Class 12

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 5 Issues in International Politics Long Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 5 Issues in International Politics Long Answer Questions

Long Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Explain any four components of India’s security strategy.
Answer:
(a)To strengthen its military capabilities.

• India has been involved in conflicts with its neighbours as Pakistan in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, 1999 and China in 1962
• In South Asian region, India is surrounded by nuclear armed countries.

(b) To strengthen international norms and institutions.

• India’s first Prime Miniter J.L. Nehru supported Asian solidarity, disarmament, decolonisation and the UN as a forum to settle down international conflict.
• It used non-alignment to help to carry out an area of peace outside the blocs.

(c) To meet security challenges within country.

• Several militant groups from areas such as Nagaland, Mizoram, Punjab, Kashmir have sought to break away from India.
• India has made efforts to preserve national unity by adopting a democratic political system by providing freedom of speech and expression along with the right to vote.

(d) To develop its economy:

• India develops the way to lift vast mass of citizens out of poverty, misery and huge economic inequalities.
• A democratically elected government is supposed to combine economic growth with human development without any demarcation between the rich and the poor.

Question 2.
Identify and explain any four new sources of threats to security.
Answer:
Four new sources of threats to security can be identified as follows.

• Terrorism is a war against democrary and a crime against humanity. It refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and discriminately to use it as a weapon against national government. It has become a global phenomena because even superpower is not free from terrorist attacks.
• Human rights are those basic conditions which an individual is supposed to enjoy as a human being. These rights include political rights, freedom of speech and expression, economic rights, social and civil rights and fights of indigenous people to lead as honourable and dignified life.
• Global poverty refers to low economic growth, low national income and low standard of living of developing or least developed countries.
• Health epidemic is a very serious threat to a country’s security because severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), HIV-AIDS, bird flue etc. diseases spread across countries through migration business, tourism and military operations.

Question 3.
What is meant by Security? Mention any four components of Indian security strategy.
Answer:
At its most basic, security implies freedom from threats. Human existence and the life of a country are full of threats. We generally say that only those things that threaten ‘core values’ should be regarded as being of interest in discussions of security. Thus, security relates only to extremely dangerous threats- threats that could so endanger core values that those values would be damaged beyond repair if we did not do something to deal with the situation.

India’s security strategy has four broad components which have been used in varying combination from time to time.

1. The first component was strengthening its military capabilities because India has been involved in conflicts with its neighbours – Pakistan in 1947-48,1965, 1971 and 1999 and China in 1962. Since it is surrounded by nuclear-armed countries in the South Asia region,
2. India’s decision to conduct nuclear tests in 1998 was justified by the Indian government in terms of safeguarding national security.
   The second component of India’s security strategy has been to strengthen international norms and international institutions to protect its security interests.
3. The third component of Indian security strategy is geared towards meeting security challenges within the country. Several militant groups from areas such as Nagaland, Mizoram, the Punjab and Kashmir among others have from time to time sought to break away from India. India has tried to preserve national unity by adopting a democratic political system.
4. There has been an attempt in India to develop its economy in a way that the vast mass of citizens are lifted out of poverty and misery and huge economic inequalities are not allowed to exist.

Question 4.
Give a comparative analysis of Indian expenditure on traditional and non-traditional security.
Answer:

• India spends more on traditional security than non-traditional because:
• India has been involved in conflict with its neighbours as Pakistan in 1947-48, 1965,1971 and 1999 and China in 1962.
• In South Asian Region, India is surrounded by nuclear armed countries. Hence, India’s decision to conduct nuclear test n 1990 was justified to safeguard national security.
• India’s first tested nuclear device in 1974.
• Though India has made efforts to develop its economy and an individual’s security from poverty but still it is lagging behind even now and we are supposed to make more efforts.

Question 5.
Mention and explain the components and India’s security strategy.
Answer:
India has faced traditional military and non-traditional threats to its Security that have emerged from within as well as outside its borders. Its security strategy has four broad components i.e.:

• To strengthen its Military capabilities;
  Because:
  (a) India has been involved in conflict with its neighbours, as Pakistan in 1947¬48, 1965, 1971 and 1999 and China in 1962.
  (b) In South Asia Region, India is surrounded by nuclear armed countries. Hence, India’s section to conduct nuclear test in 1990 was justified to safeguard national security.
  (c) India first tested nuclear device in 1974.
• To strengthen international Norms and international Institutions:
  (a) India’s first Prime Minister J.L. Nehru supported Asian solidarity, disarmament, decolonisation and the UN as a forum to settle down international conflict.
  (b) India signed Kyoto Protocol in 1997 to be a part of roadmap for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases to check global warming.
• To Meet Security Challenges within the Country.
  (a) Several militant groups from areas such as Nagaland, Mizoram, Punjab, Kashmir has sought to break away from India.
  (b) India makes efforts to preserve national unity by adopting a democratic political system by providing freedom of speech and expression along with the right to vote.
• To Develop its Economy.
  (a) India develops the way to lift vast mass of citizens out of poverty, misery and huge economic inequalities.
  (b) A democratically elected government is supposed to combine economic growth with human development without any demarcation between the rich and the poor.

Question 6.
Explain the areas of operation of non-traditional notion of security.
Answer:
Non-traditional concept of security includes human and global security covering a wide range of threats affecting human existence:
1 It does not cover only the states but also the individuals and communities also.
2. It emphasises on security on nature of threat and right approach to deal with the threat its sources can be identified as follows:

• Terrorism refers to political violence to target civilians deliberately and discriminately to use it as a weapon against national government.
• Human Rights refer to basic conditioons which an individual is supposed to enjoy as a human being as political rights, freedom of speech and expression, economic rights, social and civil rights to lead an honourable and dignified life.
• Global poverty refers to low economic growth, low national income and low standard of living of developing or least developed countries.
• Health epidemics is a very serious threat to country’s security because severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (ARS), HIV, AIDS, bird flue diseases spread across countries through migration, business, tourism and military operations.

Question 7.
What is Traditional security?
Answer:
The traditional security paradigm refers to a realist construct of security in which the referent object of security is the state. The prevalence of this theorem reached a peak during the Cold War. For almost half a century, major world powers entrusted the security of their nation to a balance of power among states.

In this sense international stability relied on the premise that if state security is maintained, then the security of citizens will necessarily follow. Traditional security relied on the anarchistic balance of power, a military build-up between the United States and the Soviet Union (the two super powers) and on the absolute sovereignty of the nation state.

States were deemed to be rational entities, national interests and policy driven by the desire for absolute power. Security was seen as protection from invasion; executed during proxy conflicts using technical and military capabilities. As Cold War tensions receded, it became clear that the security of citizens was threatened by hardships arising from internal state activities as well as external aggressors.

Civil wars were increasingly common and compounded existing poverty, disease, hunger, violence and human rights abuses. Traditional security policies had effectively masked these underlying basic human needs in the face of state security. Through neglect of its constituents, nation states had failed in their primary objective.

In the historical debate on how best to achieve national security, writers like Hobbes, Macchiavelli and Rousseau tended to paint a rather pessimistic picture of the implications of state sovereignty. The international system was viewed as a rather brutal arena in which states would seek to achieve their own security at the expense of their neighbors. Inter-state relations were seen as a struggle for power, as states constantly attempted to take advantage of each other.

According to this view, permanent peace was unlikely to be achieved. All that states could do was to try to balance the power of other states to prevent any one from achieving overall hegemony. This view was shared by Writers such as E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau. More recently, the traditional state-centric notion of security has been challenged by more holistic approaches to security.

Among the approaches which seeks to acknowledge and address these basic threats to human safety are paradigms that include cooperative, comprehensive and collective measures, aimed to ensure security for the individual and, as a result, for the state. To enhance international security against potential threats caused by terrorism and organized crime, there have been an increase in international cooperation, resulting in transnational policing.

The international police Interpol shares information across international borders and this cooperation has been greatly enhanced by the arrival of the Internet and the ability to instantly transfer documents, films and photographs worldwide.

Question 8.
Identify various factors causing environmental degradation.
Answer:
Envirnomental Problem: Some of the notable problem of environment can be identified as under: –

• Land Air And Water: Pollution of land and water has affected plants, animals and human beings. The quality of soil is deterionating resulting in the loss of agricultural land. The loss is estimated to be about five to seven million hectares of land each year. Soil erosion, as a result of wind and/or water, costs the world dearly. The recurring floods have their own peculiar casualties like deforestation, silt in the river bed, inadequate and improper drainage, loss of men and property. The vast oceans, after being turned into dumping grounds for all nuclear wastes, have poisoned and polluted the whole natural environment.
• Population Growth: Population growth means more people to eat and breathe, and putting an excessive pressure on land and forest, and ultimately disturbing the ecological balance. Our growing population is putting pressure on land, leading to poor quality of productivity, deforestation (the loss of forest land so necessary for ecological balance and exitinction of wild life leading to imbalance in the ecological order, loss of wild life heritage and ultimately dwindling of several species. The growing population is not only a problem for the natural environment; it is a problem for any other aspect of environment, say, for example social, economic, political etc.
• Urbanization: Urbanization is no less a source of pollution, and therefore, a threat to the environment. Urbanization means maddening race of people from villages to the cities. The net result of urbanization is dirt, disease and disasters. In a state of growing urbanization, environmental problem like sanitation, ill-heath, housing, water-supply and electricity keep expanding. On the other, the environmental degradation is caused in the rural life due to indiscriminate collection of firewood, overgrazing and depletion of other natural resources.
• Industrialization: Industrialization coupled with the development of the means of transport and communication has not only polluted the environment, but also has led to the shrinking of the natural resources. Both ways, the loss is really heavy. Increasing level
  of heat fluxes, carbon dioxide and particulate, radioactive nuclear wastes and the like create environment hazards. On the other hand, the consumption of conventional source of energy leads to the loss of natural resource. We are building a world without caring for future generations.

Question 9.
What are the national and international commitment for environment protection?
Answer:
The growing awareness about environmental protection has resulted in new measures across the world. The late Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi was the only Head of Government, attending the 1972 Stockholm conference, which was called the “U.N. Conference on Human environment”. The Rio Conference 20 years later was called the “U.N. Conference on Environment and Development”.

It was Mrs. Gandhi who first pointed out that poverty was the greatest polluter and unless it was eliminated through national and international efforts it was futile to talk about protecting the planet from environmental disaster. UNDP, the World Bank and other institutions of the U.N. system are now advocating the elimination of poverty as the central task in sustainable development.

Indeed environmental and development polices are seen as complementing each other. The compulsions of development is certainly to be resolved. But any world order cannot be sustainable if three-fourths of its population continues to live in poverty. Environmental rights and developmental rights together constitute the democratic and human rights of all the people of the world.

The Montreal convention and the conventions on climate change; bio-diversity and forest adopted at Rio are important landmarks in the world movement for sustainable development and environmental protection. India has accepted these conventions and is taking systematic measures to implement them. An environmental action programme funded by U.N.D.P.is under implementation. There are 31 schemes for industrial pollution control approved by the World Bank, involving of US. $ 105 million.

On the anvil are common effluent plants for small industries located in a cluster, the big plants being looked after individually. Seventeen grossly polluting industries have been identified for environment control within a time schedule. For certain categories of industries, prior environment clearance is compulsory before they can be set up.

In regard to transport pollution apart from conversation measures, population free engines are being designed, some of which have already been introduced for two-wheelers, three-wheelers and some of the popular cars. A National Forestry Plan is in progress. Environmental Brigades, Afforestation Brigades and Ecological task Force have been organized by Non-government organizations (NGOs.) India’s wild life conservation projects have met with remarkable success.

India has a protected network of75 national parks and 421 wild life sanctuaries. The Tiger project has been a great success. India also has an elaborate law relating to the prevention of pollution of water, soil and air and a system of environmental audit of most industrial projects. While this is voluntary for most countries, India has a mandatory rule in this regard.

India is also engaged in serious and systematic efforts to develop alternative and renewable sources of energy like solar, wind and wave energy which are environment friendly. Emphasis is laid on solar energy on which some significant technological progress has been made. India is taking all these measures partially with international assistance.

Question 10.
Write about the justice of the poor against factories that pollute the Environment.
Answer:

• Environmental Courts: Special courts are being set up to ensure speedy
• Environment Friendly Products: The government is setting stringent standards for all products in the market. Those, which meet these standards of production and performance will be given the label of excellence like the ISI mark.
• Unleading of Petrol: Refineries are being persuaded to make their petrol lead free. Indian petrol has the highest lead content, which creates major pollution through automobiles.
• Ban on Harmful Pesticides: Eight chemical pesticides, of which DDT, BHC, Aldrin and Malathion are the main culprits have been isolated. There are now plans to replace them with safe biopesticides.
• National Waste Management Council: The main task is to convert 40 million tones of fly ash, that lie as a mountain near thermal power plants into bricks, city garbage into energy and sewage into fertilizer.
• Public Liability Insurance: This makes it mandatory for all companies to take out a public liability insurance to be paid in 48 hours.
• Pollution by Motor Vehicles: Anti-pollution measures against motor vehicles are being strictly enforced. Vehicles not adhering to the standards prescribed are fined heavily and may even be asked to be off the road.
• Hotel Near Sea Shore: Action has been taken against a large number of hotels which encroach beaches in flagrant violation of laws.
• National River Action Plan: The proposal is to set up a National river authority which will plan policy for water use and waste management at the national level.
• Solar Energy Commission: Since the energy sector is the major polluter, the idea is to create decentralized energy at the village level, instead of multiplying the mainstream producer.
• No Smoking In Public Places: A ban is proposed on smoking in public places. The Delhi government has taken a lead in this direction, majors taken by India for environment pollution.

Question 11.
What is sustainable development?
Answer:
The world commission on environment and development (the Brundtland commission) submitted its report entitled “Our common future in 1987. This report highlighted and popularised the concept of ‘sustainable development’. Sustainable development has been defined on meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the need of future generations. All developmental activities involve some amount of environmental degradation.

What is required is to take into account the damage to environment as a result of development, and strike a balance between development and environmental protection. The aim should be to achieve sustainable levels of people’s welfare and development. The primary concern is how many people can ultimately be supported by environment and at what level of quality of life.

The mainstream greens scholars like Carr, Brown, Dala, Schumacher. Does not make sense and others, all lay stress on the “sustainability” of the environment together with development. The emphasis of the mainstream green’ are not on pollution, but on

1. energy and its resource may be renewed, and be kept renewing,
2. the waste be changed into raw-material, raw-material into waste, waste into raw- material: recycling of waste into raw material;
3. gross national product and its growth targets need not be sought, but what should be sought is the satisfaction of real human needs’.

The greens say that growth means cancer, a cancer that threatens to spread worldwide and destroy all life. The concept of sustainable development is more about the environment and less about development; more about stability and less about change; more about restricting one’s wants and less about continuing material development more about the non-exploitative attitude towards environment and less about harnessing it; more about small communities and less about the larger ones.

