labor were attacked through fierce agrarian riots. Small landlords and the rural poor supported and led the movement. Statutory rights of occupancy were secured in 1921. The movement marked a phase of retreat from landlordism.

The Champaran movement (1917-18):
It is a part of over national independence struggle. Thus the movement was led by Mahatma Gandhi in Champaran (Bihar). Thus the movement was considered a reformist movement. Its objective was to create an awakening among the peasants against the European planters. These planters resorted to illegal and inhuman methods of indigo cultivation. The peasants opposed the European planters as well as the Zamindars. Gandhi visited Champaran and became displeased by the abject poverty of the peasants.

Question 10.
What is Tribal movement? Discuss its Characteristics.
Answer:
The British policies disturbed the traditional tribal systems. The tribal land system was marked by outs conspiratorial ownership of land and the absence of landlords. But the British changed the land system of the tribals. They created the hitherto class of Zamindars (Landlords) in the tribal areas. Brahmins and Rajputs were brought in the tribal area of Chotanagpur to perform military and religious services.

Further roles, they were assigned the Zamindari rights on the land. The Zamindars were considered outsiders by the tribes. The tribals were reduced to the position of tenants. The clan councils of the tribals were replaced by the councils of Rajus consisting of their followers. The traditional land system of the British was turned into many systems.

The British also introduced contractors (Thikadars) in the tribal areas. The Zamindars and Thikadars introduced land to rent in the tribal areas. Following the introduction of the market economy a class of traders also developed in the tribal areas. The tribal tenants had to pay the rent in cash. As they did not have cash with them, they had to borrow from the money- lenders Hence, a class of moneylenders also came into being in the tribal area.

Salient Features of the Tribal movements:
The tribals responded to their exploitation and oppression in the form of revolts and movements. They identified their enemies in the outsider’s landlords, money lenders, theaters and mission arrive, and European Government officials. They launched movements against their oppressors in their respective regions. Their agitation against the outsiders could be called anticolonial.

They revolted against them because of their exploitation in the form of encroachment on their land, eviction from the land annulment of their traditional legal and social rights and customs against enhancement of rent, and for transfer of land to the filter abolition of the feudal and semifeudal form of land ownership on the while, these movements had social religious overtones.

But they were directed against the issues related to their existence. These movements were launched under the leadership of their respective chiefs. Although the movements initially began on social and religious issues and against the oppression of outsiders, in course of time, they merged with the national movement and with the no-tax campaign.

The tribals fought against their enemies with their traditional weapons i.e. bows, arrives, lathis and axes. Their movement often took a violent turn resulting in the murder of oppressors and the burning of their houses. Most of the movements were ruthlessly suppressed by the government.

The tribals had to comply with British policies which were detrimental to their interests. The government introduced protective administration in tribal areas. The Government thought that the normal laws could not be applied in the tribal areas. The Government passed the Scheduled District Act (1874) and categorized the tribal areas as excluded areas on the Govt of India Act of 1935.

Question 11.
Discuss major Tribal movements in India.
Answer:
The first stirrings of the tribal revolt were manifest in the later half of the 19th century. The tribals participated in 1857. the revolt which spread all over the tribal areas. The people found themselves involved in out. Some of the main tribal movements which were essentially anti-colonial in character are discussed in the following.

Tamar Revolts (1789 -1832) :
The tribals of Tamar revolted over 7 times between 1789-1832 against the British. They were joined in the revolt by the tribals of the adjoining area- Midnapur, Koelpur, Dhadha, Chatshila, Jada, and Silli. They revolted against the faulty alignment system of the government. The Tamar revolts were led by BholaNath Sahany of Tamar.

In 1832 the arrows of war circulated throughout the region, orations, and mandates, Honor Kols who had distinct social and cultural identities Joined the insurgents under the leadership of Ganga Narain Singh a member of the Banbhum Raj family. The tribals murdered the dikes in each village of the areas.

The Khervv ar movement of the Santhals (1833):
Their movement was motivated by the desire to return to an idealized past of tribal independence. The word Kherwar is said to be an ancient name of Santhals and in their opinion, It is linked to the Golden age of their history. At that time the Santhals (Kherwars) were supposed to have enjoyed absolute independence. They had to pay tribute to their chief for the protection that the provided to them.

Their movement started under the charismatic leadership of Bhagirath Majhi. He assumed the title of Babaji. He announced that he would restore the Golden age of Santhals if they returned to the worship of God and cleaned themselves from their sons. He vowed to liberate them from the oppression of officials, landlords, and moneylenders. He exhorted them to worship the Hindi God Ram. identifying him with Santhal Gaudo’.

Santhal Revolt of 1855:
Thus movements of the Santhals were against the exploitation of oppression by landlords who had unjust ownership of the land of the Santhals. Thus the movement was also directed against the village moneylenders and officials. The movement was led by two brothers, Sidhu and Kandu. They held a meeting at Bhagnadih and made the announcement that their oppression could be ended by taking back their land from their oppressors. Around 35,000 Santhals acted as their bodyguards at the meeting.

Boka Rising Sardari Larai or Mukti Larai movement of 1858-95:
Thus movement took place in various parts of Chotanagpur. It aimed at regaining the tribal’s ancient right on land by expelling the hated landlords. According to Kr. Suresh Singh thus movement evolved through three phases-

• In the Agrian phase,
• the Revivalistic phase and
• the political phase.

The first two phases were marked by the clashes between the landlords and tribal tenants. The tribal tenants revolted against the rise in rent eviction from land and harassment of the tenants by the landlords and the tenants.

Birsa Munda Revolt (1895 – 1901):
The movement of Birsa Munda is the most popular movement of the Munda tribes of Singhbhum and Ranchi directs of the Chotanagpur region of Bihar. Like the movements discussed earlier this movement was also directed against the outsider’s dikes- landlords – traders merchants and government officers.

These classes were created by the British. Before the British policies on the areas inhabited by Ron and Munda, their traditional land and social systems existed. Their land system was known as the Khimkari system. The tribals enjoyed customary rights over their land. The system was marked by the absence of the class of landlords.

The tribals worked on their land and paid tributes to their chiefs. By 1874 the British replaced the traditional Khuntkari system with the Zamindars landlords the ryots (tenants). The tribals now had to pay to the landlords and failure to do so resulted in their eviction from the land.

Birsa Munda:
The exact date of Birsa Munda’s birth is not certain. According to Kr. Suresh Singh, the years 1874 or 1875 might be regarded as the year of this birth. He was bom in a poor Munda tribal family in a house built of bamboo strips without mud plaster or secure roots. Having passed the lower primary examination from the German mission of Buzru, he was sent to Chanibasa for further studies.

His long stay at Chanibasa from 1886 to 1890 constituted the formative period of his life. He was expelled from the school of his life. Impact of the movement: The Birsa Munda movement had its impact on the government’s attitude towards their problems. The authorities felt the need to prepare the land records so that they could safeguard the tribal interests.

The Government conducted surveys and settlement operations for the tribals between 1902 and 1910 for achieving this purpose.lt decided to abolish the tenancy Act of 1903 which recognized the Mundari Khunkati, System the Government also passed the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act in 1908. Birsa became a legend for the coming generations.

His movement inspired the future social, religious, and political movements of tribals. This movement contributed to the growth of consciousness among tribals. The Birsa of it is school and Thana Bhajans played an important role during the national movement in the 1920s. They fought against the British. They prayed of their explosion in the following way.

Further Tana pulls out the enemies on the border. Pull out the whiches and spirits pull out the British Government. Birsa’s name was evoked by the Indian National Congress and Forward Block to enlist the support of Sirsasthan in the national movement. Both Congress and Forward Block observed Birsa day in 1940.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 3 The Challenges of Cultural Diversity Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 3 The Challenges of Cultural Diversity Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Define national integration and discuss various factors disintegrating the Indian nation.
Answer:
Anation is a mosaic of cultures. It has many elements, many textures, and many colors. The Indian nation is such a rich mosaic of people, dress, diet, languages, and religious faiths. Diversity is mixed with unity. Neither do they oppose each other nor do they grow at each other’s cost. They support and sustain each other India sets a fine example of unity in diversity. Unfortunately, today’s country’s unity is seriously challenged.

The separatist forces have raised their head in different parts of the country. The forces of fundamentalism are at work. Besides the regional and casteist forces are out to divide the people into narrow lines. Looking at these unhealthy trends serious-minded people have started asking is the republic breaking up, Therefore, an understanding of the nature and problems of national integration is necessary.

Ordinarily by national integration, we mean the sentiment which blinds the people of a country together. If connotes a sense of oneness brotherhood and we-feeling. It creates a social bond which French sociologist Durkheim calls organic solidarity. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan says “integration is a thought which must go into the minds of the people. It is the consciousness which must awaken the people at large”.

According to Akin Benjamin, national integration means the assimilation of the entire people of a country to a common identity”. In the word Rasheeudin Khan term, National Integration means cohesion but not fashion, unity but not uniformity, and reconciliation but not the assimilation of the discrete segment of people constituting a political community or a state.

H. A. Gani writers, National integration is the socio-psychological and educational process through which a feeling of unity solidarity, and cohesion develops in the hearts of the people and a sense of common citizenship. Thus are define national integration as a sense of belongingness, a feeling of togetherness, and of unity. Some of the salient features of national integration are the following.