It is not a concept of development with environment, but is environment without growth. Indeed, ecological degradation should stop. But why should the pace of development stop? A disciplined uses of environmental benefits go a long way for all round development. Scholars and activists assert that environmental degradation can be controlled and reversed only by ensuring that the parties causing the damage should be made accountable for their action and that they should participate in improving environmental conditions.

What is needed is a set of norms, which bring the demands of development and the compulsion of the environment closer to each other.

Question 12.
What is the objective of India’s National Environment policy?
Answer:
Ans. In India, environmental awareness gained importance in 1 970s after the UN-sponsored conference on the environment in Stockholm (1972). The Indian government took many environment-friendly activities. Ministry of environment and forest was established and laws were enacted on environment protection in -1986. The objective of India’s National Environment, policy, here, is worth stating.

• Conserve and develop a safe, healthy, productive, and aesthetically satisfying environment.
• Upgrade, develop and manage rural and urban settlements to enhance the quality of life.
• Plan development on sound ecological principles with environmental impact assessment and incorporating appropriate environmental safeguards.
• Promote environmental safety technologies, recycling of resources, and utilization of wastes.
• Conserve the biotic diversity in the country by creating nature reserves and sanctuaries for specific habitats such as mountains, rain forests, pastures, deserts, wetlands, lakes, beaches, mangroves, estuaries, lagoons, and islands.
• Safeguard the environment within the national maritime Exclusive Economic Zone.
• Evolve environmental norms and establish effective mechanisms for monitoring surveillance and collection and dissemination of information.
• Preserve science landscapes, as well as historic and cultural monuments and their environs.
• Promote environmental education at all levels and create public awareness.
• Encourage research in environmental science and technological and social investigation to conserve and improve the environment.
• Develop adequate manpower within the country, of ecologists, environmental scientists, planners, and managers of the highest- quality and recognize their work as an important component of national development.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 5 Issues in International Politics Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 5 Issues in International Politics Short Answer Questions

Short Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is security?
Answer:
The concept of security in general refers to freedom from the risk of loss or damage to a thing that is important to survival and well-being. It can have both broad and narrow application, and it can apply to a limited set of objects to be secured, or to a deeper array of interconnected elements in a social system. In its shallowest and narrowest form, which is also its most influential and widespread interpretation, security refers to the security of the nation-state from attack from armed forces.

Question 2.
Define National security.
Answer:
Richard Ullman (1983), for example, has defined a national security threat as anything that can quickly degrade the quality of life of the inhabitants of a state, or that narrows the choices available to people and organizations within the state.

Question 3.
What is securitization?
Answer:
Indeed, because security is a “speech act” that raises the profile of a problem to be of paramount importance to whoever constructs the discourse, broadening the range of security risks without explicitly identifying a referent object that is not the state most often operationalizes state monopolization of responses to meet the new security challenges. This is what is implied in the idea of “securitization”.

Question 4.
What is “Global”?
Answer:
The scale of consumption and pollution in modem, high-energy societies has caused large decreases in primary forest cover; biodiversity losses; depletion of fish stocks; land degradation; water pollution and scarcity; coastal and marine degradation; the contamination of people, plants and animals by chemicals and radioactive substances; and climate change and sea-level rise. These environmental changes are “global” because they are ubiquitous and because some pollutants such as greenhouse gases and radioactive wastes have global consequences.

Question 5.
Define human security.
Answer:
Human security is the combination of threats associated with war, genocide, and the displacement of populations. At a minimum, human security means freedom from violence and from the fear of violence.

Question 6.
Define corporative security.
Answer:
Corporate security is the involvement of international corporation depending on the nature of threat and the willingness and ability of countries to respond.

Question 7.
Mention any two human rights in poltical field.
Answer:
One is freedom of speech and expression and second is freedom to assemble in peaceful maimer.

Question 8.
Which is the greatest danger to security as per traditional notion of secuirity?
Answer:
It is from military threats which lies in another country to endanger the core value of sovereignty independence and territoirial integration of country.

Question 9.
What is meant by disarmament?
Answer:
Disarmament bound state to give up certain kinds weapon to avoid mass destruction through signing various treaties.

Question 10.
What is global poverty?
Answer:
Global poverty signifies a condition available in the state to suffer from low income and less economic growth that is developing or underdeveloped countries.

Question 11.
Is the notion of security applicable to all the state.
Answer:
All states do not experience the same threat at a time hence security is groued into two as per requirements. Traditional and non-traditional conception.

Question 12.
Suggest any one effective step which would limit war and violence between countries.
Answer:
An effective step may be in the form of cooperative security only that involves international corporation which may be bilateral, regional, continental or global which depends upon the nature of threats and the willingness and ability of countries to respond to limit war or violence corporative security place at national and international levels.

Question 13.
Highlight any two threats of country’s security as per traditional notion of security or explain traditional concept of security.
Answer:
Traditional notion of security covers both internal and external threats of country’s security. External threats consist of four components that is military threats, threat of war, balance of power and alliance building. Internal threats include maintenance of internal peace and order and recognise corporative security to limit violence.

Question 14.
What is military threats?
Answer:
Military threats refers to military action from another country to endanger the core value of country’s sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity. Military action often targets men and women that is ordinary citizens.

Question 15.
Explain non-traditional concept of security.
Answer:
Non-traditional concept of security includes human an4 global security covering a wide range of threats affecting human existence.
(1) It does not covers the state only but also the individual and community.
(2) It emphasize on security on nature of threats and right approach to deal with threat.

Question 16.
Write a note on Arms control.
Answer:
Arms control regulates the acquisition or development of weapons by adopting following measures:

• The Anti Ballistic Missiles Treaty in 1992 stopped the US and Soviet Union from using ballistic missiles to limit large scale production.
• Other arms control treaties were also signed i.e. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty and Nuclear non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) to limit the weapons which may bring large scale destruction.
• NPT regulated the acquisition of nuclear weapons in 1968.
• NPT did not abolish nuclear weapons rather it limited number of countries that could have them.

Question 17.
What is global security?
Answer:
Defining global security In an address in 1993 I defined “global security” as the absence of threats to the vital interests of the planet, and I argued that this new concept should replace that of “national security.” Furthermore, the idea of security must extend well beyond its traditional military dimension to encompass the interrelated military, political, economic, environmental, health and other threats I list above. Now is an opportune time to build global consensus on these issues and the logical party to take the initiative would clearly be a revitalized UN. International cooperation will become increasingly important in achieving our shared global security goals. We will need new theories and analytic frameworks for global security to replace traditional theories such as containment, balance of power, deterrence, and hegemonic stability.

Question 18.
What is Human security?
Answer:
Defining human security “Human security” will be defined here as the absence of threats to the vital interests of individual people on a worldwide basis. In the words of the UN Development Programme, which originated the concept, human security is “freedom from pervasive threats to people’s rights, safety or lives,” involving both “safety for people from violent threats, such as organized conflict, gross violations of human rights, terrorism and violent crime” and “safety from non-violent threats, such as environmental degradation, economic crises, illicit drugs, infectious diseases and natural disasters.” These two concepts of security, global security and human security, are not inconsistent; rather, they are both complementary and mutually reinforcing.

Question 19.
What are the main features of Human Security?
Answer:
Human security brings together the ‘human elements of security, rights and development. As such, it is an inter-disciplinary concept that displays the following characteristics: people-centered multi-sectoral comprehensive context-specific prevention-oriented As a people-centered concept, human security places the individual at the ‘centre of analysis. ’

Consequently, it considers a broad range of conditions which threaten survival, livelihood and dignity, and identifies the threshold below which human life is intolerably threatened. Human security is also based on a multi-sectoral understanding of insecurities.

Therefore, human security entails a broadened understanding of threats and includes causes of insecurity relating for instance to economic, food,health, environmental, personal, community and political security.

Question 20.
Explain the concept of environmental degradation.
Answer:
Environment constitutes a. very important part of our life. To understand life without studying the impact of environment is simply impossible. The need to protect environment can be ignored only at our peril. We use environmental resources in our day to day life. These resources are renewabteand non-renewable. We have to be more cautious in consuming non-renewable resources like coal and petroleum, which are prone to depletion.

All human activities have an impact on environment. But in the last two centuries or so, the human influence on environment has increased manifold due to the rapid population, growth and the fast development in science and technology. These two are the major factors in reducing the quality of environment and causing its degradation. The environmental degradation poses a great danger to man’s own survival.

It should be realized, sooner than later, that conservation and improvement ofthe environment are vital for the survival, and well being of mankind. Natural resources of land, air and water have to be used wisely as a trust to ensure a healthy environment for the present and future generations.

Question 21.
Write about awareness about environment problem.
Answer:
In the past two decades, environment has attracted the attention of decision makers, scientists and even laymen in many parts of the world. They are becoming increasingly, conscious of issues such as famines, droughts, floods, scarcity of fuel, firewood and fodder, pollution of air and, water, problems of hazardous chemicals and radiation, depletion of natural resources, extinction of wildlife and dangers to flora and fauna.

People are now aware of the need to protect the natural environmental resources of air, water, soil and plant life that constitute the natural capital on which man depends. The environmental issues are important because the absence of their solutions is more horrible. Unless environmental issues are not solved or not taken care of the coming generations may find earth worth not living. The need of the planet and the needs of the person have become one.

There is no denying the fact that environment has to be protected and conserved so to make future life possible. Indeed, man’s needs are increasing and accordingly, the environment is also being altered, indeed, nature’s capacity is too accommodating and too regenerative yet there is a limit to nature’s capacity, especially when pressure of exploding population and technology keep mounting. What is required is the sustenance, conservation and improvement of the changing and fragile environment.

Question 22.
Which third weapon both the superpowers did not want to give up under the concept of disarmament?
Answer:
Disarmament requires all states to give up certain kinds of weapons i.e. the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and 1992 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) banned the production and possession of these weapons. Despite the US and Soviet Union were not ready to give up the third type of weapons of mass destruction namely nuclear weapons.

Question 23.
“The secure states do not imply the secure people in itself”. Examine the statement.
Answer:
The secure states are supposed to protect their people from an individual in security also rather the territorial security only. Hence they are required to provide security from foreign attacks hunger, diseases and natural disasters, etc. because it destructs the people rather than war.

Question 24.
How is global poverty a source of insecurity? Explain.
Answer:
Global poverty refers to low economic growth, low national income, and low standard of living of developing or least developed countries. It is a source of insecurity because:

• Half the world’s population growth occurs in just six countries- India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, considered developing countries, and even in the poorest countries population is expected to triple in the next 50 years.
• Globally, this disparity contributes to the gap between the northern and southern countries of the world.
• Poverty in the south has also led to a large migration to seek better economic opportunities in the north.
• All these created international political fiction as international law and norms make a distinction between migrants and refugees as they do not get ready to accept migrants.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Political Science Solutions Unit 5 Issues in International Politics Objective Questions and Answers.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Political Science Unit 5 Issues in International Politics Objective Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Propnens of narrow concept of human security focus on?
(a) Violent threats to individual.
(b) Violent threat to country
(c) Violent threat
(d) None
Answer:
(a) Violent threats to individual.

Question 2.
Strategic Arms limitation Treaty was signed by?
(a) Brezne
(b) W.Carter
(c) Brezhnev and Jimmy Carter
(d) None
Answer:
(c) Brezhnev and Jimmy Carter

Question 3.
The art of reducing,limiting or abolishing weapn was termed as?
(a) Disbarment
(b) Armcontrol
(c) Armrace
(d) Unarm
Answer:
(a) Disbarment

True or False

1. Coal is a renewable resource.
Answer: False

2. The fast development in science and technology is a major factor contributing to the environmental degradation.
Answer: True

3. The growing population in India does not contribute to the environmental degradation.
Answer: False

4. Trees are a good example of non-renewable resource.
Answer: False

Passage Based Questions With Answers

Passage 1.
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions:
The US and Soviet Union signed a number of other arms control treaties including the strategic Arms Limitations Treaty II (SALT II) and the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START). The Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 was an arms control treaty in the sense that it regulated the acquisition of nuclear weapons, those countries that had tested and manufactured nuclear weapons before 1967 were allowed to keep their weapons and those that had not done so were to give up the right to acquire them. The NPT did not abolish nuclear weapons; rather; it limited the number of countries that could have them.

Question 1.
What is arms control treaty?
Answer:
To regulate the acquisition or development of weapons among countries.

Question 2.
Was NPT an arms control treaty? Why?
Answer:
Yes, because it regulated the acquisition of nuclear weapons to protect world from large seat destruction.

Question 3.
What was the intention behind regulation of NPT?
Answer:
It did not abolish nuclear weapons rather it limited the number of countries that could have them.

Passage 2.
Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions:
Global poverty is another source of insecurity. The world population- now at 650 crores will reach 700 to 800 crore within 25 years and many eventually level out of 900 to 1000 crore. Currently, half the world’s population growth occurs in just six countries – India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. Among the world’s poorest countries, the population is expected to triple in the next 50 years whereas many rich countries will see population shrinkage in that period, high per capita income and low population growth make rich states or rich social groups get richer, whereas low incomes and high population growth reinforce each other to make poor states and poor groups get poorer.

Question 1.
Name the countries expected to occur half the world’s population growth.
Answer:
India, China, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh, and Indonesia.

Question 2.
Mention two reasons to make rich states higher.
Answer:
(i) High per capita income
(ii) Low population growth.

Question 3.
What makes poor countries poorer?
Answer:
Low income and high population growth.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-2.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Counselling Process
Answer:
Meaning and Nature of Counselling:
Counselling provides a system for planning the interview, analysing the counsellor’s and client’s behaviour, and determining the developmental impact on the client. In this section, we will discuss skills, concepts and methods that are designed to help develop concrete competencies. A counsellor is most often interested in building an understanding of the client’s problem by focusing on what understanding the client has of her/his problem and how s/he feels about it.

The actual or objective facts of the problems are considered less important, and it is considered more important to work on the feelings and their acknowledgement by the clients. The focus is more on the person and how s/he defines the problem. Counselling involves a helping relationship, which includes someone seeking help, and someone willing to give help, who is capable of or trained to help in a setting that permits help to be given and received (see Fig.9.2).

The following elements about counselling are common to the major theoretical approaches to counselling :

• Counselling involves responding to the feelings, thoughts and actions of the client
• Counselling involves a basic acceptance of the client’s perceptions and feelings, without using any evaluative standards.
• Confidentiality and privacy constitute essential ingredients in the counselling setting. Physical facilities that preserve this quality are important.
• Counselling is voluntary. It takes place when a client approaches a counsellor. A counsellor never uses any kind of coercion for obtaining information.
• Counsellors and clients both transmit and receive verbal and non-verbal messages during the process. Therefore, awareness and sensitivity to the nature of the message is an important prerequisites for a counsellor’s effectiveness.