Firstly, national integration is a process in which people of a nation are made to know, feel and act as one people. Secondly, it means the composition of differences but not their complete disappearance. It does not require that the people of India should have one loyalty and that should be to India. A person can have a set of loyalties such as loyalty to the state he lives into his caste, religion, language, etc.

but at the same time, he is required to remain loyal to the nation. National loyalty is primary and should come first when it is in conflict with other loyalties. Thirdly, it stands for mental tolerance. It calls for the elimination of anti-national forces. Fourthly, it is a comprehensive process it includes political, social, cultural, and even emotional integration of people. Lastly, national integration requires secularism and democracy.

Dis- integrating factors:
Many disintegrating factors are coming up in the way of nation-building and have sorted out some major factors such as communalism, casteism, linguism, and regionalism.

Communalism:
Communalism means one’s loyalty to one’s community. This in itself is not bad but rather national. But when blind love of communal feelings turns one’s own community and religion it becomes a concern. Moreover, the interlinking of religion with politics makes the matter worse. Communalism has changed its scope. It is more confined to religion. It has spread to caste, class, ethnic groups, etc.

It is not only seen in urban areas but also found on rural areas. Communalism is the number one national enemy. It is very powerful and wide- spread. Religious sentiment is the most cherished and sacred sentiment of the common man. Communalists try to strive for the religious sentiments of a community through lies and disinformation. The distant history. They present facts that are half true and half lie.

They spread rumors against the rival communities which may be total lies. The irresponsible and dangerous game played by communal forces ends in riots causing mass disorder, rape, loot, etc. Poor of all the communities become poorer Business, industry, education, public utility services close, and health and sanitation all come to stand still. Thus, riots threaten the safety of the whole nation.

It also lowers the image of the country outside Enemies inside and outside the country take the upper hand. Recent happenings of communal violence on several parts of the country in general and the violence of Ayodhya and the destruction of Babri Masjid, in particular, prove this sufficiently.

Casteism:
Casteism is a grave menace to national integration. It is an abnormal feature of one caste system. When the consideration of superiority between he interest of one’s own caste as opposed to their castes are added to the caste. It is turned in to casteism. Casteism creates political or – side loyalty to fellow caste men, it generates inter- caste tensions Gandhiji compared casteism with that of the appendix in the human body.

As long as it continues to enjoy health it serves its purpose but when it becomes diseased it affects the whole system. So the sooner it is removed better for the health, indeed casteism has spread its roots and branches into various walks of socio-economic and political life. It has become a social evil.

Regionalism:
Regionalism is another major challenge to nation-building. It does not mean a attachment to one’s region but has come up to mean loyalty to the nation but has come up to mean loyalty to the nation or state. Before understanding regionalism let us know what the term region implies. A region refers to an area marked by certain physical and cultural characteristics which are different from those neighboring areas.

Love for a particular region in preference to the country and in certain cases in preference to the state of which the region is part is called regionalism. Regionalism is also understood as a consciousness of loyalty to a distinct area within a country, usually characterized by a common culture and language or historical or social background.

Question 2.
What do you mean by communalism? What are its causes? Suggest some remedial measures to abolish Communalism in India?
Answer:
Communalism is the number one national enemy. It is very powerful and widespread. Religious sentiment is the most cherished and sacred sentiment of the common man. Communalists try to the religious sentiments of a community through lies disinformation. they distort history. They present facts that are half true and half lie. They spread rumors against the rival communities which may be a total lie.

The irresponsible and dangerous game played by communal forces ends in riots causing mass murder, rape, loot, etc poor of all the communities become poorer. Business, industry, education, and public utility services like health and sanitation) all come to stand still. Thus riots weaken the safety of the whole nation. It also lowers the image of the country outside. Enemies inside and outside the country take the upper hand.

Recent happenings of communal violence in several points of the country in general and the violence of Ayodhya and the desecration of Babri Masjid, in particular, prove this sufficiently. Communalism means one’s loyalty to one’s community. This in our self is not bad but rather natural. But when blind love of communal feelings turns into one’s own community and religion it becomes cancerous.

Moreover, the interlinking of religion with politics makes the matter worse. Communalism has chaged its scope. It is no more confined to religion. It has spread to caste, class, ethnic groups, etc. It is not only seen in urban areas but also found in rural areas. Humayun Kabir, the former Minister for Education in the government of India has described communalism as a phenomenon by virtue.

persons belonging to a certain community are either discriminated against or shown favor to regardless of their merits or demerits just on the basis of their community. Harbans Mukhia defines communalism as the phenomenon of religious differences between groups often leading to tension and even rioting between them.

Briefly stated the characteristics of communalism are:

• Communalism is an ideology
• It is based on economic, political, and social interests.
• It is an instrument in the hands of the higher class or elite people.
• It is based on prejudice.
• It drives the masses toward violence
• It is dreadful and undesirable.
• It is opposed to secularism and national integration.

Causes of Communalism:
Communalism is a multi-dimensional social phenomenon. Any single cause cannot, therefore, give a full explanation of communalism. Following are some of the causes of communalism.

Colonial past:
Many scholars have said that communalism is the consequence of the colonial past. The Britishers adopted the divide-and-rule policy. The communal award separates electorates etc are examples of this policy. The ultimate result of this policy was the partition of India into Pakistan and Hindustan.

Growth of Militant Nationalists during Indian Nationalism:
Indian nationalism gave birth to militant nationalists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, etc. These leaders took Shivaji and Rana Pratap as their heroes. Tilak started the Ganapati festival and Shivaji festival to mobilize the masses against colonial rule. Of course, these great leaders were above communalism and gave a broader interpretation to the revival of this festival.

while infusing respect for tradition through these festivals. Hindus also hammered on respect for other- religions. But the fanatic Hindus took up only aspect of their gesture propagated Hindu communalism just as fanatic Muslims suspected those well-meaning. Hindu nationalists and fanned secret hatred for them among Muslims.

Political factor:
Communalism is essentially political in origin. The high-class people skillfully manipulate the religious sentiments of the community for their political gain. Some politicians have also linked with the anti-socials who create communal violence, Religion has come to stay in politics. Political parties use it as a tool to aim at the election. They connect the communal blocks to the vote banks.

Besides the religious teachers or priests viz. some Shankaracharyas, Shahi Imam of Jama Masjid in Delhi, etc. are also playing political roles. Over the years there is an increase in the number of visits to religious shrines by Hindu political leaders to pacify the Muslim fundamentalists India’s government changed the Supreme Court’s decision on the Shah Banu case through legislation.

Economic factors:
Bipin Chandra says that distorted capitalist development in India is responsible for the growth of communalism in two ways First the capitalist economy has failed to solve the basic problems of poverty unemployment and inequality. Asa result there is unhealthy competition to grab adequate economic and social opportunities.

Second capitalist development in agriculture and industry besides creating higher income has created a new social class. For example, green revolution has given birth to a new middle class. The development process in the past years have also widened the gap between the rich and the poor. Such a situation provides the basis for the growth of Communalism.

Psychological Factors:
Just like wars are born in the born in minds of the people, so also communalism is born in the mind of the people of India. Communal violence breaks out when mutual hatred and distrust between the Communities reach its height. Besides these communities have some communal stereotypes of fixed irrational beliefs towards one another.

for example, the Hindus believe that all Muslims are fundamentalists and fanatical by nature. They are unpatriotic and have a secret love for Islamic countries. On the other hand, Muslims hate Hindus as idolaters and thus Muslims also find that they are treated in India as Second rate citizens.

Demonstrative religiosity:
This means a deep emotional involvement with a ritualistic aspect of religion. It arouses a spirit of competition for the celebration of religious festivals among the members of different religious groups. Hindus beat drums and play music near mosques while taking processions and provoke Muslims giving rise to riots.

But Just as Hindus are not going to lose anything religion- else or they stop playing music in the procession near the mosque so also a true Muslim offering Namaj can be disturbed by music played on the road. It is only the human ego and demonstrative religion which is at the root of Communalism.

Misrepresentation of History:
The deserted view of Indian history is a major factor of the Communalism Falsification of India History was started by the Britishers. They tried to show that India had always been ruled by the tyrant Muslim rules. The Britishers had made the Hindus free from Muslim oppression. The Muslims and the Hindus had always been two rival camps, Indian History was divided into different periods such as the British period.

It has intentionally or unintentionally focussed the attention of the students separateness and rivalries among communities in N.C. Saxena writes the major ideology behind the writings of Indian history is communal, History, as it is taught in the schools, is either myths or half-truths.

Minorities’ tendency to remain aloof:
Another cause of communalism in India is the tendency of minority groups to remain away from the national mainstream. Most Muslims do not take part in the secular politics of the country. They organize themselves to maintain separate identities and sometimes give blackout to one who promises benefit for them as a community. Thus sometimes they choose to remain second-class citizens.

Encouragement from the outside countries:
Communalism gets encouragement from some other countries like Pakistan other big foreign powers also interfere in our internal politics and play one community against the other through their secret services of other countries like C.I.A. of the U.S.A has been suspected behind some large-scale communal riots.

Social factors:
The social practices, customs, traditions, laws ways of thinking, acting, and behaving of the Hindu and the Muslim Communities have marked differences. This creates a gap between them. The practice of polygamy and avoidance to adopt family planning by the Muslims create suspicion among the Hindus. Of course, such a feeling is baseless. Because very few Muslims practice polygamy. Among polygamous Muslims, the number of wives rarely exceeds two. This is not rare among Hindus either.