Breaking the Myths of Counselling:

• Counselling is not merely giving information.
• Counselling is not giving advice.
• Counselling is not the selection and placement of individuals onto jobs or for courses.
• Counselling is not the same as interviewing though interviewing may be involved.
• Counselling is not influencing attitudes, beliefs and behaviour by persuading, admonishing, threatening or compelling.

Developing Effective Relationships:
For most people who seek help from a counsellor, effective or satisfying relationships are almost non-existent or infrequent. Since the change in behaviour is often created and supported by a network of social support, it is essential for clients to start developing more positive relationships with other persons. The counselling relationship is the initial vehicle through which this begins.

Like all of us, counsellors too are not perfect, but they are trained in developing a more healthy and helpful relationships than others. In brief, counselling usually has an all-inclusive outcome for the clients. Effective behavioural change that takes place in the client is multifaceted. It may show up in the form of a client taking greater responsibility, developing new insight, learning to engage in different behaviours, write down the characteristics of counselling.

Characteristics of an Effective Helper:
Being a trained helper, the counsellor has the responsibility for ensuring that her/his client benefits from counselling and its therapeutic effects are achieved. To a large extent, however, the success of a counselling process depends on the skill, knowledge, attitude, personal qualities and behaviour of a counsellor, any or all of which can enhance or diminish the helping process. In this section, we will discuss four qualities that are associated with effective counsellors. These include:

• Authenticity,
• Positive regard for others
• Ability to empathise and
• Paraphrasing.
  Let us understand these qualities briefly:

Authenticity:
Your image or perception of yourself makes up your “I”. The self-perceived “I” is revealed through ideas, words, actions, clothing and lifestyle. All of these communicate your “I” to others. Those who come into close contact with you also build their own image of you for themselves, and they also sometimes Communicate this image to you.

For example, friends tell you what they like and dislike about you. Your teachers and parents praise and/or criticise you. You are also evaluated by persons you respect. These collective judgments by people you respect also called ‘significant others, develop into a ‘me’. This other perceived ‘me’ is the person that others perceive you to be.

This perception may be the same as or different from your own self-perception of ‘I’. The degree to which you are aware of these perceptions of others as well as of your own perception of yourself indicates that you are self-aware. Authenticity means that your behavioural expressions are consistent with what you value and the way you feel and relate to your inner self-image.

Positive Regard for Others:
In a counselling-counsellor relationship, a good relationship allows freedom of expression. It reflects acceptance of the idea that the feelings of both are important. We should remember that when we form a new relationship, we experience feelings of uncertainty and anxiety. Such feelings pt minimised when a counsellor extends a positive regard to the client by accepting that it is all right to feel the way the client is feeling. In order to show positive regard to others, the following guidelines may be kept in mind:

• When you are speaking, get into the habit of using “I” messages rather than “you” messages. An example of this would be, “I understand” rather than “you should not”.
• Respond to what the other person has said, after checking with her/him.
• Give the other person the freedom to share feelings or anything she/he wants to say. Do not interrupt or cut in.
• Do not assume that the other person knows what you are thinking. Express yourself according to the frame of reference, i.e. in the context of the verbal exchange taking place.
• Do not label either yourself or the other person (e.g., “you are an introvert”, etc.).

Empathy:
This is one of the most critical competencies that a counsellor needs to have. You have already read in Chapter 5 that empathy is the ability of a counsellor to understand the feelings of another person from her/his perspective. It is like stepping into someone else’s shoes and trying to understand the pain and troubling feelings of the other person. There is a difference between sympathy and empathy. In sympathy, you play the saviour. You may think that someone deserves your kindness.

Paraphrasing:
This skill has already been discussed in the section on communication earlier. You will recall that this involves the ability of a counsellor to reflect on what the client says and feels using different Words.

Ethics of Counselling:
In recent years, counsellors have taken important steps to develop their professional identity. A critical criterion for any professional group is the development and implementation of appropriate ethical standards. Social workers, marriage counsellors, family therapists and psychologists —all have their ethical codes. Awareness of ethical standards and codes is extremely important because counselling is a part of the service sector. Not following ethical standards may have legal implications.

While learning about the competencies of a counsellor, it is important for you to know that the client-counsellor relationship is built on ethical practice. The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed a code of ethical conduct for behaviour “‘and decision-making in actual clinical settings. The practical knowledge of these ethical domains can guide the practice of counselling in achieving its desired purpose.

Some of the APA practice guidelines are:

• Knowledge of ethical/professional codes, standards and guidelines, knowledge of statutes, rules, regulations and case law relevant to the practice of psychology.
• Recognise and analyse ethical and legal issues across the range of professional activities in the clinical setting.
• Recognise and understand the ethical dimensions/features of her/his own attitudes and practice in the clinical setting.
• Seek appropriate information and consultation when faced with ethical issues.
• Practice appropriate professional assertiveness related to ethical issues.

Interview Stage/Phase:
Any counselling process, be it individual or group, starts with the interview stage. This stage could also be referred to as the familiarization, orientation or introductory stage. This stage is very important because for you as a counsellor to start well determines the success of other stages and the entire counselling relationship. The counsellor and the client meet for the first time.

The counsellor makes a deliberate effort to get acquainted with the client by establishing rapport. This is done by asking the client to sit down so that he or she would be emotionally relaxed in the counsellor’s office. The Counsellor inquires about the client’s name, class, parents, friends, progress in school and mission in the counsellor’s office. This should be done with caution so that the client does not feel as if he or she is being interrogated.

The counsellor further assures the client that whatever is discussed will be kept confidential. This is to win the client’s confidence and make him or her open up to say the purpose for coming to the counsellor’s office.  The client may or may not present his problem during this stage. The counsellor should not be in a hurry to make him/her disclose his mission.

During this stage, the counsellor needs to display in his behaviour all the qualities of an effective counsellor by being patient listening carefully, showing empathy, showing unconditional positive regard that is treating his clients with respect, and warmth, irrespective of his age, sex, race, colour, religion and socio-economic status. This is very important as counsellors are not expected to be segregational or discriminative.

Working Stage/Phase:
This is the second stage/phase of the counselling process. As the title suggests, it is the stage where the counsellor fully engages the client in a discussion about what to do and how it will be done concerning the problem of the client. If the client has not disclosed his/ her mission in the first stage, the counsellor now asks the client. He uses questioning techniques to make the client open up.

Questions such as:
Are you okay? Can I help you? What is the matter? What has brought you to my office? The client now responds. The counsellor having listened, to the client will suggest different techniques depending on the nature of the problem presented on how the problem can be handled. The counsellor uses techniques such as responding, exploring, restatement, interpretation, confrontation, unconditional positive regard, empathy, silence and catharsis to diagnose the problem.

Also, it is during this stage that the goals for counselling are set by the client and counsellor. The counsellor here tells the client that counselling aids such as cassettes, radio, video and tape recorders may be used and the purpose for using them will be explained to the client. The counsellor should also tell the client the number of sessions that the counselling relationship may cover. This will depend on the nature of the problem.

If the problem is a simple one, it may take fewer sessions but if it is a complicated one, it may take a longer period to solve especially problems bordering on a change of behaviour or breaking of habit. If the counsellor needs to contact an “outsider” who may be responsible for the 4 problems faced by the client, the permission and consent of the client must be sought. The counsellor also takes the client through the methods to be used in solving the problem. All these are dope in the working stage of the counselling process.

Termination Stage/Phase:
This stage is the third stage in the counselling process. Termination means bringing an end to the counselling relationship between the counsellor and the client. Different reasons have been given by many authors on why a counselling relationship may end or terminate. Some of these reasons are given below for you to understand. It is important to stress here that the termination of a counselling relationship may be a temporary or permanent one. The following reasons are given by different authors.

Counselling Goals are achieved:
As discussed earlier in this unit, you were told that the client and the counsellor would set the goals for counselling. When these goals have been realised to the satisfaction of the client and counsellor, the relationship can be called off temporarily or permanently. Temporarily because the counsellor may want to follow up the client to see if he is doing well or putting into practice what has been discussed and suggested. Permanently if the client’s: problem is solved and may not need to see the counsellor again. The client should be told that if he has a problem in future, he should be free to see the counsellor.

Un-cooperative Attitude from the Client:
The counsellor may discover that the client he or she is dealing with is not cooperating with him, especially when the client is a referred person, the counsellor should still try his or her best to make the client understand why he or she needs counselling. If after several attempts nothing good is coming out of the relationship, the counsellor can terminate the relationship temporarily and ask the client to think over his behaviour and may decide to come back if convinced to continue.

The client may decide not to continue:
The counsellor and client may enter into a counselling relationship without any problem. After some time, the client may decide not to continue for reasons best known to him. Sometimes it may be due to the fact that the client is not honest in the relationship and when his attention is drawn to this fact he may decide to stay away and remain with his problem. The reasons for the behaviour may not be given to the counsellor. The best thing to do is to allow the client go as counselling is not by force.

Referral to an Expert/Specialist:
The counsellor may discover that the client has a problem that is beyond his competence, area and experience, when this happens the client should be referred to the appropriate quarters for specialized treatment. For instance, the client may approach the counsellor with a problem that is both medical and educational, such as having had eye vision and his inability to read comprehension passages during English language lessons.

The counsellor should handle the educational aspect if he is competent in English or makes a referral to an English teacher and a medical doctor. He should not start to prescribe glasses or drugs for the client because that is not his area of specialization. The counsellor should get the client prepared before referring him or her. The client should know why he is being sent to another person.

Practicum/Internship may end before the Counselling Goals are achieved:
There are instances when the counselee in question is a student, either undergraduate or post-graduate, posted to a school for practicum exercise. There may be instances when the practicum period will end without the counsellor achieving his purpose or the school may close for the holiday, when this happens the relationship can be terminated temporarily or permanently. As far as the school calendar is concerned, that may be permanent termination, but if the counsellor picks interest in a student’s case and wants to help in solving the  problem, he may decide to visit the student at home and continue on a personal basis.

Death of Counsellor or Client:
A counselling relationship may be terminated permanently when the counsellor or client dies. If it is the counsellor that dies, the client may seek counsel from another counsellor. There may be other reasons for terminating a counselling relationship not mentioned here. You should read other books for more information on processes and techniques of counselling.

Follow-Up Stage/Phase:
This is the stage in a counselling process where you the counsellor will want to know what is happening to your client after termination. Hie follow-up aims at finding out whether the client is carrying out the decisions arrived at before you ended the session for every client-so you the counsellor determine with the client whether the stage of follow-up will be necessary.

Counselling Strategy:
Strategy in counselling is basically the technique or method used during counselling to understand and find a solution to a problem presented by the client. Strategies are tools used by the counsellor to handle problems. For instance, a medical doctor may use a stethoscope to diagnose a disease, a fisherman uses fishing nets while a mechanic uses spanners and hammers.

So also the counsellor uses tools such as listening, responding, interpretation, probing, exploring, restatements, confrontation, disclosure, unconditional positive regard, empathy and summarization as techniques or strategies during counselling; all these strategies are emphasis skills that the counsellor uses while counselling. The ability of a counsellor to solve a client’s problem depends on how he uses the strategies.

Question 2.
Meaning Of Listening Skill.
Answer:
The entire counselling process begins with listening to the client. Listening is the ability of the counsellor to pay attention to the verbal and non-verbal expressions of the client. It involves hearing words, receiving the sound made by the client and gaining insight into whatever is uttered. Attentive listening is a skill that must be developed and used by any counsellor. Some counsellors may listen to the client but not hear what he or she has said.

When the counsellor listens attentively he is conveying to the client that he understands him, this he may do by nodding and not speaking as the client talks. Okun (1982) observed that the skill of listening may surface as the only strategy needed in a helping relationship. In fact, listening skill is the foundation stone on which other skills depend. If a counsellor has not listened attentively, he may not be able to use techniques such as responding, restatement, questioning, confrontation and self-disclosure.

All these depend on how well the Counsellor has listened to the client. Kolo (1997) also observed that techniques like “minimal encourager” may not be used if the counsellor had not listened attentively. These minimal encourager-s include, “yes”, “tell me more” “is that so”? “hum! “I am listening”. Kolo (1997) also highlighted some factors that could hinder effective listening by the counsellor. They are:

• The inability of the client to hear the counsellor.
• Lack of trust between the client and the counsellor.
• When the client is shy or timid.
• Inner rules that inhibit self-disclosure.
• Tension and anxiety on the part of the client.
• Gender influence, socio-economic status, and religious background.
  The counsellor should, as much as possible, find a way of handling these factors so that there

Interviewing Skills:
Cast your mind back to our discussion on the counselling process. As earlier mentioned, interviewing skill is very important for any effective counselling to develop. It takes about 50 per cent of the counselling time. A good interviewing skill demonstrated by a counsellor only shows his or her competence as a counsellor and may win the confidence of his/her client. It shows that the counsellor has concern and empathy for the client. A hypothetical case is cited for the readers’ study. A counsellor and a client. A client in SSII reading Arts subjects comes to the counsellor for guidance on the possible courses to study at the university.

The counsellor is sitting in his office reading a textbook on counselling.
The student knocks at the door.
Counsellor: Yes come right in.
Client: She enters the office.
Counsellor: How are you today? Please sit down.
Client: She is hesitant but the counsellor encourages her to feel free and sit down.
Counsellor: What is your name and what class are you in?
Client: I am Amina in SSII.
Counsellor: Can I help you? Or what has brought you to my office?
Client: I saw a notice on the bulletin board to see the counsellor when we have a problem, so I decided to come.
Counsellor: Yes you are right, you are in the right place. What can I do for you?
Client: I bought the JAMB form I don’t know how to fill it and I don’t know what course to read In the University.
Counsellor: What subjects are you reading? And what do you intend to read later in life?
Client: I am offering Arts subjects and I want to read Law.
Counsellor: Most of the Universities offer Law.
Client: I will rather go to the University in the North because I have never been to the South or East.
Counsellor: There is nothing bad in trying other places since you are from the north. You need to go out and interact with people from other places, but your choice is final.
Client: I will think about it and discuss it with my parents because they will be responsible for my upkeep there.
Counsellor: Concerning the subjects you are offering, you need to be good in English, History, Government, Literature and other Arts subjects. You also need to consider the hazards in the job, like travelling to get information about a case, attack from opponents, etc. to mention a few. Are you the outgoing and outspoken type?
Counsellor: You should come to the office at your free period to fill out the form together so that you can submit it on time.
Client: Thank you, Sir, for your time and assistance.
At die, next meeting the counsellor and client will explore the Universities and the client will pick one.

Question 3.
Group Dynamic Process In Counselling Introduction.
Answer:
Group dynamic process in counselling is another method of providing guidance. Counselling services to a group of students or clients. Although information, observations and studies have shown that some problems experienced by clients are better handled when treated individually, the process of using a group process in solving some problems cannot be overemphasized. In this unit, an attempt is made to describe groups in the context of counselling relationships, purposes of group formation, forming a group for counselling intervention and stages of the group process.

Group Dynamics:
Group may be described as any collection of human beings who are brought into a social relationship with one another, while group dynamics is all that it takes to form a group. It should be noted that man’s life, to some extent, consists of group life. When a man is born, he is brought into a group made up of his parents, father and mother himself inclusive making it a group of three that continues to enlarge with the arrival of other siblings.

He leaves home and goes to school, he associates with his classmates, and another group of individuals in the class, and he goes to secondary and university the same is the case even in the working place he may need to work in a group of people. So group dynamics is very important in determining the social relationships of individuals. Group counselling is an important aspect of counselling activities. There are instances where the counsellor must just see the students in the group.

The counsellor may not achieve much progress and success if he adopts the individual counselling strategy. Thus for the formation of a group for counselling purposes,’ some group dynamics procedure must be put in place. For instance, in some schools depending on how prevalent these behaviour problems are, such as excessive fighting, chronic tiredness or fatigue, violent outbursts, aggressiveness, extreme withdrawals (isolates) inability to get along with other peers, shabby dressing, drug abuse, sexual harassment, telling lies etc. these can be approached using group counselling strategy.

When the groups are small, individuals find it easy to express their feelings about a wide range of personal problems. Individuals who have similar problems when put together for counselling intervention, identify with others and realise that they are not alone and that, there are other people who share similar problems. This makes them open up so as to share experiences and find a way of finding solutions to their problems.

Because of the opportunity for interaction in groups, the members can express their concerns and difficulties and believe they can be gently heard, they, therefore, help one another gain increased self-acceptance. A counselling group must have a purpose depending on the nature of the problem.

Some of the purposes and goals of forming a group according to UNESCO (2000) include the following:

• To grow in self-acceptance and learn not to demand perfection.
• To learn how to trust oneself and others.
• To foster self-knowledge and the development of a unique self-identity.
• To lessen fears of intimacy, and learn to reach out to those who would like to be closer to you.
• To become aware of choices and to make choices wisely.
• To become more sensitive to the needs and feelings of others.
• To clarify values and decide whether, and how to modify them to find ways of understanding and resolving personal problems.

Formation Qf The Group:
In forming a counselling group, students should realise that the place to start is by clarifying the rationale and purpose for forming it. It is very important to note that adequate time should be spent in planning for its formation. If proper planning is not made and if the members are not carefully selected and prepared the entire process can flounder. The step to take is announcing the counsellor’s intentions and recruiting members. The counsellor needs to announce what the group is for and what it intends to do for the members that will be recruited and participate.

How a group is announced influence the way it will be received by potential members, as well as the kind of people that will join the group. Personal contact with potential members has been found to be one of the best methods of recruiting members. For instance, when the writer of this unit conducted a study on three modes of treatment for anxiety and improving English comprehension skills amongst secondary school students, he personally visited the school, met the school counsellors told them her mission and solicited their support to use the students in that school.

All the SS II students were gathered and informed of the purpose of the study and how they stand to benefit from the study in terms of reducing their anxiety level and increasing their performance in the English language through study skills counselling, rational emotive therapy and a combination of the two strategies. Volunteers indicated and forty (40) of them were randomly chosen from the 92 volunteers and were assigned to experimental and control groups.

The next process in forming a group for counselling involves screening and selecting members. The counsellor who is the group leader would conduct a pre-group interview and give them inventory to fill or answer the questionnaire given to them. He then selected group members whose needs, goals, and problems are compatible or similar to the established goals of the group. The counsellor may ask each participant these questions:

• Why does this person want to join the group?
• How ready is the person to become actively involved in the process of self-examination that will be part of the group?
• Does the person have a dear understanding of the nature and purpose of the group? Do they have a view of what is expected of them?
• Is there any indication that a person may be counterproductive to the „’ development of cohesion in the group? Or will the group be counterproductive to the person?

Some practical considerations in group formation: In selecting members for a particular group, these factors are to be considered.
Size of the Group:
In forming a counselling group, the size of the group matters a lot for the effectiveness of the process. In an ideal situation, the size is determined by the age of the members, the experiences of the counsellor, the type and purpose of the group and whether there is a co-counsellor or co-leader. Children in elementary school maybe 4-5 members in a group, while adolescents may be 8-10 members UNESCO (2000).

For adults, 2-4 hour weekly sessions might be preferable. The frequency and duration of the session are dependent on the style of leadership and the type of people in the group. For instance, in the study on anxiety conducted which was referred to earlier, the members were adolescents, we met once a week for one hour and for ten weeks with the first week as the pre-treatment session and the tenth (10th) week as the post-treatment session.

Duration and Time for Meeting:
In determining the duration and time for the meeting, frequent short sessions may be used. This suits their attention span. If the group is taking place in the school setting, the session can be after the regular class period. This is to avoid clashing with the school timetable and creating unnecessary conflict between the counsellor, students and the school authority.

For the adults, having 2-4 hours may be ideal. However, being civil servants or businessmen and women they may not be changed to spare. 2-4 hours during the week, but this session can take place during the weekends. The duration time is because they have greater or higher attention spans than adolescents or children.

Place of Meeting:
The next pertinent question is where should this meeting take place. Wherever is chosen as the place for the meeting, the leader should ensure adequate physical arrangement, and good ventilation and the place must guarantee some degree of privacy and freedom from distraction. That is why it is not good to have such sessions in the classroom, staffroom or in the counsellor’s office if the space is enough to accommodate all the members.

Nature of Membership:
The counsellor needs to determine if the membership will be on a voluntary or involuntary basis. Voluntary members have been found to be the best because they
voluntarily avail themselves of counselling unlike those referred. Sometimes it may be that the counsellor wants to address a particular issue but can not do it on an individual basis so he adopts the group method. The counsellor must orientate the members and prepare them to become part of the group. Also, the counsellor should tell the group what they would gain by participating in the group.

Nature of the Group:
An open group is one characterized by changing membership while a closed group adds no new members during the lifetime of the group. Sometimes, closed groups have advantages that are distinct, because trust, and openness can be developed and work accomplished. If members are allowed to drop from the group and new ones join at random, it may be difficult to determine the success of the therapy used in the group.

Pre-Group Session:
It is absolutely necessary for the counsellor or leader to conduct a pre-group session. This could be an extension of the screening process. Also, important information is given to members to

Groupdynamicprocess:
This process starts with giving the members certain rules that will guide their participation in the group. It could be verbal or written. Each member has to be committed to this guide as it serves as the guiding rule.

• Members are to avoid any drugs during or before the meeting.
• Members are expected to be punctual and regular to meetings.
• Members should not engage in any illicit sexual relationship with the opposite sex in the group.
• Members must avoid smoking during sessions.
• Confidentiality must be maintained by all members.
• Physical violence must be guided and verbally abusive language should be avoided.
• Members are given list of their rights and responsibilities and what is expected of them before they join the group.
• Children and adolescents must produce written consent from their parents and guardians.

Before anyone drops out of the group, he should notify the leader and discuss in the group before leaving. The next step in group process dynamics are the stages involved in the process. Four stages are identified here.

The initial stages:
The central process involved in this stage involves orientation and exploration. Members get to know each other by age, name, class, and family background and also learn how the group functions. They also discuss fears and hopes pertaining to the group’s identified personal goals and determine the safety of the group. They also choose amongst themselves the group monitor. Each of the members assesses himself or herself and ask pertinent questions.

The transition stage:
This is the second stage in the group process and is characterized by the expression of feelings regarding interaction in the group, as well as an individual personal group. Since the group comprises of people from different family backgrounds, cultures, religions, socio-economic status of parents, ages, each member may be sceptical or hesitant to open up. As time goes on and as they realise that sessions are held to help them out, they open up and free themselves from unnecessary anxiety and fear.

The working stage:
The working stage is characterized by the commitment of members to explore significant problems they have brought to the session. Group cohesion is used during this stage, members become transparent with one another, this is shown by the level of cooperation shown by members in the group. Also, each show some degree of initiative behaviour and are punctual to meetings, attendance rate is high, trust for one another is shown, they support and encourage one another after listening to the experiences of each other. Cohesion is ascertained after negative feelings expressed by members have been dealt with. This ensures trustworthiness.

The final stage:
The final stage is characterized by the successful accomplishment of the difficult process of consolidation and termination. This is when the purpose of initiating the group is achieved, if the sessions had been handled adequately, the members may have a feeling of sadness that they are parting with friends and the leader. They may also wonder if they will be able to put into practice what they have learned without the help of group members and leaders.

The leader may suggest having a follow-up session to encourage members put into practice what they have learned or the need to change. The final stage is very important because it gives the members the opportunity to clarify their experiences, consolidate the gains they have made and revisit their decisions about the newly acquired behaviour they want to implement in their everyday life.

The counsellor can use these follow-up devices to check his members.

• In Follow-up interviews, the leader may try and arrange an interview with each member a few weeks or months after the termination of the group.
• Members can contact one another periodically after termination to give support.
• The counsellor can organize a follow-up group session for the entire members after Termination.

Question 4.
Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test.
Answer:
The set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test are as follows:
Ability to select and implement multiple methods and means of evaluation in ways that are responsive to, and respectful of diverse individuals, couples, families and groups.

• Ability to utilise systematic approaches to gather data required for taking decisions.
• Knowledge of psychometric issues and bases of assessment methods.
• Knowledge of issues related to the integration of different data sources.
• Ability to integrate assessment data from different sources for diagnostic purposes.
• Ability to formulate and apply diagnoses to understand the strengths and limitations of current diagnostic approaches.
• Capacity for effective use of supervision to implement and enhance skills.

Question 5.
What is the typical format of a counselling interview?
Answer:
The format of a counselling interview is as follows:
Opening of the Interview:
The opening of the interview involves establishing rapport between two communicators. The purpose is to make the interviewee comfortable. Generally, the interviewer starts the conversation and does most of the talking at the outset. This serves two functions, i.e, it establishes the goal of the interview and gives the interviewee time to become comfortable with the situation and the interviewer.

Body of the Interview:
The body of the interview is the heart of the process. In this stage, the interviewer asks questions in an attempt to generate information and data that are required for the purpose.

The sequence of Questions:
To accomplish the purpose of an interview, the interviewer prepares a set of questions, also called a schedule, for different domains, or categories s/he wants to cover. To do this, the interviewer must first decide on the domains/ categories under which information is to be generated.

For example, in the questions used in job interviews, die interviewer selected several categories such as the nature of the organisation they last worked for, satisfaction with the past job, views on the product, etc. These categories and the questions within them are framed ranging from easy-to-answer to difficult-to-answer. Questions are also formulated to assess facts as well as subjective assessments.

Question 6.
What do you understand by the term counselling? Explain the characteristics of an effective counsellor.
Answer:
Counselling provides a system for planning the interview, analysing the counsellor’s and client’s behaviour and determining the developmental impact on the client. In this section, we will discuss skills, concepts and methods that are designed to help develop concrete competencies. A counsellor is most often interested in building an understanding of the client’s problem by focusing on what understanding the client has of her/his problem and how s/he feels about it.

The actual or objective facts of the problems are considered less important, and it is considered more important to work on the feelings and their acknowledgement by the clients. The focus is more on the person and how s/he defines the problem.

The following elements about counselling are common to the major theoretical approaches to counselling:

• Counselling involves responding to the feelings, thoughts and actions of the clients.
• Counselling involves a basic acceptance of the client’s perceptions and feelings, without using any evaluative standards.
• Confidentiality and privacy constitute essential ingredients in the counselling setting. Physical facilities that preserve this quality are important.
• Counselling is voluntary. It takes place when a client approaches a counsellor. A counsellor never uses any kind of coercion for obtaining information.
• Counsellors and clients both transmit and receive verbal and non-verbal messages during the process. Therefore, awareness and sensitivity to the nature of the message is an important prerequisites for a counsellor’s effectiveness.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 3 Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is a Group?
Answer:
The preceding introduction illustrates the importance of groups in our lives. One question that comes to mind is: “How are groups (e.g. your family, class and the group with which you play) different from other collections of people ?” For example, people who have assembled to watch a cricket match or your school function are at one place but are not interdependent on each other. They do not have defined roles, statuses and expectations from each other.

In the ease of your family, class and the group with which you play, you will realise that there is mutual interdependence, each member has roles, there are status differentials and there are expectations from each other. Thus, Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions you have. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your family members; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers and classmates and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends.

In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only provides you the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth and development as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place where you were without your family, school and friends? How did you feel? Did you feel there was something vital missing in your life? Our lives are influenced by the nature of the group members we have.

It is, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence us positively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shall try to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour. At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do others influence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing others and society.

The benefits of cooperation and competition and how they influence our personal and social lives will also be examined. We will also see how identity develops—how we come to know ourselves. Similarly, we would try to understand why sometimes group conflicts arise; examine the perils of group conflict and apprise ourselves of various conflict resolution strategies so that we are able to contribute towards making a, harmonious and cohesive society.

Introduction:
Family, class and playgroup are examples of groups and are different from other collections of people. A group may be defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, who have a set of role relationships among its members and who have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.

Groups have the following salient characteristics:

A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group from the other and gives the group its unique identity. A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups function either working towards a given goal or away from certain threats facing the group.

A collection of individuals who are interdependent, i.e. what one is doing may have consequences for others. Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket team drops an important catch during a match—this will have consequences for the entire team. Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their joint association also influence each other.

A gathering of individuals who interact with one another either directly or indirectly. A collection of individuals whose interactions are structured by a set of roles mid norms. This means that the group members perform the same functions every time the group meets and the group members adhere to group norms. Norms tell us how we ought to behave in the group and specify the behaviours expected from group members.

Groups can be differentiated from other collections of people. For example, a crowd is also a collection of people who may be present at a place/situation by chance. Suppose you are going on the road and an accident takes place. Soon a large number of people tend to collect. This is an example of a crowd. There is neither any structure nor a feeling of belongingness in a crowd. The behaviour of people in crowds is irrational and there is no interdependence among members.

Teams are special kinds of groups. Members of teams often have complementary skills and are committed to a common goal Or purpose. Members are mutually accountable for their activities. In teams, there is a positive synergy attained through the coordinated efforts of the members. The main difference between groups and teams are: In groups, performance is dependent on the contributions of individual members.

In teams, both individual contributions and teamwork matter. In groups, the leader or whoever is heading the group holds responsibility for the work. However in teams, although there is a leader, members hold themselves responsible. An audience is also a collection of people who have assembled for a special purpose, maybe to watch a cricket match or a movie.

Audiences are generally passive but sometimes they go into a frenzy and become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite sense of purpose. There is polarization in attention and the actions of persons are in a common direction. Mob behaviour is characterised by the homogeneity of thought and behaviour as well as impulsivity.