The Role of Mass – Media:
The press and other mass- media sometimes contribute to Communal tension in their own way. Many a time news items published are based on hearsay, rumours wrong interpretation of facts. Such news adds fuel to the fire of communalism.

Indian Constitution:
Kashyap in his book communalism and Constitution states that our constitution is in no way less Responsible for the growth of communalism absence and the presence of certain provisions in the Indian constitution contribute to the growth of communalism.

Suggestions to fight out communalism:
We have explained some of the courses promoting communalism. The task is to offer some suggestions to eradicate communalism. The committee on National Integration has given some valuable suggestions. Briefly stated they are as follows.

• Celebration of community festivals jointly.
• Cultivating respect for the religious beliefs and practices of the neighbors.
• Prevention of destruction of idols and violation of customs observed by others.
• The formation of Ekata Committees at the local level to cheek the growth of antisocial elements and to maintain a healthy atmosphere.

In addition to the above suggestions, we should like to add a few more. People should be educated so as to feed that their primary loyalty is to their country and considerations are secondary. Communal activities should be treated as offenses under the law. Religion should be separated from politics.

The communal political parties should be banned Indian History should be rewritten on the model of national integration. The intellectual, political and religious leaders, media, voluntary organizations, trade unions, Kishan Sabhas should be tagged the task of de-communalizing people at all levels.

Question 3.
What is Casteism? What are its causes, Suggest some remedial measures to abolish Casteism?
Answer:
Casteism is a grave menace to national integration. It is an abnormal feature of the caste system. When the consideration of superiority between the castes and the tendency to consider the interest of one’s own caste as opposed to other castes are added to the caste it is turned into Casteism. Casteism creates political or side loyalty to the fellow cautioned.

It generates inter-caste tensions. Gandhiji compared casteism with that of the appendix in the human body. As long as it continues to enjoy health it serves its surprise but when it becomes diseased it affects the whole system. So some it is removed better for the health. Indeed casteism has spread its roots and branches into various walks of socio-economic and political life. It has become a social evil.

According to Kaka Kalekar Casteism is an over-riding blind and supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy social standards of justice, fair play, equality, and universal brotherhood K.M. Panikkar interprets casteism as loyalty to one’s sub-caste. In this way, it is only because of casteism that the smiths want to benefit only the smiths while the Joneses want to come to the aid of the other Joneses. It matters if the members of the other castes are irreparably harmed if it does not course any concern to the smiths and Joneses.

According to D.N. Prasad, casteism is a loyalty to the caste translated into politics. In this way, caste has beat dragged into the political areas in the form of casteism such as Brahminavada and Kayasthavada. We may define casteism as a phenomenon by virtue of which persons belonging to a certain caste group are either discriminated against or shown favor to regardless of their merits and demands, just on the basis of their caste.

Characteristics of casteism:
On the basis of the foregoing definitions, the following characteristics of casteism can be outlined.

• Casteism refers to the blind caste or sub-caste loyalty. It does not care for the interests of other castes.
• For a casteist my caste men and any caste only, right or wrong is the principle.
• It submits one’s sense of justice fair play, and humanity to the interest of his own caste.
• It is anti-democratic
• It defines the constitution by discriminating on the basis of caste.
• It is a barrier to national integration.

Casteism is very much active in the politics and administration in modem India The political leaders use caste links at the time of election. The candidates are put up in the constituencies on the basis of the number of castes formed on the area. Elections panchayats parliament are fought using caste as a mean village-level leaders are cultivating ministers for their privileges and favors ministers in return need the help of the village leaders to win in the election.

Many of the ministers at the national level, as well as provincial level, are the leaders of their caste groups, M.N. Srinivas writes regarding the state of affairs in Mysore not only the ministers even the secretaries are chosen on a caste basis. Caste seems to be the most important consideration on the selection of candidates to posts in their promotion certain percentages of seats in schools and colleges are reserved on the basis of caste. In this way, casteism has gone deep into our society.

Causes of Casteism:
Multiple factors are responsible for the growth and spread of casteism. Some of the important factors are:
Sense of Caste Prestige:
Caste prestige is considered to be one of the most important factors of casteism. In a caste society, an individual thinks that his status is linked with caste status. He does all sorts things fair of foul to improve the prestige of his caste. He may close his eyes to the interest of other caste people while doing something to increase caste prestige.

Endogamy:
In a caste, society marriage are confined to one’s own caste.No one is allowed to marry outside the caste, People related by marriage develop a deep sense of belonging towards one another. This strengthens caste consciousness.

Discrimination:
The discrimination against the backward castes in the matter of eating, drinking, marriage, and social interaction by the high castes makes them feel aggrieved. They are also aware that the economically, and politically powerful castes are hostile to their desire to move up. The high castes on the other hand, point to the discrimination practiced against admission to schools and colleges and in appointment to government posts. They say that merit is ignored in caste of caste. All in all inter- caste tension spreads. The after-effect of the execution of the Mandal Commission report is its burning sample.

Urbanization:
Due to urbanization, people from rural areas to urban areas face an impersonal world to live in. They feel insecure which compels them to seek timely help from their own caste people. So they prefer to stay in a cluster formed on the basis of caste.

Remedial Measures:
Casteism has become pervasive. Its root has gone deep into Indian soils. It can be uprooted overnight. It requires “a lot of beating” before it’s done away with However, different scholars have made different suggestions for its eradication. Some of the important M.N. Srinivas has suggested two types of measures for the abolition of casteism namely, short-term and long-term on a short-term basis through wide spread industrialization habits of urban life, co-education, and making inter-caste marriage popular can reduce inter-caste hatred.

On a long-term basis adult franchise, the industrial revolution through five-year plans, the spread of literacy and higher education among the lower castes, the legal rights to Harijans the privileges given to backward castes, and the greater Sanskritization of the way of life of the lower castes would gradually remove casteism. GS. Ghurye’s suggestion is that casteism can be removed by encouraging inter-caste marriage. Co-education will give an opportunity for the boys and girls to come together and inter-marry.

Mrs. Karve suggests the creation of economic and cultural equality between castes as a means to do away with casteism. According to P.N.H. Prabhu casteism can be eliminated if new attitudes in the people are developed. The cinema and other media can do much towards the creation of these attitudes.

Question 4.
What is regionalism? What are its causes? Suggest some remedial measures to abolish regionalism?
Answer:
Regionalism is another major challenge to nation-building. It does not mean an attachment to one’s region but has come up to mean deciding loyalty to the nation or state. Before understanding regionalism let us know what the term region implies. A region refers to an area marked by certain physical and cultural characteristics which are different from those of neighboring areas.

Love for a particular region in preference to the country and in certain cases in preference to the state of which the region is a part is called regionalism. Regionalism is also understood as a consciousness of loyalty to a distinct area within a country, usually characterized by a common culture and language or social background. Seligman and Johnson have defined regionalism as a counter-movement to any exaggerated or oppressive form of centralization.

According to Iqbal Narain “Regionalism has both a positive and negative dimension speaking on positive terms it embodies a Guest for self-fulfillment on the part of the people of an area. Negatively speaking regionalism reflects a psyche of relative deprivation resulting from specific grievances. In the words of A.T. Philip and K.H. Shivaji Rao Regionalism refers to sub-nationalism demanding preference of the region, as against the country as a whole.

Characteristics:
From the above definitions, we may note down the following characteristics of regionalism. Regionalism is a frame of mind. It is a live and loyalty shown to the region in preference to the state or nation. It is expressed on the ideas like the development of one’s own region even at the caste of other regions’ enjoyment of all benefits from the development by the people of the same regional one. It does not allow people from other regions to work and settle in the region.

Regionalism, today is expressed in the following ways:
The first is the demand for a separate state on the basis of language. The formation of Andhra Pradesh, the division of Punjab into three separate princes such as Punjab. Haryana and Himachal Pradesh the formation of a number of states in the North Eastern region outcomes of which demand.

The second is the slogan of the son of the soil. The essence of the demand is to secure preference for the local people-in matters of employment and protection of their trade and industries. The third is in the form of boundary disputes between the states. The fourth is in the form of the growth of militant regionalism in the name of various senses like Siva Sena in Maharasthra, Tamil Sena in Tamil Nadu, Hindu Sena in North India, etc.

The fifth expression of regionalism is in the form of demand for more state autonomy as is the demand by Assam Gana Parishad (A.GP.) or C.P.I.M. in West Bengal. Last out not least, the expression of regionalism is found in the inter-state water disputes. The conflict between Punjab and Haryana relating to the distribution of water from rivers like Ravi Beas and Sutlej and the fight between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for the Cauvery Water, etc. can be cited as examples.

Causes of Regionalism
Regionalism is a complex social process. Its causes are many and varied. Some of the important factors promoting regionalism are discussed below:
Geographical factor:
India is a vast country. It has a number of distinct regions Each region has a number of distinct regions. Each region has a different kind of climate, topography, and settlement pattern. This Geographical difference gives people of a region a feeling that they are different from others.

Cultural factors:
Each region has its own customs, traditions, and culture. The people living in a region develop an identity with the culture. They develop a tendency to like at and treat the culture of other regions as alien.

Historical factors:
Many of the regions have their local history. Historical traditional and local heroes. The people of these regions get inspired by their regional history. If for any region the local personalities are ignored regionalism becomes pronounced.