Question 2.
Why Do People Join Groups?
Answer:
All of you are members of your family, class and groups with which you interact or play. Similarly, other people are also members of a number of groups at any given time. Different groups satisfy different needs and therefore, we are simultaneously members of different groups. This sometimes creates pressure for us because there may be competing demands and expectations. Most often we are able to handle these competing demands and expectations. People join groups because these groups satisfy a range of needs. In general, people join groups for the following reasons :

Security:
When we are alone, we feel insecure. Groups reduce this insecurity. Being with people gives a sense of comfort and protection. As a result, people feel stronger, and are less vulnerable to threats.

Status :
When we are members of a group that is perceived to be important by others, we feel recognised and experience a sense of power. Suppose your school wins in an interinstitutional debate competition, you feel proud and think that you are better than others.

Self-esteem :
Groups provide feelings of self-worth and establish a positive social identity. Being a member of prestigious groups enhances one’s self-concept.

Satisfaction of one’s psychological and social needs:
Groups satisfy one’s social and psychological needs such as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving attention, love and power through a group. .

Goal achievement:
Groups help in achieving such goals which cannot be attained individually. There is power in the majority.

Provide knowledge and information:
Group membership provides knowledge and information and thus broadens our view. As individuals, we may not have all the required information. Groups supplement this information and knowledge.

Group Formation
In this section, we will see how groups are formed. Basic to group formation is some contact and some form of interaction between people. This interaction is facilitated by the following conditions:

Proximity:
Just think about your group of friends. Would you have been friends if you were not living in the same colony, or going to the same school, or may be playing in the same playground? Probably your answer would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions with the same set of individuals give us a chance to know them and their interests and attitudes. Common interests, attitudes and background are important determinants of your liking for your group members.

Similarity:
Being exposed to someone over a period of time makes us assess our similarities and paves the way for the formation of groups. Why do we like people who are similar? Psychologists have given several explanations for this. One explanation is that people prefer consistency and like relationships that are consistent. When two people are similar, there is consistency and they start liking each other.

For example, if you like playing football and another person in your class also loves playing football; there is a matching of your interests. There are higher chances that you may become friends. Another explanation given by psychologists is that when we meet similar people, they reinforce and validate our opinions and values, we feel we are right and thus we start liking them.

Suppose you are of the opinion that too much watching of television is not good, because it shows too much violence. You meet someone who also has similar views. This validates your opinion, and you start liking the person who was instrumental in validating your opinion.

Common motives and goals :
When people have common motives or goals, they get together and form a group which may facilitate their goal attainment. Suppose you want to teach children in a slum area who are unable to go to school. You cannot do this alone because you have your own studies and homework. You, therefore, form a group of like-minded friends and start teaching these children. So you have been able to achieve what you could not have done alone.

Stages of Group FormationRcmember that, like everything else in life, groups develop. You do not become a group member the moment you come together. Groups usually go through different stages of formation, conflict, stabilisation, performance and dismissal. Tuckman suggested that groups pass through five developmental sequences. These are: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

When group members first meet, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the group, the goal and how it is to be achieved. People try to know each other and assess whether they will fit in. There is excitement as well as apprehension. This stage is called the forming stage. Often, after this stage, there is a stage of intragroup conflict which is referred to as storming.

In this stage, there is conflict among members about how the target of the group is to be achieved, who is to control the group and its resources and who is to perform what task. When this stage is complete, some sort of hierarchy of leadership in the group develops and a clear vision as to how to achieve the group goal. The storming stage is followed by another stage known as norming. Group members by this time develop norms related to group behaviour.

This leads to the development of a positive group identity. The fourth stage is performing. By this time, the structure of the group has evolved and is accepted by group members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal. For some groups, this may be the last stage of group development. However, for some groups, for example, in the case of an organising committee for a school function, there may be another stage known as adjourning stage.

In this stage, once the function is over, the group may be disbanded. However, it must be stated that all groups do not always proceed from one stage to the next in such a systematic manner. Sometimes several stages go on simultaneously, while in other instances groups may go back and forth through the various stages or they may just skip some of the stages. During the process of group formation, groups also develop a structure.

We should remember that group structure develops as members interact Over time this interaction shows regularities in the distribution of task to be performed, responsibilities assigned to members and the prestige or relative status of members. Four important elements of group structure are : Roles are socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context.

You have the role of a son or a daughter and with this role, there are certain role expectations, i.e. including the behaviour expected of someone in a particular role. As a daughter or a son, you are expected to respect elders, listen to them and be responsible towards your studies. Norms are expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon, and enforced by group members. They may be considered as a group’s ‘unspoken rules’.

In your family, there are norms that guide the behaviour of family members. These norms represent shared, ways of viewing the world. Status refers to the relative social position given to group members by others. This relative position or status may be either ascribed (given may be because of one’s seniority achieved the person has achieved status because of expertise or hard work. By being members of the group, we enjoy the status associated with that group.

All of us, therefore, strive to be members of such groups which are high in status or are viewed favourably by others. Even within a group, different members have different prestige and status. For example, the captain of a cricket team has a higher status compared to the other members, although all are equally important for the team’s success. Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group members.

As the group becomes more cohesive, group members start to think, feel and act as a social unit and less like isolated individuals. Members of a highly cohesive group have a greater desire.to remain in the group in comparison to those who belong to low cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense of belongingness to the group.

It is difficult to leave a cohesive group or to gain membership of a group which is highly cohesive. Extreme cohesiveness, however, may sometimes not be in a group’s interest. Psychologists have identified the phenomenon of groupthink (see Box 7.1) which is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness.

Type Of Groups:
Groups differ in many respects some have a large number of members (e.g., a country), some are small (e.g., a family), some are short-lived (e.g., a committee), some remain together for many years (e.g., religious groups), some are highly organised (e.g., army, police, etc.) and others are informally organised (e.g., spectators of a match). People may belong to different types of groups. Major types of groups are enumerated below:

• primary and secondary groups
• formal and informal groups
• ingroup and outgroup.

Primary and Secondary Groups:
A major difference between primary and secondary groups is that primary groups are pre-existing formations which are usually given to the individual whereas secondary groups are those that the individual joins by choice. Thus, family, caste and religion are primary groups whereas membership of a political party is an example of a secondary group. In a primary group, there is face-to-face interaction, members have close physical proximity and they share warm emotional bonds.

Primary groups are central to an individual’s functioning and have a very major role in developing the values and ideals of the individual during the early stages of development. In contrast, secondary groups are those where relationships among members are more impersonal, indirect and less frequent. In the primary group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e. members do not have the option to choose its membership as compared to secondary groups where it is easy to leave and join another group.

Formal and Informal Groups:
These groups differ in the degree to which the functions of the group are stated explicitly and formally. The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated as in the case of an official organisation. The roles to be performed by group members are stated in an explicit manner. The formal and informal groups differ on the basis of structure.

The formation of formal groups is based on some specific rules or laws and members have definite roles. There are a set of norms which help in establishing order. A university is an example of a formal group. On the other hand, the formation of informal groups is not based on rules or laws and there is a close relationship among members.

Ingroup and Outgroup:
Just as individuals compare themselves with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have and what others have, individuals also’ compare the group they belong to with groups of which they are not a member. The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own group and ‘outgroup’ refers to another group. For ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used.

By using the words they and we, one is categorising people as similar or different. It has beefy-found that persons in the ingroup are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favourably and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the ingroup members. Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our social lives.

These differences can be easily understood by studying Tajfel’s experiments given in Box 7.2. Although it is common to make these categorisations, it should be appreciated that these categories are not real and are created by us. In some cultures, plurality is celebrated as has been the case in India. We have a unique composite culture which is reflected not only in the lives we live but also in our art, architecture and music.

Influence Of Group On Individual Behaviour:
We have seen that groups are powerful as they are able to influence the behaviour of individuals. What is the nature of this influence? What impact does the presence of others have on our performance? We will discuss two situations:

• an individual performing an activity alone in the presence of others (social facilitation) and
• an individual performing an activity along with others as part of a larger group (social loafing).
  Since social facilitation has been briefly discussed in Chapter 6, we would try to understand the: phenomenon of social loafing in this section.

Social Loafing:
Social facilitation research suggests that the presence of others leads to arousal and can motivate individuals to enhance their performance if they are already good at solving something. This enhancement occurs when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated. What would happen if the efforts of an individual in a group are pooled so that you look at the performance of the group as a whole?

Do you know what often happens? It has been found that individuals work less hard in a group than they do when performing alone. This points to a phenomenon referred to as ‘social loafing’. Social Loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective, task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. An example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war.

It is not possible for you to identify how much force each member of the team has been exerting. Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become free riders. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by Latane and his associates who asked a group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in knowing how much noise people make in social settings.

They varied the group size; individuals were either alone, or in groups of two, four and six. The results of the study showed that although the total amount of noise rose up, as size increased, the amount of noise produced by each participant dropped. In other words, each participant put in less effort as the group size increased. Why does social loafing occur?

The explanations offered are:

• Group members feel less responsible for the overall task being performed and therefore exert less effort.
• The motivation of members decreases because they realise that their contributions will not be evaluated on an individual basis.
• The performance of the group is not to be compared with other groups.
• There is improper coordination (or no coordination) among members.
• Belonging to the same group is not important for members. If is only an aggregate of individuals. Social loafing may be reduced by:
• Making the efforts of each person identifiable.
• Increasing the pressure to work hard (making group members committed to successful task performance).
• Increasing the apparent importance or value of a task.
• Making people feel that their individual contribution is important.
• Strengthening group cohesiveness increases the motivation for successful group outcomes.

Group Polarisation:
We all know that important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals Kelman distinguished three forms of social influence, viz. compliance, identification, and internalisation. In compliance, there are external conditions that force the individual to accept the influence of the significant other. Compliance also refers to behaving in a particular way in response to a request made by someone.

Thus, in the example described above, you may sign the letter with the thought that you were accepting to a request, not because you agree with other students, but because you have been requested to do so by a significant member. This would be a case of compliance also called ‘external/public conformity’. Compliance could take place even without a norm.

For example, a member of a community group for ‘clean environment’ requests you to put a sticker on your bike that reads, ‘Say No to Plastic Bags’. You agree to do so, not because of a group norm, or even because you personally believe in banning plastic bags, but because you see no harm or problem in putting such a sticker on your bike. At the same time, you find it easier to say ‘yes’ rather than ‘no’ to such a harmless (and eventually meaningful) request.

Identification, according to Kelman, refers to the influence process based on agreement-seeking or identity¬seeking. Internalisation, on the other hand, is a process based on information-seeking. Yet another form of behaviour is ‘obedience ’. A distinguishing feature of obedience is that such behaviour is a response to a person in authority. In the example given above, you may sign the letter more readily if a senior teacher or a student leader asks you to do so.

In such a situation, you are not necessarily following a group norm but rather carrying out an instruction or an order. The presence of an authority figure immediately makes this behaviour different from conformity. For instance, you may stop talking loudly in the classroom when the teacher asks you to keep quiet, but not when your classmate tells you to do the same thing.

We can see that there are some similarities between conformity, compliance and obedience, but there are also some differences. All three indicate the influence of others on an individual’s behaviour. Obedience is the most direct and explicit form of social influence, whereas compliance is less direct than obedience because someone has requested and thus you comply (here, the probability of refusal is there). Conformity is the most indirect form (you are conforming because you do not want to deviate from the norm).

Question 3.
What is The Autokinetic Effect?
Answer:
Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms, and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a dark room and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved.

This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials. After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members. It was observed that on subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all.

The light was only seen as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’). Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the distance the light moved but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants were not given any information regarding the nature of change if any, in their judgments over trials.

Group Pressure and Conformity: The Asch Experiment 7.4
Asch examined how much conformity there would be when one member of a group experiences pressure from the rest of the group to behave in a specific way or to give a particular judgment. A group of seven persons participated in an experiment that was a ‘vision test’. There was actually only one true subject. The other six participants were associates of the experimenter or ‘confederates’ as they are called in social psychology.

These confederates were given instructions to give specific responses. Of course, this was not known to the true subject. All participants were shown a vertical line (standard line) that had to be compared with three vertical lines of different lengths, A, B and C (comparison lines). Participants had to state which of the comparison lines, A, B or C was equal to the standard line.

Standard Line	Comparison Lines
	ABC

When the experiment began, each participant, by turn, announced her/his answer. The first five persons gave wrong answers (as they had been instructed to do so). The true subject’s turn came last but one in each round. So the true subject had the experience of 5 persons giving incorrect answers before her/him. The last person (also a Confederate) gave the same incorrect answer as the first five persons.

Even if the true subject felt that these answers were incorrect, a norm had been presented to her/him. There were twelve trials. Did the true subject conform to the majority answer, or did she/he give her/his own judgments? It was observed that 67 per cent of subjects showed conformity, and gave the same incorrect answer as the majority. Remember that this was a situation in which the answers were to be given publicly.

Compliance:
It was stated earlier that compliance refers simply to behave in response to a request from another person or group even in the absence of a norm. A good example of compliance is the kind of behaviour shown when a salesperson comes to our door. Very often, this person comes with some goods that we really do not wish to buy.

Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we find that the salesperson has spoken to us for a few minutes and the conversation has ended with a purchase of what he or she wished to sell. So why do people comply? In many situations, this happens because it is an easy way out of the situation. It is more polite and the other party is pleased. In other situations, there could be other factors at work. The following techniques have been found to work when someone waits for another person to comply.

The foot-in-the-door technique :
The person begins by making a small request that the other person is not likely to refuse. Once the other person carries out the request, a bigger request is made. Simply because the other person has already complied with the smaller request, he or she may feel uncomfortable refusing the second request. For example, someone may come to us on behalf of a group and give us a gift (something free), saying that it is for promotion. Soon afterwards, another member of the same group may come to us again and ask us to buy a product made by the group.

The deadline technique :
In this technique, a ‘last date’ is announced until which a particular product or ‘an offer’ will be available. The aim is to make people ‘hurry’ and make the purchase before they miss the rare opportunity. It is more likely that people will buy a product under this deadline condition than if there is no such deadline.

The door-in-the-face technique:
In this technique, you begin with a large request and when this is refused a later request for something smaller, the one that was actually desired, is made, which is usually granted by the person.

Obedience :
When compliance is shown to instruction or order from a person in authority, such as parents, teachers, leaders, or policemen, that behaviour is called obedience Why people show obedience is easy to understand. Most often it is because if we disobey, some punishment might follow. Sometimes, it is because we believe that persons in authority must be obeyed. People in authority have effective means of enforcing their orders.

Milgram conducted an experiment to show that individuals obey commands from people who are strangers. The experimenter informed the respondents in the study that they were participating in an experiment to study the effects of punishment on learning. The experiment was conducted in pairs. One person in each pair was the “learner”, whose work was to memorise pairs of words.

The other participant was the “teacher”, who would read these words aloud and punish the learner when she/he made errors by giving her/him a shock. The learner would make errors according to prearranged instructions. The teacher was asked to deliver a shock each time the learner made errors. The teacher was further told to increase the strength of the shock each time the learner made an error.