Economic factor:
The economic factor is the root of regionalism, the uneven development of the country’s administration means of communication and education had affected the development of many regions during colonial rule. Even after independence regions have become more advanced economically, industrially, and agriculturally than others. Thus, the difference in economic development gives rise to the feeling of less developed regions have been relatively deprived. The recent movements for a separate LJttarkhand state, Jharkhand state, and Bodoland amply illustrate this.

Linguistic factor:
Language also strengthens the hand of regionalism. India is a country with many languages. People speaking the same language feel united. They develop an emotional attachment for the language and its literature. This at times turns into linguistic regionalism.

Political factors:
Political parties use regions to serve their political ends. They exploit regional sentiments as and when necessary. At the time of the election, they make regional problems an issue for campaigning. A good number of regional parties are also raising their heads. Some such parties are ADMK and AIDAMK in Tamilnadu, Akali Dal in Punjab, Jharkhand Party in Bihar, Assam Gana Parisad in Assam, etc.

Remedial measures:
The task before the nation is how to fight out regionalism. In this connection, the following remedial measures can be suggested.

• Greater priority should be given to the economic development of the backward regions.
• Cultural interaction between the regions should be promoted on a large scale.
• A balanced distribution of national resources should be made for all the regions.
• People should be educated to wipe out separatist feelings and develop patriotic feelings.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 3 The Challenges of Cultural Diversity Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 3 The Challenges of Cultural Diversity Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What do you mean by National Integration?
Answer:
National integration is the process that aims at building a nation-state. Unity in diversity is the other name of national integration.

Question 2.
What are the main obstacles to national integration?
Answer:
National integration is one danger in the face of fissiparous forces like communalism, terrorism, casteism and regionalism.

Question 3.
Define communalism?
Answer:
Prabha Dikhit writes “Communalism is a political doctrine which makes use of religious – cultural differences to achieve political ends”.

Question 4.
Give any two important characteristics of communalism?
Answer:

• It is based on prejudice
• It is dreadful and undesirable.

Question 5.
Mention any two important causes of communalism?
Answer:

• Colonial past
• Economic factors

Question 6.
Write down Bipin Chandra’s views on Communalism in India?
Answer:
Bipin Chandra explains communalism as an ideology with three basic elements. First, communal ideology is common among people who follow the same religion. They have not only religious beliefs but also common political, social and cultural interests. The second element is the belief that the secular interests (economic .social, political and cultural).

the followers of one religion are different from the secular interests of the followers of another religion. The third element is the belief that the secular interests of different communities are not only different but are hostile to each other.

Question 7.
Suggest any two remedies for the eradication of communalism?
Answer:
Prevention of destruction of idols and violation of customs observed by others. The formation ofAkata committed at the local level to check the growth of anti-social elements and to maintain a healthy atmosphere.

Question 8.
What is casteism?
Answer:
Casteism is a grave menace to national integration an abnormal feature of the caste system when the consideration of superiority between the castes and the tendency to consider the interest of one’s own caste as opposed to other castes are added to the caste. It is turned into casteism. Casteism creates a particular one- side- loyalty to fellow caste men. It generates inter-caste tensions.

Question 9.
Define Casteism?
Answer:
K.M. Panikkar interprets casteism as loyalty to one’s caste. In this way it is only because of casteism that the smiths not to benefit only the smiths while the Joneses want to come to the addition of the other Jones. lt matters like of the other castes are irreparably harmed of it does not cause any concern to the Smiths and Joneses.

Question 10.
Mention any two characteristics of casteism?
Answer:
Casteism refers to the blind caste or sub-caste loyalty. It does not care for the interests of other castes. For a casteist my caste men and my caste only, right or wrong is the principle.

Question 11.
Mention any two causes of casteism?
Answer:

• Sense of caste prestige
• Discrimination

Question 12.
Suggest any two remedies for the eradication of casteism?
Answer:

• No use of the caste title
• Economic development and realization of a welfare state.

Question 13.
What is regionalism?
Answer:
Regionalism is another obstacle that stand in the way of nation-building. By regionalism, we mean giving preference to a region over the state or the nation. The region constitutes the core of regionalism.

Question 14.
Define regionalism?
Answer:
According to Iqbal Narain “Regionalism has both a positive and negative dimension. Speaking on positive terms it embodies a Quest for self-fulfillment on the part of the people of an area. Negatively speaking regionalism reflects a psyche of relative deprivation resulting from specific grievance”.

Question 15.
Mention any two expressions of regionalism?
Answer:
It is expressed in the ideas like the development of one’s own region even at the cost of other regions, and enjoyment of all benefits from the development by the people of the same region alone. It is a love and loyalty shown to the region in preference to the state or nation.

Question 16.
Write any two causes of regionalism?
Answer:

• Geographical factor
• Historical factor

Question 17.
Suggest any two remedies for eradicating regionalism?
Answer:
Greater priority should be given to the economic development of the backward regions. Cultural integration between the regions should be promoted in a large scale.

Question 18.
Suggest any two remedies for bringing national integration?
Answer:

• Development of backward regions.
• A balanced distribution of developmental gains.

Question 19.
Define communalism and discuss its characteristics?
Answer:
“Harbans Mukhia defines communalism as the phenomenon of religious differences between groups often leading to tension and even rioting between them”.
Characteristics:

• Communalism is an ideology
• It is based on economic, political, and social interests.
• It is an instrument on the hands of the higher class or elite people.
• It is based on prejudice.

Question 20.
Briefly state the factors of communalism?
Answer:
Communalism is a multi-dimensional social phenomenon. Any struggle cause cannot, therefore, give a full explanation of communalism. Following are some of the factors of communalism:

• Colonial past.
• Growth of militant Nationalists.
• Political factor.
• Economic factor.

Question 21.
Write in brief the measures for the abolition of communalism?
Answer:
We have explained some of the causes promoting communalism. The task is to offer some suggestions to eradicate communalism. The Committee on National Integration has given some valuable suggestions. Briefly stated they are as follows. Celebration of community festivals jointly. Cultivating respect for the religious beliefs and practices of the neighbors. Prevention of restriction of idols and violation of customs observed by others.

Question 22.
What are the causes of casteism in India?
Answer:
Multiple factors are responsible for the growth and spread of casteism. Some of the important factors are:

• Sense of caste prestige
• Endogamy
• Discrimination
• Urbanization

Question 23.
What measures can be suggested for the abolition of casteism in India?
Answer:
Casteism has become pervasive. It not has gone deep into Indian soils. It cannot be uprotted overnight. It requires a lot of beatings before it is done away with. However, apparently, scholars have made different suggestions for its eradication. Casteism can be removed encouraging inter-caste marriages. Co-education will give an opportunity for the boys and girls to come together and inter-marry. Creation of economic and cultural equality between castes as a means to do away with casteism.

Question 24.
Mention different expressions of regionalism?
Answer:
Regionalism is another major challenge to nation-building. It does not mean a mere attachment to one’s region but has come up to mean deriding the nation or state. Before understanding regionalism let us know what the term region implies. A region refers to an area marked by certain physical and cultural characteristics which are different from those of neighboring areas. Love for a particular region in preference to the country and in certain cases in preference to the state of which the region is a point is called regionalism.”

Question 25.
Describe the factors responsible for regionalism in India?
Answer:
Regionalism is a complex social process. Its causes are many and varied. Some of the important factors promoting regionalism are:

• Geographical factor.
• Cultural factor.
• Historical factor.
• Linguistic factor.
• Economical factor

Question 26.
What measures do you like to suggest to fight out regionalism?
Answer:
Greater priority should be given to the economic development of the backward regions. Cultural interaction between the regions should be promoted in a large scale. A balanced distribution of national resources should be made for all the regions.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 3 The Challenges of Cultural Diversity Objective Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 3 The Challenges of Cultural Diversity Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Who said that “Integration is a thought which must go into the minds of the people. It is the consciousness which must awaken the people at large”?
(a) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
(b) Akin Benjamin.
(c) Rasheeudin
(d) H.A.Gani
Answer:
(a) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan

Question 2.
Who said that “Integration means assimilation of the entire people of a country to a common identity”?
(a) Radhakrishnan
(b) A. Gani
(c) Akin Benjamin
(d) Rasheeudin
Answer:
(c) Akin Benjamin

Question 3.
Who said that “National integration means cohesion but not fashion unity but not uniformity, reconciliation but not merger agglomeration but not the assimilation of the discrete segment, of people constituting a political community or a state”?
(a) Rasheeudin Khan
(b) Radhakrishna
(c) Akin Benjamin
(d) A. Gani
Answer:
(a) Rasheeudin Khan

Question 4.
Who said this, “National integration is a socio-psychological and educational process through which a feeling of unity solidarity and cohesion develops in the hearts of the people and sense of common citizenship or feeling of loyalty to the nation is fostered”?
(a) H. A. Gani
(b) Rasheeudin Khan
(c) Radhakrishnan
(d) Akin Benjamin
Answer:
(a) H.A. Gani

Question 5.
Who said this, “National integration is a strong feeling of brotherhood and nationhood that inspires a people on all spheres Of its thought and activity and helps it to sink and ignore all real differences individual, parochial, linguistic or religious?
(a) Report of the Committee on National Integration -1962.
(b) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
(c) H.A. Gani
Answer:
(a) Report of the Committee on National Integration -1962.

Question 6.
Does social integration mean _______?
(a) Binds the people of the country
(b) Sentiment of the people
(c) Emotion and sentiment
(d) Above all
Answer:
(d) Above all

Question 7.
Does national integration mean _______?
(a) Feelingoftogethemess
(b) Asenseofunity
(c) Senseofbelongingness.
(d) above all
Answer:
(d) Above all

Question 8.
Who said this, “Communalism as a phenomenon by virtue of which persons belonging to a certain community are either discriminated against or shown favor to, regardless of their merits of demerits, just on the basis of their merits of demerits, just on the basis, of their community”?
(a) HumayunKabir
(b) Harbans Mukhia
(c) Bipin Chandra
Answer:
(a) HumayunKabir

Question 9.
Who said that “Communalism as the phenomenon of religious differences between groups often leading to tension and even rioting between them”?
(a) Bipin Chandra
(b) Harbans Mukhia
(c) HumayunKabitr
Answer:
(b) Harbans, Mukhia

Question 10.
Who said that “Communalism as an ideology with three basic elements for the communal idealism is song among the people who follow the same religion. They have not only religious beliefs but also common political social and cultural interests. The second element is the belief that the secular interests (economic, social, political, and cultural) of the followers of one religion are different from the secular interests of the belief that the secular interests of different communities are not only different but are hostile to each other”?
(a) HumayunKabir
(b) Bipin Chandra
(c) Harbans Mukhia
Answer:
(b) Bipin Chandra

Question 11.
Who said this, “Communalism is a political doctrine which makes use of religious – cultural differences to adhere powerful ends”?
(a) PrabhaDikhit
(b) Ajgar Ali Engineer
(c) Bipin Chandra
Answer:
(a) PrabhaDikhit

Question 12.
Who said this, “communalism as the art of skillfully manipulating the religious sentiments and cultural ethos of a people by to its political, economic and cultural arbitration by identifying these aspirations those of the entire community”?
(a) PrabhaDikshit
(b) Ajgar Ali Engineer
(c) Bipin Chandra
(d) Harbans Mukhia
Answer:
(b) Ajgar Ali Engineer

Question 13.
Which of the following characteristics of communalism?
(a) Commynalism is an idealism
(b) Economic, political and social interests
(c) It is based on prejudice
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 14.
Which of the following causes of communalism?
(a) Colonial past
(b) Economic factors
(c) Psychological Factors
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 15.
Which of the following suggestions are essential to flight out communalism?
(a) Celebration of community festivals Jointly,
(b) Cultivating respect for religious beliefs
(c) Prevention of idolts.
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 16.
“Casteism is an over-riding, blind and supreme group loyalty that ignores the healthy social standards of justice fair play, equality universal brotherhood”. Whose difference it is?
(a) KakaKalelkar
(b) K.M. Panik
(c) D. N. Prasad
Answer:
(a) Kaka Kalelkar

Question 17.
Casteism is loyalty to one’s sub-caste. Thus on his words, “In this way, it is only because of casteism that the smiths want to benefit only the smiths while the joneses want to come to the aid of the other joneses. It matters little of the members of the other castes are irreparably harmed if it does not cause any concern to the smiths and joneses”. Whose definition it is?
(a) KakaKalelkar
(b) K.M. Panikkar
(c) M.N. Srinivas.
Answer:
(b) K.M. Panikkar

Question 18.
Casteism is a loyalty to the caste translated into politics. In this way caste has been dragged into the political arena in the form of casteism such as Brahmanavada and Kayasthavada”. Whose difference it is?
Answer:
D.N. Prasad.

Question 19.
Which of the following are the characteristic of casteism?
(a) Blind caste
(b) Sub-caste loyalty
(c) Itisantidomocratic
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 20.
Which of the following are the causes of casteism?
(a) Endogamy
(b) Discrimination
(c) Urbanisation
(d) Sense of caste pressure.
(e) Above all of them
Answer:
(e) Above all of them

Question 21.
“Casteism can be eliminated if new attitudes on the people are developed. The common and other media can do much towards the creation of these attitudes”. Whose definition it is?
(a) IravatiKarve
(b) P.N.H. Prabhu
(c) M.N. Srinivas
(d) G.S. churye
Answer:
(c)P.N.H.Prabhu

Question 22.
“Regionalism has both a positive and negative dimension. Speaking in positive terms it embodies a Question test for self- fulfillment on the part of the people of an area. Negative speaking, regionalism reflects a psyche of relative deprivation resulting from speaking grievance.” Whose definition it is?
(a) Iqbal Narain
(b) A.T. Philip and K.H. Shivaji Rao
(c) Seligman and Johnson
Answer:
(a) Iqbal Narain

Question 23.
“Regionalism as a counter-movement to any exaggerated or oppressive form of centralization”. Whose definition it is?
(a) Seligman and Johnson
(b) IQuestion bal Naroism
(c) A.T. Philip and K.H. Shivaji
Answer:
(a) Seligman and Johnson

Question 24.
“Regionalism refers to sub- nationalism demanding preference of the region as against the country as a whole”. Whose definition it is?
(a) A.T. Philip and K.H. Shivaji Rao
(b) Iqbal Narain
(c) Seligman and Johnson
Answer:
(a) A.T. Philip and K.H. Shivaji Rao

Question 25.
Which of the following characteristics of regionalism?
(a) Frameofmind
(b) Loyalty is shown to the region
(c) Above all of them
Answer:
(c) Above all of them

Question 26.
Which of the following are the causes of regionalism?
(a) Geographical factor
(b) Culture factor
(c) Historical factor
(d) Economic factor
(e) Above all of them
Answer:
(e) Above all of them

Question 27.
The region also is expressed in the following ways?
(a) Demand a separate state on linguistic line
(b) The voice of the soil
(c) Demand for more state autonomy.
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

Question 28.
Regionalism can be brought under check if the following measures are taken up?
(a) development of backward regions
(b) a balanced distribution of developmental gains
(c) educating people to caste-separate tendencies.
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them.

Question 29.
Some useful suggestions to root out casteism are?
(a) No use of the caste title
(b) Economic development and realization of a welfare state.
(c) Propaganda through various means of media against casteism
(d) Above all of them.
Answer:
(d) Above all of them.

Question 30.
The remedial measure to word off communalism are as follows?
(a) Observance of self-control
(b) Cultivating mutual respect for cultural practices.
(c) Formation of Ekatacommitee.
(d) Above all of them
Answer:
(d) Above all of them

One Word Answers

Question 1.
Give any one characteristic of communalism?
Answer:
Communalism is art ideology

Question 2.
Mention any one problem of national integration?
Answer:
communalism

Question 3.
Mention any one problem of national integration?
Answer:
Colonial past

Question 4.
Mention any one feature of national integration?
Answer:
Mutual tolerance

Question 5.
Mention any one suggestion to fight out communalism?
Answer:
Prevention of destruction of idols and violation of customs

Question 6.
Give any one cause of custom?
Answer:
Sense of caste prestige

Question 7.
Mention any one characteristic of regionalism?
Answer:
Regionalism is a frame of mind.

Question 8.
Give any one cause of regionalism?
Answer:
Geographical

Question 9.
Mention any one remedial measures of casteism?
Answer:
No use of the caste title

Question 10.
Give any one remedial measure of communalism?
Answer:
A joint celebration of festivals.

Correct Sentences

Question 1.
National integration of various people of a country together?
Answer:
National integration binds the people of a country together.

Question 2.
National integration as a sense of belongingness?
Answer:
National integration as a sense of belongingness.

Question 3.
National integration is a socio-psychological and educational process?
Answer:
National integration is a socio-psychological and educational process.

Question 4.
National integration is social solidarity?
Answer:
National integration is organic solidarity.

Question 5.
National integration is an assimilation of the entire people of a country?
Answer:
National integration is the assimilation of the entire people of a country.

Question 6.
Communalism is the number one national friend?
Answer:
Communalism is the number one national enemy.

Question 7.
Communalism means one’s loyalty to one’s Association?
Answer:
Communalism means one’s loyalty to one’s communalism.

Question 8.
Communalism is an ethics?
Answer:
Communalism is an ideology.

Question 9.
Communalism is a dimensional social phenomenon?
Answer:
Communalism is a multi-dimensional social phenomenon.

Question 10.
Communalism is a grave menace to social integration?
Answer:
Casteism is a grave menace to integration.

Question 11.
Casteism refers to the truth of caste or sub-caste loyalty?
Answer:
Casteism refers to the blind caste or sub-caste loyalty.

Question 12.
Casteism can be removed by encouraging inter- castes marriage?
Answer:
Casteism can be removed by encouraging inter-caste marriage.

Question 13.
Regionalism is another major challenge to nation building?
Answer:
Regionalism is another major challenge to nation-building.

Question 14.
Regionalism has both a direct and indirect dimension?
Answer:
Regionalism has both positive and negative dimensions.

Question 15.
Regionalism is a soul of mind?
Answer:
Regionalism is a frame of mind.

Question 16.
Regionalism is a simple social process?
Answer:
Regionalism is a complex social process.

Question 17.
Social integration is the other name of national integration?
Answer:
Units in diversity is the other name of national integration.

Question 18.
National integration is the process which aims at building a state?
Answer:
National integration is the process which aims at building a nation-state.