In reality, no shocks were given. The instructions were so arranged that the teacher was faced with a dilemma — should she/he continue shocks even when they were increasingly painful? The experimenter kept on motivating the teacher to continue. In all, 65 per cent showed total obedience. Some participants, however, protested and asked the session to end. Milgram’s study suggests that even ordinary people are willing to harm an innocent person if ordered by someone in authority.

Question 4.
Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour is harming others?
Answer:
Psychologists have identified several reasons for this. Some of these reasons are:

• People obey because they feel that they are not responsible for their own actions, they are simply carrying out orders from the authority.
• Authority generally possesses symbols of status (e.g., uniform, title) which people find difficult to resist.
• Authority gradually increases commands from lesser to greater levels and initial obedience binds the followers for commitment. Once you obey small orders, slowly there is an escalation of commitment for the person who is in authority and one starts obeying bigger orders.

Determinants of Cooperation and Competition:
What factors determine whether people will cooperate or compete? Some of the important ones are given below:

Reward structure:
Psychologists believe that whether people will cooperate or compete will depend on the reward structure. A cooperative reward structure is one in which there is promotive interdependence. Each is a beneficiary of the reward and the reward is possible only if all contribute. A competitive reward structure is one in which one can get a reward only if others do not get it.

Interpersonal communication:
When there is good interpersonal communication, then cooperation is the likely consequence. Communication facilitates interaction and discussion. As a result, group members can convince each other and learn about each other.

Reciprocity:
Reciprocity means that people feel obliged to return what they get. Initial cooperation may encourage more cooperation. Competition may provoke more competition. If someone helps, you feel like helping that person; on the other hand, if someone refuses to help you when you need help, you would not like to help that person also.

Social Identity:
Have you ever asked the question “who am I ?” What was your answer to this question? Probably your answer was that you are a hard-working, happy-go-lucky girl/ boy. This answer tells you about your social identity which is one’s self-definition of who she/he is. This self-definition may include both personal attributes, e.g. hard working, happy-go-lucky, or attributes which you share with others, e.g. girl or boy.

Although some aspects of our identity are determined by physical characteristics, we may acquire other aspects as a consequence of our interaction with others in society. Sometimes we perceive ourselves as unique individuals and at other times we perceive ourselves as members of groups. Both are equally valid expressions of self. Our personal identities derived from views of ourselves as a unique individuals, and social identities derived from groups we perceive ourselves to be members of, are both important to us.

The extent to which we, define ourselves either at personal or at social levels is flexible. From your own experience; you would realise that identification with social groups can have a great deal of importance for your self-concept. How do you feel when India wins a cricket match? You feel elated and proud. You feel so because of your social identity as an Indian. Social identity is, thus, that aspect of our self-concept which is based on our group membership.

Social identity places us, i.e. tells us what and where we are in the larger social context and thus helps us to locate ourselves in society. You have a social identity of a student of your school. Once you have this identity as a student of your school, you internalise the values emphasised in your school and make these values your own. You strive to fulfil the motto of your school.

Social identity provides members with a shared set of values, beliefs and goals about themselves and about their social world. Once you internalise the values of your school, this helps to coordinate and regulate your attitudes and behaviour. You work hard for your school to make it the best school in your city/state. When we develop a strong identity with our own group, the categorisation as ingroup and outgroup become salient.

The group with which you identify yourself becomes the ingroup and others become the outgroup. The negative aspect of this ownership group and outgroup categorisation is that we start showing favouritism towards our ingroup by rating it more favourably in comparison to the outgroup and begin devaluating the outgroup. This devaluation of the outgroup is the basis of a number of intergroup conflicts.

Intergroup Conflict: Nature And Causes:
Conflict is a process in which either an individual or a group perceives that others (individual or group) have opposing interests and both try to contradict each other. There is this intense feeling of an ‘other’ (also referred to as ‘they’). There is also a belief by both parties that the other will protect only its own interests; their (the other side’s) interests will, therefore, not be protected.

There is not only opposition of each other, but they also try to exert power on each other. Groups have been found to be more aggressive than individuals. This often leads to the escalation of conflict. All conflicts are mostly as there is a human price for them. In wars, there are both victories and defeats, but the human cost of war is far beyond all this. Various types of conflict are commonly seen in society, which turns out to be costly for both sides as well as for society. Mentioned below are some of the major reasons for group conflicts.

One major reason is the lack of communication and faulty communication by both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e. there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict results. Another reason for intergroup conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when members of a group compare themselves with members of another group and perceive that they do not have what they desire to have, which the other group.

In other words, they feel that they are not doing well in comparison to other groups. This may lead to feelings of deprivation and discontentment, which may trigger off conflict. Another cause of conflict is one party’s belief that it is better than the other and that what it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other.

One may often witness a tendency to magnify even smaller differences, thereby conflict gets escalated because every member wants to respect the norms of her/his group. A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group and actually violates those norms because of malevolent intent. The desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for conflict. Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts.

As already mentioned earlier, feelings of ‘they’ and ‘we’ lead to biased perceptions. Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as well as more aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over scarce resources, both material resources, e.g, territory and money as well as social resources, e.g. respect and esteem. Perceived inequity is another reason for conflict. Equity refers to the distribution of rewards in proportion to an individual’s contributions, if:

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 3 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 1 Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Tuckman suggested that groups pass through the developmental sequences. These are:
(a) forming, storming
(b) norming, performing, and adjourning
(c) only (a)
(d) both (a) and (b)
Answer:
(d) both (a) and (b)

Question 2.
The excitement and apprehension state is called the _____ stage.
(a) storming stage
(b) norming stage
(c) forming state
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(c) forming state

Question 3.
The storming state is followed by another stage known as ______.
(a) norming
(b) storming
(c) forming
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(a) norming

Question 4.
Major types of groups are:
(a) primary/secondary groups
(b) formal and informal groups
(c) ingroup and outgroup
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 5.
The pre-existing formations whereas usually given to individuals that group called
(a) secondary
(b) primary
(c) only (a)
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(b) primary

Question 6.
Political party is an example of _____ group.
(a) secondary
(b) formal
(c) primary
(d) informal
Answer:
(a) secondary

Question 7.
Kalman distinguished three forms of social influence these are:
(a) compliance
(b) identification
(c) internalisation
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 8.
When Kolo observed that the technique line “minimal encourager” may not be used if the counselor had not listened attentively.
(a) 1997
(b) 1995
(c) 1996
(d) 1992
Answer:
(a) 1997

Question 9.
Four stages of the dynamic process:
(a) initial
(b) transition
(c) working
(d) all the above
Answer:
(d) all the above

Question 10.
In the year-1982 who observed that the skill of listening may surface as the only strategy needed in a helping relationship.
(a) Kolo
(b) Tuckman
(c) Okun
(d) none of the above
Answer:
(c) Okun

True/False Questions

Question 1.
Teams are special kinds of groups.
Answer:
True

Question 2.
Groups not reduce insecurity.
Answer:
False

Question 3.
The excitement as well as apprehension. This state is called the forming state.
Answer:
True

Question 4.
Intragroup conflict is called forming stage.
Answer:
True

Question 5.
The storming stage is followed by another stage known as norming.
Answer:
True

Question 6.
Status not refers to the relative social position given to group members by other.
Answer:

Question 7.
Cohesiveness refers to togetherness.
Answer:
True

Question 8.
Secondary groups is individual joins by choice.
Answer:
True

Question 9.
Tuckman distinguished the 3 forms of social influence.
Answer:
False

Question 10.
Compliance is also called external/plastic conformity.
Answer:
True

Question 11.
Psychologists believe that whether people will cooperate will depend on the reward structure.
Answer:
True

Very Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
What is a Group?
Answer:
The preceding introduction illustrates the importance of groups in our lives. One question that comes to mind is: “How are groups (e.g., your family, class, and the group with which you play different from other collections of people ?” For example, people who have assembled to watch a cricket match or your school function are at one place but are not interdependent on each other.

Question 2.
Define the characteristics of the group.
Answer:
A social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves as belonging to the group. This characteristic of the group helps in distinguishing one group from the other and gives the group its unique identity. A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups function either working towards a given goal or away from certain threats facing the group.

Question 3.
What is Teams?
Answer:
Teams are special kinds of groups. Members of teams often have complementary skills and are committed to a common goal or purpose. Members are mutually accountable for their activities. In teams, there is a positive synergy attained through the coordinated efforts of the members

Question 4.
What is Proximity?
Answer:
Just think about your group of friends. Would you have been friends if you were not living in the same colony, going to the same School, or maybe playing in the same playground? Probably your answer would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions with the same set of individuals give us a chance to know them, and their interests and attitudes. Common interests, attitudes, and backgrounds are important determinants of your liking for your group members.

Question 5.
What is The Autokinetic Effect?
Answer:
Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a dark room and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials. After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members.

Question 6.
The deadline technique :
Answer:
In this technique, the last date is announced until which a particular product or ‘an offer will be available. The aim is to make people ‘hurry’ and make the purchase before they miss the rare opportunity. It is more likely that people will buy a product under this deadline condition than if there is no such deadline.

Question 7.
Developing Effective Relationships
Answer:
For most people who seek help from a counselor, effective or satisfying relationships are almost non-existent or infrequent. Since the change in behavior is often created and supported by a network of social support, it is essential for clients to start developing more positive relationships with other persons. The counseling relationship is the initial vehicle through which this begins. Like all of us, counselors to are not perfect, but they are trained in developing more healthy and helpful relationships than others.

Question 8.
Authenticity:
Answer:
Your image or perception of yourself makes up your “I”. The self-perceived “I” is revealed through ideas, words, actions, clothing, and lifestyle. All of these communicate your “I” to others. Those who come into close contact with you also build their own image of you for themselves.

Question 9.
Paraphrasing:
Answer:
This skill has already been discussed in the section on communication earlier. You will recall that this involves the ability of a counselor to reflect on what the client says and feels using different words.

Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Working Stage/Phase:
Answer:
This is the second stage/phase of the counseling process. As the title suggests, it is the stage where the counselor fully engages the client in a discussion about what to do and how it will be done concerning the problem of the client. If the client has not disclosed his/her mission in the first stage, the counselor now asks the client. He uses questioning techniques to make the client open up.

Questions such as; Are you okay? Can I help you? What is the matter? What has brought you to my office? The client now responds. The counselor having listened to the client will suggest different techniques depending on the nature of the problem presented on how the problem can be handled. The counselor uses techniques such as responding, exploring, restatement, interpretation, confrontation, unconditional positive regard, empathy, silence, and catharsis to diagnose the problem.

Also, it is during this stage that the goals for counseling are set by the client and counselor. The counselor here tells the client that counseling aids such as cassettes, radio, video, and tape recorders may be used and the purpose for using them will be explained to the client.

Question 2.
What is The Autokinetic Effect?
Answer:
Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a dark room and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number .of trials.

After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members. It was observed that in subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all.

The light was only seen as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the ‘autokinetic effect’). Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the distance the light moved but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants were not given any information regarding the nature of change, if any, in their judgments over trials.

Question 3.
The foot-in-the-door technique.
Answer:
The person begins by making a small request that the other person is not likely to refuse. Once the other person carries out the request, a bigger request is made. Simply because the other person has already complied with the smaller request, he or she may feel uncomfortable refusing the second request. For example, someone may come to us on behalf of a group and give us a gift (something free), saying that it is for promotion. Soon afterward, another member of the same group may come to us again, and ask us to buy a product made by the group.

Question 4.
Ethics of Counselling.
Answer:
In recent years, counselors have taken important steps to develop their professional identity. A critical criterion for any professional group is the development and implementation of appropriate ethical standards. Social workers, marriage counselors, family therapists, and psychologists — all have their ethical codes. Awareness of ethical standards and codes is extremely important because counseling is a part of the service sector.

Not following ethical standards may have legal implications. While learning about the competencies of a counselor, it is important for you to relationship is built on ethical practice. The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed a code of ethical conduct for behavior and decision-making in actual clinical settings. The practical knowledge of these ethical domains can guide the practice of counseling in achieving its desired purpose.

Some of the APA practice guidelines are:
Knowledge of ethical/professional codes, standards, and guidelines, and knowledge of statutes, rules, regulations, and case law relevant to the practice of psychology. Recognize and analyze ethical and legal issues across the range of professional activities in the clinical setting. Recognize and understand the ethical dimensions/features of her/his own attitudes and practice in the clinical setting.

Question 5.
Group Dynamic Process.
Answer:
This process starts with giving the members certain rules that will guide their participation in the group. It could be verbal or written. Each member has to be committed to this guide as it serves as the guiding rule.

• Members are to avoid any drugs during or before the meeting.
• Members are expected to be punctual and regular to meetings.
• Members should not engage in any illicit sexual relationship with the opposite sex in the group.
• Members must avoid smoking during sessions.
• Confidentiality must be maintained by all members.
• Physical violence must be guided and verbally abusive language should be avoided.
• Members are given a list of their rights and responsibilities and what is expected of them before they join the group.
• Children and adolescents must produce written consent from their parents and guardians.
• Before anyone drops out of the group, he should notify the leader and discuss in the group before leaving.
  The next step in group process dynamics is the stages involved in the process. Four stages are identified here.

Question 6.
What is Authenticity?
Answer:
Your image or perception of yourself makes up your “I”. The self-perceived “I” is revealed through ideas, words, actions, clothing, and lifestyle. All of these communicate your “I” to others. Those who come into close contact with you also build their own image of you for themselves and they also sometimes communicate this image to you.

For example, friends tell you what they like and dislike about you. Your teachers and parents praise and/ or criticize you. You are also evaluated by persons you respect. These collective judgments by people you respect, also called significant others’, develop into a ‘me’. This other perceived ‘me’ is the person that others perceive you to be.

This perception may be the same as or different from your own self-perception of T. The degree to which you are aware of these perceptions of others as well as of your own perception of yourself indicates that you are self-aware. Authenticity means that your behavioral expressions are consistent with what you value and the way you feel and relate to your inner self-image.

Question 7.
What is Compliance?
Answer:
It was stated earlier that compliance refers simply to behave in response to a request from another person or group even in the absence of a norm. A good example of compliance is the kind of behavior shown when a salesperson comes to our door. Very often, this person comes with some goods that we really do not wish to buy.

Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we find that the salesperson has spoken to us for a few minutes and the conversation has ended with a purchase of what he or she wished to sell. So why do people comply? In many situations, this happens because it is an easy way out of the situation. It is more polite and the other party is pleased. In other situations, there could be other factors at work. The following techniques have been found to work when someone wants another person to comply.

Question 8.
Define Ingroup and Outgroup.
Answer:
Just as individuals compare themselves with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have and what others have, individuals also compare ‘ the group they belong to with groups of which they are not a member. The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own group and ‘outgroup’ refers to another group.

For ingroup members, we use the word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the word ‘they’ is used. By using the words they had, one is categorizing people as similar or different. It has been found that persons in the ingroup are generally supposed to be similar, are viewed favorably, and have desirable traits. Members of the outgroup are viewed differently and are often perceived negatively in comparison to the ingroup members.

Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect our social lives. These differences can be easily understood by studying Taj fee’s experiments given in Box 7.2. Although it is common to make these categorizations, it should be appreciated that these categories are not real and are created by us. In some cultures, plurality is celebrated as has been the case in India. We have a unique composite culture that is reflected not only in the lives we live but also in our art, architecture, and music.

Question 9.
What is Social Loafing?
Answer:
Social facilitation research suggests that the presence of others leads to arousal and can motivate individuals to enhance their performance if they are already good at solving something. This enhancement occurs when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated. What would happen if the efforts of an individual in a group are pooled so that you look at the performance of the group as a whole? Do you know what often happens?

It has been found that individuals work less hard in a group than they do when performing alone. This points to a phenomenon referred to as ‘social loafing’. Social loafing is a reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs are pooled with those of other group members. An example of such a task is the game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for you to identify how much force each member of the team has been exerting.

Such situations give opportunities to group members to relax and become a free riders. This phenomenon has been demonstrated in many experiments by Latane and his associates who asked a group of male students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were interested in knowing how much noise people make in social settings.

Question 10.
Group Polarisation
Answer:
We all know that important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals Kelman distinguished three forms of social influence, viz. compliance, identification, and internalization. In compliance, there are external conditions that force the individual to accept the influence of the significant other. Compliance also refers to behaving in a particular way in response to a request made by someone.

Thus, in the example described above, you may sign the letter with the thought that you were accepting the request, not because you agree with other students, but because you have been requested to do so by a significant member. This would be a case of compliance also called ‘external/public conformity ’. Compliance could take place even without a norm. For example, a member of a community group for a ‘clean environment’ requests you to put a sticker on your bike that reads, ‘ Say No to Plastic Bags’.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Foundations of Education Solutions Unit 3 Current Issues in Education Short Answer Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Foundations of Education Unit 3 Current Issues in Education Short Answer Questions

Short Type Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What is wastage?
Answer:
Wastage means the immature or premature withdrawal of students from any class before the completion of primary course. This is due to social, economic and geographical causes.

Question 2.
What is stagnation?
Answer:
According to Hartog Committee 1929, the retention of the children in primary classes for more than one year in a class, not promoted to next class is stagnation. It is due to educational defects.

Question 3.
Give three educational causes of wastage and stagnation?
Answer:
Three educational causes of wastage and stagnation are:

• Heavy and uninteresting curriculum.
• Defective method of teaching.
• Irregularities of attendance.

Question 4.
Give two activities which develop national integration in Elementary schools?
Answer:

•  By observing national days in the school.
• Co-curricular activities like games, sports, debates should be organised.

Question 5.
Give the function of DPEP?
Answer:

• Stress on child-centred education,
• Emphasis on minimum levels of learning.
• Emphasis on qualitative and quantiative education.
• Joyful learning and work education to be emphasized.

Question 6.
Give three steps for universalization?
Answer:

• Necessary teaching aids which are attractive.
• Midtime meals provision and supply of play materials,
• Stock of maximum play materials in school.

Question 7.
Give three causes of dropouts?
Answer:

• Poor economic condition of parents.
• Rapid population growth and lack of schools.
• Indifferent attitude towards women education.
• Geographical causes.

Question 8.
Give the elements of Operation Black-board?
Answer:

• Two classrooms with a big verandah.
• Supply of necessary play materials.
• Black-board, maps, and chart, globes and aids.

Question 9.
Give three educational functions of National Integration?
Answer:

• Evoke democratic thoughts among the children by discussion and seminars.
• All should participate in play, games, sports, visting etc. without feeling of caste, creed and religion.
• All should participate in the observation of National Days.

Question 10.
Give two measures to inculcate a spirit of N.I.?
Answer:
The measures to insulate the spirit of national Unity are:

• Celebrate various National days.
• The lives and works of great freedom fighters to be included in the curriculum
• Teachings of great religious leaders should be included in the curriculum.
• Organise inter matches.

Question 11.
Give three remedial measures to check wastage and stagnation?
Answer:

• School hours to be fixed to the geographical situation of the child.
• Enrolment system to be modified to the universal enrolment system.
• Necessary equipments and teaching aids to be provided to schools.

Question 12.
Give three causes that hampers universalization?
Answer:

• Universal provision.
• Apathy to the female education.
• Lack of proper facilities in the school.
• Poor condition of parents.

Question 13.
Give three obstacles of N.I?
Answer:

• Provincialism.
• Multilingualism.
• Unsuitable curriculum
• Lackofnatkaialsystonofeducatioa

Question 14.
Give two activities which develop national integration in Elementary Schools?
Answer:

• By observing national days in the school.
• Co-curricular activities like games and sports, debates should be encouraged.

Question 15.
Give two needs of national integration?
Answer:

• To safeguard the country from foreign aggression and terrorism.
• To safeguard our democracy.
• To develop the spirit of oneness without communal disparities.

Question 16.
Give two measures to inculcate the spirit of NI?
Answer:

• Celebrating various national days.
• The lives and works of great freedom fighters to be included in the curriculum
• Teachings of great religious leaders should be included in the curriculum

Question 17.
Explain three co-curricular activities to promote NI?
Answer:

• Observe national festivals.
• Holding picnics, NCC camps, NSS camps, etc.
• Holding picnics and excursions, debates and seminars, etc.

Question 18.
Give three Educational functions of NI?
Answer:

• Evoke democratic thoughts among the children by discussion and seminars.
• All should participate in play, games, and sports, visiting, etc. Without the feelings of caste, creed, and religion.
• All should participate in the national days celebration.

Question 19.
Explain three elements of values?
Answer:
In national curriculum such intrinsic elements are kept to develop value education such as:

• History of India’s freedom struggle.
• Constitutional rights and duties.
• Equality without men and women before law and other aspects.
• Develop scientific attitude.

Question 20.
What is Eternal values?
Answer:
Eternal values builds man with Saty-Siva-Sundar. Joy is the last aims of man. Such joy is eternal value. Idealists believe in eternal value because those values are spiritual, eternal and everlasting. It remains and remains forever in future. It is permanent and unchangeable.

Question 21.
Explain the main causes of wastage and stagnation?
Answer:
In 1929, Hartog Committee explored the causes and stagnation in Education. To him, the main impediment on the way of universal primary education is wastage and stagnation.
For wastage and stagnation, there are a number of causes, like social, economic, geographical, and educational They are as follows:

• Single-teacher school.
• Lack of trained teachers and women teachers.
• Lack of proper educational equipment and aids.
• Lack of suitable timetable.
• Lack of adequate teaching methods.
• Unsuitable curriculum.
• Lack of a national system of education.
• Poverty of parents.

Question 22.
What are the measures taken in the school to inculcate the spirit of National Integration?
Answer:
Education plays a major role in inspecting the national integration and the following measures are taken in promoting National Integration.

• Observance of various national days and foil participation of the teachers and students. .
• The lives of great men, their contributions and sacrifices of great freedom fighters and national leaders should be included in the curriculum.
• The curriculum should be designed according to national ideals and pay respect to the constitution the fundamental rights and duties.

Question 23.
Explain the major co-curricular activities which can promote national unity or national integration?
Answer:
The following are some of the major co-curricular activities which can promote national unity, are as follows :

• Observance of national festivals like Independence Day, Republic Day and Birth Anniversaries of National heroes should be celebrated in the school.
• Talks and seminars on national ideals.
• Co-curricular activities like sports and games, drama and debate.
• Stamp collection pen-friendship.
• In schools the students should be taken on tours, travels, excursions etc.

Question 24.
Discuss the factors of intrinsic values?
Answer:
In national education curriculum, the following intrinsic values are included. Such as:

• The history of India’s freedom struggle.
• Constitutional rights and duties. ‘
• Ancient heritage and cultural traditions.
• Equality despite ofmen and women.
• Eradication of social evils.
• Decision of snail family.
• Creation of scientific attitude.
• Common harmony, democracy and secularism.

Question 25.
Aims and objectives of value education?
Answer:
The aims and objectives of value education are as follows:

• To develop the moral, spiritual, aesthetic and cultural values among the children.
• To acquaint pupils with democracy, socialism, secularism, law and justice, scientific attitude, etc.
• To develop the character and morality of children.
• Purpose utilization of leisure.
• To develop cultural values among the children.
• To create the awareness of social service attitude and social efficiency with the school children.
• To make our children to be dutiful and an ideal citizen.

Question 26.
What are the problems on the way of value education?
Answer:
The main problems on the way of value education are as follows:

• Value education is a continuous process and so it is not possible to achieve values in one day or so.
• For change in value education there is need of patience.
• A child’s nearest environment is polluted choosing values because which is beautiful attractive, essential for one, it is ugly, unuseful to other.

Question 27.
What is Indian Values, Explain?
Answer:
From time immemorial for ages together India has influenced the world with the fight pf education and civilization. In the exploration of knowledge with world the role of India’s education, civilization and culture contributes greatly.

Dedication, tapasya (worship), and tapovan are the important characteristics of Indian culture. The whole world is a family in such feelings were created in Ancient education. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Mokshya were the four elements which helps in the salvation of man.

Indians are influenced by non-violence, simplicity, cooperation, peace, sanctity and love. Buddha, Shankaracharya, Kabir and Sura Das were the creator of such values.Under the leadership of Gandhi, India got its independence by non-violence and truth.

The fundamental principle of one national system of education are socialism, freedom, equality, brotherhood, nationality and international attitude. After independence Indian bears the values like modernisation, productivity, balance of environment, small family and national integration.

Question 28.
Explain, the ways and means of making universalization of primary education of our State successful?
Answer:
A few measures are suggested below for making universalization of primary education a success in our State.
(1) Workout universal provision – According to Article – 45 of the Indian Constitution 6 to 14 age groups of all children to be given free and compulsory education. Now every village having a school. To support this D.P.E.P. is working in the district level.

(2)Free education -Primary education has become free of tuition fee, provision of mid time meals for children, free medical service, supply of dress, scholarships and maintenance allowance for parents.

(3)Equal education facilities – Privileges equal educational opportunities is given, abolition of tuition fee from primary stage, supply of textbooks and development of an elaborate programme of scholarships, supply of bicycles, etc.

(4)Harnessing wastage and stagnation – Adequate steps taken to minimize of incidence of wastage.

Question 29.
Write down the advantages and disadvantages of I.T. in Education?
Answer:
Advantages –
Although CAI is developed on the principle of programmed learning it also utilises the concept of audio-visual education communication theory, system analysis, data processing and learning theory.

CAI provides learning experiences effectively and efficiently. A good amount of information stored in the computer is made available the learner more rapidly than any other media.
The interaction between a student and instrumental programme is made more dynamic and more individualised. A careful programming is essential for this.

Disadvantages –
CAI is extremely expensive which is not possible in a poor country like India. It is also mostly mechanical and deprived of human touch. So innovation will dehumanize the education system and the teaching-learning process will lifeless and mechanical

Question 30.
Discuss the role of CAI in the field of education?
Answer:
CAI can deal the problem of quality in education more effectively and more flexibly for a student. A learner can make progress at one’s pace receive immediate feedback on the basis of his personal needs and choose material level of instruction freely.

Since each learner’s performance is recorded and evaluated and education can be provided easily. Any lesson in any subject can be programmed for CAI if the objectives be clearly defined and learning materials be represented in words, visuals, and experiments. So CAI is beneficial to a student.

Question 31.
Explain the function of computer in Education?
Answer:
Now computer is considered as a super teaching machine. Its use in education is innovative. In developed countries, its teaching efficiency has proved. The computer has been helping the teacher in the following ways.

• Evaluation of students’ performance and classification of children according to abilities.
• Preparation of timetable and schedules.
• Allocation of fearing materials according to individual needs and interests.
• Maintenance of progress cards efficiently.
• Providing information/data for guidance and reference.
• Provision of direct interaction between pupils and subjects in tutorial work.
• Providing immediate feedback to students for better interaction and motivation.

Question 32.
What is Internet?
Answer:
The Internet is a vast computer network of information and technology in which large number of small network is connected. It is called the super highway of information. The importance of the internet is W (world wave) which is connected with persons, and institutions of the world. By online sendee telecommunication and e-mail, service is possible.

In this short time, information, letters, and pictures are sent from one computer to another computer. Now e-library facilities are there and qualitative information are collected.

For international qualitative education at the international level as well as an e-journal, e-leaming and e-governance is possible.

Question 33.
What is input devices? Give its kinds?
Answer:
An input device is a machine that feeds data into a computer. The input unit is actually a device that provides man-to-machine communication with the computer.

Data and instructions data. Input data may be characters, symbols, audio, visual, or audio-visual The following functions are performed by input devices,

• It accepts the list of instructions and data from the outside world,
• It converts these instructions and data into binary form for acceptance by the computer.
• It supplies converted instructions and data to a computer system for further processing.

The number of input devices inputting information into a computer such as – keyboard, mouse, joystick, lightpen, optical character, recognition bar code scanner, speed recognition, and graphic scanner, etc.

Question 34.
What is an output device? Give kinds of it.
Answer:
The device through which we get information from the computer is known as an output device.

The output coming from the CPU is in the form of electronic binary signals which needs conversion in the same form which can be easily understood by human beings, i.e. graphical
The output can be given:

• On the screen by the visual display unit.
• In printed form by printers.
• In graphic form by plotters.
• In audible sound form by speech.

The output devices may adopt, hard copy devices, and soft copy devices and hard copy devices produce a permanent record on media such as paper sheets.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Psychology Solutions Unit 2 Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Psychology Unit 2 Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1:
Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life.
Answer:
Stress is derived from Latin word ‘strictus’ which means tight or narrow. Stress can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes t6 stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. All the challenges, problems, and difficult circumstances put us to stress. It gives energy, increases human arousal and affects performance.

High stress too can produce unpleasant effects and cause our performance to deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress may cause one to feel somewhat listless and low on motivation which may lead us to perform slowly and less efficiently. It is important to remember that not all stress is inherently bad or destructive.

Examples from daily life:

• Attending parties may be stressful for a person who likes to spend quiet evenings at home.
• If a person gets low marks than his/her expectations, then it may be stressful and a sign of frustration for them.
• When someone is forced to choose a job due to family pressure then it may stressful for him afterwards.

Question 2:
State the symptoms and sources of stress.
Answer:
Symptoms of stress :
Some of us know our pattern of stress response and can gauge the depth of the problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behaviour. These symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved, might have serious implications.

Sources of stress:
A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress. Among the most important of these are major stressful life events, such as the death of a loved one or personal injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that affect our lives.