Fill In The Blanks

1. National integration is the process Which aims at building a _______ state.
Answer:
Nation

2. ______ is the other name of a national integration.
Answer:
Unity in diversity.

3. National integration is a danger in the race of fissiparous forces like ______, ______, and ______.
Answer:
Communalism, regionalism, casteism

4. Castismis ______ loyalty to one’s caste group.
Answer:
Blind

5. Casteism is propagated by a ______ of factors.
Answer:
Host

6. Regionalism is a ______ of mind.
Answer:
Frame

7. Regionalism has both a _______ and _______ dimension.
Answer:
positive, negative

8. Casteism is very much ______ in the politics and administration in modern India.
Answer:
active

9. Casteism is a grave ______ to national integration.
Answer:
menace

10. Communalismisa ________ dimensional social phenomenon.
Answer:
Multi

11. Communalism is the number one ______ enemy.
Answer:
National

12. Communalism means one’s _______ To one’s community.
Answer:
Loyalty

13. Communalismisan _______.
Answer:
Idealism

14. National integration is a sense of ______ a feeling of ______ and of unity.
Answer:
Belongingness, togetherness.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 2 Democratic Process in India-I Long Answer Questions

Long Questions With Answers

Provisions in the Indian Constitution of Federalism with strong central government

• Formation of states or merger of states of two or more states into one is in the hands of Parliament, the parliament has powers to form a new state or merge with old states or change the name of any state.
• Our centre has important and powerful emergency powers which can turn a federal system into highly centralised. During emergency, parliament takes the power of states from state list. That means, in these emergency situations, centre will legislate on state list.
• Under normal conditions, centre has important financial powers, items generating revenue are under the control of central government, therefore, centre has many financial resources and states are dependent on grants and financial resources from centre.
• In terms of planning and development of the entire country, it adopted centralisation. Planning Commission was appointed by union government that will control, supervise and manage the resources ofstates and union government uses its discretion to give grants and loans to states.
• The position of governor in states is also a sign of centralisation. The Governor can recommend dismissal of state government and dissolution of assembly. He also has the power to keep the bill with himself rather than passing to president for his assent, this leads to delay in passing the bill by state legislation.
• There may be situations where the centre needs to legislate in state list. This can happen if the Rajya Sabha agrees. The constitution clearly says that executive power of centre is superior than executive power of states. Article 257(1) says that executive power of states should be exercised in such a way that it does not disturb the functioning or exercise of powers of union, and the executive power of the union can give directions to state government if it appears necessary.
• The central government may choose to give instructions to the state government.
• We are also having an All India Services. These officers are under control of central government but serve in the administration of states. States cannot remove these officers nor can take disciplinary action.
• Articles 33 and 34 authorise parliament to protect officers of union or states if these officers have taken any action during the martial law to maintain peace and order. Armed Forces Special Powers Act has been made on these basis but this act has created tensions because a officer will not be penalised or punished if he/she has done any wrong in a state or part of country where there is martial law.

Question 1.
How has central government controlled the financial resources of states?
Answer:
The central government has effective financial resources. Firstly, interims generating revenue are under the control of central government. Therefore, central government has many revenue sources and states are dependent on grants and financial assistance from centre. Secondly, union also appointed Planning Commission for the socio-economic progress and development of the country. This led to centralisation where the Planning Commission coordinated, controlled and supervised the resources ofthe states.

Question 2.
How does the position of governor led to the centralisation of resources?
Answer:
Governor has power to recommend the dismissal of state government and dissolution of state assembly. In normal circumstances also, Governor has the power to reserve a bill passed by state legislature for the assent of the President. This gives the central government an opportunity to delay the state legislation and examine bills and veto them.

Question 3.
How has all India services centralised our federal system?
Answer:
The all India services are common to the entire territory of India and officers selected serve in the states, states on the other hand cannot take disciplinary action nor can they remove these officers from service.

Question 4.
What is articles 33 and 34?
Answer:
Articles 33 and 34 authorise the parliament to protect the persons in the service of nation or a state in respect of any action taken by them during martial law to maintain law and order.

Conflicts in India’s Federal System:

Although the distribution of powers between centre and states is well defined in the Indian constitution. But still many conflicts has taken place between centre and states for demanding autonomy, for share in resources, for demanding new states and conflicts between states have also arisen. This topic will deal with some of these conflicts.

Centre states relations: Federalism in India has been influenced by political process of the country. In the 1950s and 1960s when there was Congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio-economic progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, Congress ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.

But in the 1960s Congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition parties came to power, they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not want centre to intervene in their state’s affairs everytime. And the Congress which was ruling at centre in 1960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with opposition parties in states.

And in 1990s coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states. So, this resulted in greater say for the states, a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So, therefore, in this second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Question 1.
What has been centre state relations since the time of independence?
Answer:
In 1950s and 1960s when there was Congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio-economic progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, Congress ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.

But in 1960s Congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition parties came to power, they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not want centre to intervene in their state’s affairs everytime. And the Congress which was ruling at centre in 1 960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with different and opposition parties in states.

And in 1990s, coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states. So,this resulted in greater say for the states, a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So, therefore, in this second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Question 2.
How was the centre state relations in the 1990s?
Answer:
In 1990s, coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states. So,this resulted in greater say for the states, a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. So, therefore, in this second phase, issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Question 3.
What kind of federalism did we see in 1990s?
Answer:
In 1990s we saw more of mature federalism where states had greater say and less intervention by centre, and coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended. And states also had different opposition parties. So there was:a different government at centre and different government at states. So, this resulted in a respect for diversity and beginning of more mature federalism. And the issue of autonomy became very powerful.

Demand for autonomy:

The other nature of conflict which arose in federalism was related to demand of autonomy. The states had started demanding more independence to govern their state of affairs. Now the question is what kind of autonomy? Autonomy means different things to different states and parties. Parties like DMK, akali dal, CPI-M, had demanded division of powers in favor of
states and more important powers to be assigned to states.

They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of revenue and greater control resources. if you remember, we learnt that centre has control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in West Bengal brought out a document demanding the restructuring of centre and state relations. Which means that the states wanted more independence to be given to them. Tamilnadu and Punjab also demanded greater financial powers

They are also angry about greater administrative control through All India Services. States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.

The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For example, Tamilnadu was opposed to domination of Hindi and the Punjabi culture. In 1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these states thought that they are trying to spread Hindi and Punjabi culture and this will destroy their own South Indian culture.

Question 1.
What kinds of autonomy demands were made by states?
Answer:
Autonomy demands made by states were:
Parties like DMK, Akali Dal, CPI(M) had demanded division of power in favor of states and more important powers to be assigned to states.

They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of revenue and greater control of resources. if you remember, we learnt that centre has control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in West Bengal brought out a document demanding restructuring of centre and state relations. Tamil Nadu and Punjab also demanded the same.

They are also angry about greater administrative control through All India Services. States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.

The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For example, Tamil Nadu was opposed to the domination of Hindi and the Punjabi culture. In 1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these states thought that they are trying to spread Hindi and Punjabi culture and this will destroy their own South Indian culture.

Role of Governors during President’s Rule:

The position of governor has also become a source of conflict for centre state relations and tension for federalism. The governor is not an elected office but many governors have been retired military officers or civil servants or politicians. And also governor is appointed by central government. So governor is seen as an interfere in the affairs of state. The Sarkaria Commission which was appointed in 1983 and submitted its report in 1988 to give recommendations of centre-state relations, recommended’ that appointments of governor should be strictly non partisan and impartial.

Article 356 is also a source of controversy as this article provides for President’s Rule in any state. It means that ifthe government ofthe state can not be carried in accordance of the provisions of the Constitution then the President’s Rule is declared. And the state government is taken over by Union Government. The President’s proclamation has to be ratified by parliament and President’s Rule can be extended till three years.

Governor has the power to dismiss the state government which means that governor can remove the state government in power or suspend it. This power was misused and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority for example: in Kerala in 1959.

Article 356 was used occasionally till 1967. After 1967 many states had non Congress states and the Congress was in centre. Sp centre used this provision of article 356 to remove elected governments as in Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in 1980’s.

Question 1.
How the position of governor has centralised our federalism?
Answer:
The position of governor has centralised our federalism. The governor is not an elected office and many governors have been retired military officers or civil servants or politicians. The appointment of governor has been by central government. So governor is seen as an interference in the affairs of state.

Article 356 has also been used by centre to assert its control over the state. This article provides for President’s Rule in any state. It means that if the government of the state cannot be carried in accordance of the provisions of the constitution then the President’s Rule is declared. And the state government is taken over by union government. And along with this Governor also has the power to dismiss the state government or suspend it. This power has been misused and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority for example: in Kerala in 1959, Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in 1980s.

Question 2.
What is Sarkaria Commission?
Answer:
Sarkaria Commission was the commission which was appointed in 1983 to look into centre-state relations.

Question 3.
What was the recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission ?
Answer:
The recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission was that appointments of governors should be strictly non partisan.

Question 4.
Why was the Sarkaria commission appointed?
Answer:
After the decline in the dominance of Congress in the states, states started demanding autonomy and less interference in their state’s affairs. Centre state relations were leading to constant source of tensions. That is why Sarkaria Commission was appointed.

Question 6.
What is article 356?
Answer:
Article 356 says that if a situation has arisen in which the government of the state cannot be carried in accordance with the provisions of the constitution, President’s Rule can be declared in that state.

Demand for New States :
The other factor which is leading to source of in our federal system is demands for new states. Initially the demand for new states was for conserving their identity and their culture. So in 1954, the states reorganization commission was set up and it recommended creation of states on a linguistic basis. It means that states will be formed on the basis of language. Gujarat and Maharashtra were created in 1960, Punjab and Haryana were separated in 1966. North East region was reorganised and several new states were formed like Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.

Since 1990s, demand for further states have been made. It is made on the reason that development have net been able to reach these parts ofthe country. Three new states have been formed Jharkhand from Bihar, Chattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh and Uttaranchal from UP. These areas remained backwards and were underdeveloped.

Following states have also been demanding new states on the reason of development. For example, Telangana in Andhra Pradesh and Vidarbha in Maharashtra.

Question 1.
Why was states reorganisation commission formed?
Answer:
States Reorganisation commission was formed in 1 954 to recommend creation of states on a linguistic basis.

Question 2.
On what basis has the states been formed?
Answer:
In 1950s, states were formed on the basis of language. For example, Haryana and Punjab in 1966, Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960. But after the 1990s states are being formed on the need for development. For example, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chattisgarh in the 1990s.

Question 3.
How did demand of new states become the source of conflict for federalism?
Answer:
Demand of new states became the source of conflict for federalism because in 1950s many groups rose to demand statehood for preserving their culture and identity. And post 1 990s, new states have been demanded on the basis of development.

Question 4.
When was Gujarat and Maharashtra formed?
Answer:
In 1960

Question 5.
When was Haryana separated from Punjab?
Answer:
In 1966

Inter-state conflict :
Another source of tension in federalism is inter-state conflicts. Till now we have read that there have been conflicts between centre and states. But there are conflicts between two or more states also. The prominent conflicts are over

• boundary issues and
• river disputes

Boundary issue:
States have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than 1 language resides. So, states lay claim over the territories. One of the long-standing dispute is between Maharashtra and Karnataka over the city of Belgaum. Both Punjab and Chandigarh has laid claims over Chandigarh and both declare Chandigarh as their capital. While border disputes are about sentiments. Other important source of conflicts is river dispute.

River dispute:
This is more important because water is required for agriculture and drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where Tamilnadu and Karnataka are fighting over the share of cauvery water. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are fighting over Narmada river.

Question 1.
What are the source of inter-state conflicts?
Answer:
Boundary issue: States have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than 1 language resides. So, states lay claim over the territories. One of the long standing dispute is between Maharashtra and Karnataka over the city of Belgaum. Both Punjab and Chandigarh has laid claims over Chandigarh and both declare Chandigarh as their capital.

River dispute: This is more important because water is required for agriculture and drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where Tamilnadu and Karnataka are fighting over the share of Cauvery water. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are fighting over Narmada river.

Question 2.
What are the causes of tension in our federalism?
Answer:
Centre- State relations
Demand for autonomy
Role of Governors and President’s Rule
Demand for new states
Inter state conflicts

Special Provisions: The most surprising feature of Indian federalism is that many. states are given differential treatment. We already know that in Rajya Sabha, states have got representation according to the size of states. UP have got largest number of members while small north eastern states have got 1 member in Rajya Sabha. But the division of powers is common to all states.

But constitution has given special provisions to north eastern states because of large tribal population, their different history and culture, which they wish to retain (Article 371). Article 370 has given special provisions to Jammu and Kashmir. Because after independence, there was a war between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. And Maharaja of Kashmir agreed to join India under certain conditions. That is why Jammu and Kashmir has been given special provisions in the Constitution. But these provisions have not been able to arrest the alienation and marginalization they are suffering.

Question 1.
What is Article 370?
Answer:
Article 370 gives special provisions to Jammu and Kashmir under Indian Constitution.

Question 2.
What is Article 371?
Answer:
Article 371 gives special provisions to North-Eastern States under Indian Constitution.
Non-serious
Non-serious federalism

Introduction
USSR broke into 15 Countries in 1991. Pakistan was also divided in 1971, from which Bangladesh was formed. Canada also came close to break up into english speaking and french speaking regions of the country.

It seems to be great achievement that India, which is so diverse in terms of language, regions, religions has remained united after Independence. What was our political system that kept India united despite being such a diverse country? This question will be answered in this Chapter.

Federalism:
Our constitution adopted a federal structure where states can govern independently yet centre will maintain its control over the states.

The characteristics of federalism are:

1. There are two types of government one at the state level and other at the national level and these governments are independent. In some countries, like USA there is a system of dual citizenship which means that USA citizens has two citizenship, one of USA and other of there state, but in india we have only one citizenship that is of Indian nationality. Our Constitution does not recognise any other nationality that is of being Assamese, Bengali etc.
2. But yes, if we are not having two types citizenship but we are surely having two types of identities, that is we are identified as Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati or Kashmiri but at the same time we are identified as an Indian also. Therefore, each level government has their own powers, responsibilities and a separate system of governance.
3. The powers, responsibilities and their manner of governance are written in the constitution, which is considered supreme.
4. And ifany conflict arises over the demarcation of power between centre and state, then the judiciary intervenes to settle the disputes.

Question 2.
What other factors besides politics keep the federations united?
Answer:
Besides politics, other factors which keep the federations united are culture, ideology and history. Culture of trust, cooperation, mutual respect and restraint has also helped in the smooth functioning of federations.

Federalism in the Indian Constitution:

If the countries have disintegrated like USSR, Pakistan; it does not mean that they did not have any federal system, these countries were also having federal system, but then why it lead to their disintegration?

Because simply having federalism is not enough, it also depends on the type of federalism you have, whether you have federalism with a weak centre or there is a federalism with a strong centre. USSR had federalism with a weak centre that is why the centre was not able to control its territories. But India has federalism with a strong centre and it was able to have a strong control over its states.

India is a diverse land with many languages, religions and regions. And to give them identity and recognition, leaders of our national movement thought that these units should govern themselves. But how much powers should be given to the states to govern themselves? Our Constituent Assembly decided to frame the government that would be based on principles ofunity and cooperation between centre and states and separate power to states.

The most important principle of the federal system adopted by Indian Constitution is that relations between states and centre would be based on cooperation, therefore, our constitution recognised diversity but at the same time it emphasised unity. And surprisingly, our constitution does not even mention the word federation. Article-1 simply says that India that is Bharat shall be a union of states which means states will live in unity.

Question 1.
What is the nature of our federal system?
Answer:
Our federal system is based on the principles of unity and cooperation between centre and states and separate powers to the states, therefore, our constitution recognises diversity and emphasies unity.

Question 2.
Why did our national leaders thought of centralised federal system?
Answer:
India is a diverse I md with many languages, culture, religions and regions. it was necessary to give recognition to them, and also India is a large country, so it was important to divide powers between provinces and central government, that is why our national leaders thought of federal system, but they wanted unity and cooperation between states. so they gave us a centralised federal system.

Division of powers:

As we have just read that our leaders of national movement divided the powers between centre and states, so there are two levels of government- one which governs the entire country that is national government and the other which governs the states is called state government. Both of these have been granted status by the constitution and their acreas of functions are clearly demarcated under union list, state list and concurrent list.

Under union list only, centre can legislate and work in these subjects, in state list, only state can legislate and work in these subjects and under concurrent both union and state can work. If there is any conflict in these lists, or if there is a conflict which subject to be done by whom, then judiciary intervenes and resolves the issues.

One important thing is that economic and financial powers are centralised and are in the hands of central government. that means though states have been given subjects to be worked under but they do not have financial resources to carry out their work. And if any matter is not mentioned in the lists, then it comes under residuary powers. and union legislature can alone legislate on these matters, state cannot legislate on these matters.

This means that there is a unitary federal structure.

Question 1.
What are the two levels of government in our political system?
Answer:
Our political system has two levels of government:

• National level.
• State level.

Question 2.
What are residuary powers?
Answer:
Subjects which do not come in any of the lists come under residuary powers. union legislature alone has the power to legislate on such matters. For example, Cyber Laws

Why did we adopt federalism with a strong central government?

As we have read in introduction that federal countries like USSR disintegrated, so the important question which comes is the nature of federalism, whether the federalism was with a weak central government who could not control the desire of states to separate from their country or federalism was with strong central government which would keep a check and control on states.

India is a diverse country and there was a requirement of federalism which will accommodate the demands ofall diversities, but at the same time it require a strong central government that will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change, with this idea in mind our constitution framers drafted the constitution and also at the time of independence. India was not only divided into Provinces by the British but there were more than 500 Princely States which had to be integrated into existing states or new states had to be created.

Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio-economic problems of the country. It required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required strong central government in cooperation with states for development and unity.

Question 1.
Why did India adopt federalism with strong central government?
Answer:
The reasons for which India adopted federalism with strong central government:

• India is a diverse country. So, there was a need of federalism which will accommodate the demands of all diversities. But at the same time it require a strong central government that will stop disintegration and bring about social and political change.
• At the time of independence, India was not only divided into provinces by the British but there were more than 500 princely states which had to be integrated into existing states or new states had to be created.
• Besides unity as a factor, India needed to tackle socio-economic problems of the country. It required to eliminate poverty, illiteracy and inequalities of wealth. So it required strong central government in cooperation with states for development.

Conflicts in India’s federal system:

Although the distribution of powers between centre and states is well defined in the Indian constitution. But still many conflicts has taken place between centre and states for demanding autonomy, for share in resources, for demanding new states and conflicts between states have also arisen. This topic will deal with some of these conflicts.

(a) Centre states relations: Federalism in India has been influenced by political process of the country. In the 1950s and 1960s when there was Congress dominance in centre as well as states, the relations between centre and states have been quite peaceful and without tensions. The states shared the hope that they together will be making development and socio-economic progress. Also because states had the same party which was in centre, that is, Congress ruled both states and centre so there was not much tension.

But in 1960s Congress dominance declined and in states large number of opposition parties came to power, they wanted greater autonomy and independence. They did not want centre to intervene in their state’s affairs everytime. And the Congress which was
ruling at centre in 1960s was also not very comfortable in dealing with opposition parties in states.

And in 1990s coalition government came to power. Congress dominance had ended and states also had different opposition parties. So there was a different government at centre and different government at states.

(b) Demand for autonomy: The other nature ofconflict which arose in federalism was related to demand of autonomy. The states had started demanding more independence to govern their state of affairs. Now the question is what kind of autonomy? Autonomy means different things to different states and parties.

• Parties like DMK, Akali Dal, and CPI(M) had demanded division of powers in favor of states and more important powers to be assigned to states.
• They also demanded financial autonomy. States should have independent sources of revenue and greater control resources.ifyou remember, we learnt that centre has control over items generating revenue. In 1977, left front government in West Bengal brought out a document demanding a restructuring of centre and state relations. Which means that the states wanted more independence to be given to them. Tamilnadu and Punjab also demanded greater financial powers
• They are also angry about greater administrative control through All India Services. States do not want centre to control their administrative machinery.
• The autonomy demands are also related to cultural and linguistic issues. For example, Tamil Nadu was opposed to the domination of Hindi and the Punjabi culture. In 1960, some states were opposed to the imposition of Hindi language. Because these states thought that they are trying to spread Hindi and Punjabi culture and this will destroy their own South Indian culture.

(c) Role of Governors and President’s Rule: The position of governor has also become a source of conflict for centre state relations and tension for federalism. The governor is not an elected office. Governor is appointed by central government. So governor is seen as an interfere in the affairs of state.

Article 356 is also a source of controversy as this article provides for President’s Rule in any state. It means that if the government of the state can not be carried in accordance of the provisions of the constitution then the President’s Rule is declared and the state government is taken over by Union government.

Governor has the power to dismiss the state government which means that governor can remove the state government in power or suspend it. This power was misused and in many cases state governments were dismissed even when they had majority for example: in Kerala in 1959, Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir in 1980s.

(d) Demand for New States: The other factor which is leading to source of tension in our federal system is demands for new states. Initially the demand for new states was for conserving their identity and their culture. So the states were formed on the basis of language. Gujarat and Maharashtra were created in 1960, Punjab and Haryana were separated in 1966. North East region was reorganised and several new states were formed like Meghalaya, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.

Since 1 990s, demand for further states have been made. It is made on the reason that development have not been able to reach these parts of the country. Three new states have been formed Jharkhand from Bihar, Chattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh and Uttaranchal from UP. These areas remained backwards and were underdeveloped.

Following states have also been demanding new states on the reason of development.
For example, Telangana in Andhra Pradesh and Vidarbha in Maharashtra.

(e) Inter-state conflict: Another source of tension in federalism is inter-state conflicts. Till now we have read that there have been conflicts between centre and states. But there are conflicts between two or more states also. The prominent conflicts are over

• boundary issue
• river disputes

Boundary issue:
States have been formed on the basis of language. But on the border sides, there is a possibility that people speaking more than one language resides. So, states on the border lay claim over the territories. One ofthe long standing dispute is between Maharashtra and Karnataka over the city of Belgaum. Both Punjab and Chandigarh has laid claims over Chandigarh and both declare Chandigarh as their capital. While border disputes are about sentiments, other important source of conflicts is river dispute.

River dispute:
This is more important because water is required for agriculture and drinking purposes. Cauvery water dispute is a very famous dispute where Tamilnadu and Karnataka are fighting over the share of Cauvery water. Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are fighting over Narmada river.

Special Provisions:
The most surprising feature of Indian federalism is that many states are given differential treatment. We already know that in Rajya Sabha, states have got representation according to the size of states. UP have got largest number of members while small northeastern states have got 1 member in Rajya Sabha. But the division of powers is common to all states.

But constitution has given special provisions to northeastern states because of large tribal population, their different history and culture, which they wish to retain (Article 371). Article 370 has given special provisions to Jammu and Kashmir. Because after independence, there was a war between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. Maharaja of Kashmir agreed to join India under certain conditions. That is why Jammu and Kashmir has been given special provisions in the Constitution. But these provisions have not been able to arrest the alienation and marginalization they are suffering.

Constitution of India visualised village panchayats as units of self-government. Think over the situation described in the following statements and explain how do these situations strengthen or weaken the panchayats in becoming units of self-government.

• Government of a State has allowed a big company to establish a huge steel plant. Many villages would be adversely affected by the steel plant. Gram Sabha of one of the affected villages passed a resolution that before establishing any big industries in the region, village people must be consulted and their grievances should be redressed.
• The government has decided that 20 % of all its expenditure would be done through the panchayats.
• A village panchayat kept on demanding funds for a building for village school, the government officials turned down their proposal saying that funds are allocated for certain other schemes and cannot be spent otherwise.
• The government divided a village Dungarpur into two and made a part of village Jamuna and Sohana. Now village Dungarpur has ceased to exist in government’s books.
• A village panchayat observed that water sources of their region are depleting fast. They decided to mobilise village youth to do some voluntary work and revive the old village ponds and wells.

Question 1.
Suppose you are entrusted to evolve a local government plan of a State, what powers would you endow to the village panchayats to function as units of self-government? Mention any five powers and the justification in two lines for each of them for giving those powers.
Answer:

• Allowing panchayats to raise their own funds-This would reduce their dependency on the higher levels of government and make them more active in the development process.
• Starting village co-operatives at the panchayat level-This would lead to development of village economy and cooperation between various panchayats. It would also generate employment and allow panchayats to directly market village produce and get better prices for the same.
• Authority to create and maintain infrastructure in village-This would lead to less dependence on government officials for funds and consequently, lead to autonomy
• Control of village panchayat over local resources-Resources like water and pastureland should come under the village panchayat to enable their maintenance and prevent their degradation. This would engage the entire community in their conservation.
• Direct engagement of village panchayats with state government in matters related to development projects-This would allow them to get adequate compensation for development projects and land acquisition and reduce the role of middlemen.

Question 2.
What are the provisions for the reservations for socially disadvantaged groups as per the 73rd amendment? Explain how these provisions have changed the profile of the leadership at the village level.
Answer:
The socially disadvantaged groups like women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes have been given reservations for various posts in the local government of rural India according to the proportion of their population. One-third of all positions in panchayats are reserved for women while Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have seats reserved as per the proportion to their population. States can also provide reservations to Other Backward Classes if they think it is necessary.

This has changed the profile of the leadership at the village level by transferring the leadership from the earlier dominant social groups to groups that were previously unable to have a say in the decision-making process. There is now a greater representation of all social groups in the panchayat institutions. Thus, more women and people belonging to Scheduled Castes and Tribes are now able to play important role in decisions that can bring benefits for their community.

Question 3.
What were the main differences between the local governments before the 73rd amendment and after that amendment?
Answer:
The main differences between the local governments before 73rd Amendment and after the amendment can be listed as:

• After the implementation of the 73rd amendment, the local government has been divided into a uniform three-tier Panchayati Raj structure.
• Earlier the state administration was responsible for conducting elections to the Panchayati Raj institutions but now the state government has to appoint a state election commission for this purpose.
• After the dissolution of the Panchayati Raj before its term of five years, a fresh election has to be conducted within six months. This was not the case before the 73rd amendment was passed.
• Distribution of revenue between the state government and local government and between rural and urban government is done by the state election commission. This was not the case before the 73rd amendment was implemented.
• Reservation for women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and to other backward classes (if the state government thinks it is necessary for OBCs) is implemented for various positions in the local government according to the proportion of their population.
• Twenty-nine subjects that were earlier in the State list of subjects in the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution have been transferred to the Panchayati Raj institutions.

Agenda of the Gram Sabha:

• Age of children: All children of the village from the age of5 years should be enrolled in the school.
• School Building: The school building should be renovated with proper seats and blackboards in all classrooms.
• Water and sanitation facility: The Gram Pradhan is made responsible for the water supply and better and separate sanitation facilities for boys and girls.
• Syllabus: Sports and extra co-curricular activities will be included to lessen the pressure of study and cultivate physical development.
• Mid-day meal: School principal would be responsible for the quality and quantity of the food provided to the students.
• Free education: Every child till 14 years of age is eligible for free education.
• Appointment of the staff: Helping staff can be recruited from the village and the secretary would be responsible for the appointment of the teachers.
• Residential facility: Gram Pradhan has to approach the Block Development Officer for appealing to provide a residential facility to the teachers.
• Hostel facility: Gram Pradhan has to approach the BDO to ask for a hostel facility near the village school to accommodate students from distant villages.
• Compensation: Villagers whose land will be taken will be provided with appropriate compensation from the government.