Question 3:
Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of an example.
Answer:
Selye studied the body when stress is prolonged by subjecting animals to a variety of stressors such as high temperature, X-rays and insulin injections, in the laboratory over a long period of time. He also observed patients with various injuries and illnesses in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily response in all of them. He called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.

• Alarm reaction stage:
  The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to the activation of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system. This triggers the release of
  hormones producing the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight or flight.
• Resistance stage:
  If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The para-sympathetic nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, as through confrontation.
• Exhaustion stage:
  Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes more likely. Selye’s model has been criticised for assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress.
  Researchers have reported that the psychological appraisal of events is important for the determination of stress. How people respond to stress is substantially influenced by their perceptions, personalities and biological constitutions.

Question 4:
Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress.
Answer:
To manage stress we often need to reassess the way we think and learn coping strategies. Different ways of coping with stress are:

• Task-oriented Strategy:
  This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome. lt also involves deciding priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation. For example, schedule my time better, or think about how I have solved similar problems.
• Emotion-oriented Strategy:
  This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions. It can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration or deciding that nothing can be done to change things. For example, tell myself that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am going to do.
• Avoidance-oriented Strategy:
  This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation. It also involves the conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self-protective thoughts. Examples of this are watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to be with other people.

Question 5:
Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning.
Answer:
The effect of stress on psychological functioning:

Emotional Effects:
Those who suffer from stress are far more likely to experience mood swings and show erratic behaviour that may alienate them from family and friends. In some cases this can start a vicious cycle of decreasing confidence, leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological tension and mood swings.

Physiological Effects:
When the human body is placed under physical Or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes in heart rate, blood pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity. Although this physical reaction will help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to the body in the long-term effects. Examples of physiological effects are the release of epinephrine and nor-epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive system, expansion of air passages in the lungs, increased heart rate and constriction of blood vessels.

Cognitive Effects:
If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from mental overload. This suffering from high levels of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability to make sound decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, in career, or at the workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or even loss of job. The cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration and reduced short-term memory capacity.

Behavioural Effects:
Stress affects our behaviour in the form of eating less nutritional food, increasing intake of stimulants such as caffeine, excessive consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs such as tranquillisers etc. Tranquillisers can be addictive and have side effects such as loss of concentration, poor coordination, and dizziness. Some of the typical behavioural effects of stress seen are disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism, and reduced work performance.

Question 6:
Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges.
Answer:
Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our ability to cope depends on how well we are prepared to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands and keep equilibrium in our lives. These life skills can be learned and even improved, upon. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self-care and overcoming unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, and procrastination, etc. are some life skills that will help to meet the challenges of life.

Question 7:
Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being.
Answer:
Various factors have been identified which facilitate the development of positive health. Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health comprises the following constructs: “a healthy body, high quality of. personal relationships, a sense of purpose in life self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks and resilience to stress, trauma and change”. Specifically, factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health are diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive thinking and social support.

Question 8:
How does stress affect the immune system?
Answer:
Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system. How does the immune system work? The white blood, cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the production of antibodies.

There are several kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders and T-helper cells increase immunological activity. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HTV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are involved in the fight against both viruses and tumours.

Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the defence against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell cytotoxicity have been found in people who are highly stressed, including students facing important examinations, bereaved persons and those who are severely depressed. Studies reveal that immune functioning is better in individuals receiving social support. Also, changes in the immune system will have more effect on health among those whose immune systems are already weakened.

Question 9:
Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.
Answer:
Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment we are born. We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be stressful because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval. If several of these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prone to the symptoms of stress.

Unexpected accidents or trauma or the death of close family members are examples of life events which are very stressful for the members, relatives of the family and friends. The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as the age at which the event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event and social support are the reasons which is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it.

Question 10:
Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to your friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives.
Answer:
Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. I would suggest my friends to adopt problem-focused strategies and emotion-focused strategies. Both are coping strategies which can be used to handle stressful situations.

Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain information, to alter the event and to alter beliefs and commitments. They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They can act to reduce the threat value of the event. For example “I made a plan of action and followed it”.

Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself. For example “I did some things to let it out of my system”. While both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping are necessary when facing stressful situations, research suggests that people generally tend to use the former more often than the latter.

Question 11:
Reflect on the environmental factors that have (a) a positive impact on the being, and (b) a negative effect.
Answer:

•  Environmental factors that have a positive impact on the being are social and public campaigns, fair governmental policies, plantation of green plants, medical policies etc.
• Environmental factors that have a negative impact on the being are unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, etc. Another group are catastrophic events, or disasters such as fire, earthquake, floods, etc.

Question 12:
We know that certain lifestyle factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases like cancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour. Explain why?
Answer:
Stress can lead to an unhealthy lifestyle or health-damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s health and quality of life. Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens which are agents causing physical illness. People who are stressed have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and are likely to engage in other health risk behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse.

Such health-impairing behaviours develop gradually and are accompanied by pleasant experiences temporarily. However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging effects and underestimate the risk they pose to our lives. Studies have revealed that health-promoting behaviour like a balanced diet, regular exercise, family support, etc. play an important role in good health.

Adhering to a lifestyle that includes a balanced low-fat diet, regular exercise and continued activity along with positive thinking enhance health and longevity. The modem lifestyle of excesses in eating, drinking and the so-called fast-paced good life has led to the violation of basic principles of health in some of us, as to what we eat think or do with our lives.

Question 13:
What is ‘Eustress’?
Answer:
It is the term used to describe the level of stress that is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for achieving peak performance and managing a minor crisis. Eustress, however, has the potential of turning into ‘distress’. It is this latter manifestation of stress that causes our body’s wear and tear. Thus, stress can be described as the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope.

Question 14:
Describe the Nature of Stress.
Answer:
The word stress has its origin in the Latin words ‘strictus’, meaning tight or narrow and ‘stringere’, the verb meaning to tighten. These root words reflect the internal feelings of tightness and constriction of the muscles and breathing reported by many people under stress. Stress is often explained in terms of characteristics of the environment that are disruptive to the individual. Stressors are events that cause our body to give a stress response.

Such events include noise, crowding, a bad relationship, or the daily commuting to school or the office. The reaction to external stressors is called ‘strain’. Stress has come to be associated with both causes as well as effects. However, this view of stress can cause confusion. Hans Selye,-the father of modem stress research, defined stress as “the nonspecific response of the body to any demand” that is, regardless of the cause of the threat, the individual will respond with the same physiological pattern of reactions.

Many researchers do not agree with this definition as they feel that the stress response is not nearly as general and nonspecific as Selye suggests. Different stressors may produce somewhat different patterns of stress reaction and different individuals may have different characteristic modes of response. You may recall the case of an opening batsman mentioned earlier.

Each one of us will see the situation through our own eyes and it is our perception of the demands, and our ability to meet them, which will determine whether we are feeling ‘stressed’ or not. Stress is not a factor that resides in the individual or the environment, instead, it is embedded in an ongoing process that involves individuals transacting with their social and cultural environments, making appraisals of those encounters and attempting to cope with the issues that arise.

Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or an imbalance that gives rise to a requirement for the resolution of that imbalance or restoration of homeostasis. The perception of stress is dependent upon the individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and the resources available to deal with them.

Question 15:
Explain the stress process of Lazarus.
Answer:
The stress process is based on the cognitive theory of stress propounded by Lazarus and his colleagues. An individual’s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon the perceived events and how they are interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary.
Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as positive, neutral or negative in its consequences. Negative events are appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge.

Harm is the assessment of the damage that has already been done by an event. The threat is the assessment of possible future damage that may be brought about by the event. Challenge appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability to cope with the stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from the event. When we perceive an event as stressful, we are likely to make a secondary appraisal, which is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources and whether they will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat or challenge of the event.

These resources may be mental, physical, personal or social. If one thinks one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social support to deal with the crises she/he will feel less stressed. This two-level appraisal process determines not only our cognitive and behavioural responses but also our emotional and physiological responses to external events. These appraisals are very subjective and will depend on many factors. One factor is. the past experience of dealing with such a stressful condition. If one has handled similar, situations very successfully in the past, they would be less threatening for her/him.

Another factor is whether the stressful event is perceived as controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery or control over a situation. A person who believes that s/he can control the onset of a negative situation, or its adverse consequences, will experience less amount of stress than those who have no such sense of personal control. For example, a sense of self-confidence or efficacy can determine whether the person is likely to appraise the situation as a threat or a challenge. Thus, the experience and outcome of a stressor may vary from individual to individual.

Stress includes all those environmental and personal events, which challenge or threaten the well-being of a person. These stressors can be external, such as environmental (noise, air pollution), social (break-up with a friend, loneliness) or psychological (conflict, frustration) within the individual. Very often, these stressors result in a variety of stress reactions, which may be physiological, behavioural, emotional and cognitive. At the physiological level, arousal plays a key role in stress-related behaviours. The hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways.

The first pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases a large amount of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream. This leads to physiological changes seen in the fight-or-flight response. The second pathway involves the pituitary gland, which secretes the corticosteroid (cortisol) which provides energy. The emotional reactions to the experience of stress include negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression or even denial.

The behavioural responses are virtually limitless, depending on the nature of the stressful event. Confrontative action against the stressor (fight) or withdrawal from the threatening event (flight) are two general categories of behavioural responses. Cognitive responses include beliefs about the harm or threat an event poses and beliefs about its causes or controllability. These include responses such as the inability to concentrate and intrusive, repetitive or morbid thoughts.

As indicated in Figure 3.2, the stresses which people experience also vary in terms of intensity (low intensity vs. high intensity), duration (short-term vs. long-term), complexity ( less complex vs. more complex) and predictability (unexpected vs. predictable). The outcome of stress depends on the position of a particularly stressful experience along these dimensions. Usually, more intense, prolonged or chronic, complex and unanticipated stresses have more negative consequences than have less intense, short-term, less complex and expected stresses.

An individual’s experiences of stress depend on the physiological strength of that person. Thus, individuals with poor physical health and weak constitution would be more vulnerable than would be those who enjoy good health and a strong constitution. Psychological characteristics like mental health, temperament and self-concept are relevant to the experience of stress.

The cultural context in which we live determines the meaning of any event and defines the nature of the response that is expected under various conditions.  Finally, the stress experience will be determined by the resources of the person, such as money, social skills, coping style, support networks, etc; All these factors determine the appraisal of a given stressful situation.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-2.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-2

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
Discuss various factors affecting the caste system.
(Or)
What are the causes responsible for the disintegration of the caste- system?
Answer:
The caste system, under the impact of certain powerful factors, is undergoing drastic changes in modem India. Under the impact of all these powerful forces, wide cracks have already appeared in the walls of the citadel of caste in India. The major factors which are responsible for such changes in the system are

• Modem education
• Industrialization
• Urbanization
• Modem means of transportation
• Increase in importance of wealth
• New social movements
• Political changes
• The new legal system and
• The Indian constitution.

Modern education:
Modem education has played a major role in undermining the importance of caste in Indian social life. Modem education is secular in nature. So it is on one hand based on such democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity, on the other hand, it is based on such scientific values like reason and observation. Modem education is also very much indifferent to religion.

With the spread of modem education beliefs like the divine origin of caste. Karma and Karma fala are growing weaker and weaker in the minds of people with the influence of democratic values like equality, Modem man finds it difficult to accept the principle of inherited inequality on which the entire structure of the caste system is based.

In modem educational institutions children of different castes sit side by side in the same classroom, as a result, the feeling of untouchability do not find scope to develop in the minds of children. Modem co-educational institutions also encourage inter-caste marriages based on love, among educated young men and women. Thus, Modem education acts as a very powerful force against caste in India.

Industrialization :
The effects of industrialization is very much disastrous on the caste- system. Occupational castes cannot survive in the face of large-scale industrialization. For example, the members of the weaving castes are finding it extremely difficult to follow their traditional caste occupations. Because it is not possible for them to compete with the textile mills in the open markets.

The caste system is based on the rural economy. The tradition of the following caste- occupation gradually crumbled down. The members of all castes are interested and getting employment in modem factories. In a factory people of different castes work together. A Brahmin who works by the side of an un-touchable cannot avoid his touch. So the idea of pollution by touch is losing its ground gradually in an industrial setting.

Urbanisation:
Urbanisation, which invariably follows industrialization, has also made it impossible to practice caste- restrictions. Under urban conditions of life, the idea of pollution by the touch of a shadow cannot be translated into action. Because it is impossible on one’s part to restrict himself in a dining place, in a hotel, in a shopping centre etc.

Modern means of transportation:
Geographical isolation was a favourable condition for the creation and continuation of the caste- system in India. But modem means of transportation have increased spatial mobility of the people and thereby put an end to geographical isolation. Again while travelling in a bus, train or tram, it is impossible to observe caste rules regarding food, drink and social intercourse.

Increase in importance of wealth:
In the present age, wealth is replacing birth as the basis of social prestige. Hence, caste, which is based on birth, is no longer the basis of social status. In modem society, a rich Shudra is getting more prestige than a poor Brahmin. Hence people while choosing their occupations, give more consideration to income than to occupation.

New social movements:
A number of movements were launched in the past against the caste system. The social movements started by Raja Rammohan Roy, and Dayananda Saraswati could influence the intelligence of the country against the caste- system and other evils of Hindu society.

Political Changes:
One of the main aims of the Indian national freedom movement was to abolish all discrimination particularly the caste- a system in Indian society. This movement created a strong public opinion against the caste- system in India. Hence, when India got independence, a democratic form of society abolished all discriminatory practices based on caste, creed, sex, etc. Secondly, ideologies like communism, which is based on the principle of a classless society, have also become popular in India. New groups based on class interests rather than caste interests have emerged in the country.

New legal system:
The new legal system has also played a vital role against the caste- system, as a result, the age-old legal discrimination against the lower castes has been removed. Under the new system, the principle of equality before law has firmly been instituted in legal proceedings. Again with the establishment of judicial courts, the caste, panchayats have lost their power to punish the culprits and enforce the caste rules. Besides a number of acts like. The untouchability Offences Act of 1995 and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 have been passed, which prove too disastrous to the caste system.

The Indian Constitution:
Our constitution is taking strong steps against the very existence of caste in India Para 15(2) of the constitution which declares all citizens as equal, directly attacks the Hindu social order based on the caste system. It is clear from the above discussion that due to the influence of the above factors the caste- system has been changing in India. But it would be a gross mistake to think that the caste- system has completely disappeared from the Indian scene.

Question 2.
Discuss recent changes in the institution of caste.
(Or)
Discuss the changing aspects of the caste system in Indian Society.
(Or)
“Caste has never maintained its traditional forms” – justify the system.
Answer:
As a consequence of the impact of a number of factors like industrialization, urbanization, modem education, development in modem means of transportation, new social movements, the new legal system, an increase in the importance of wealth, political changes and the constitutional provisions, there have been a number of changes in the caste system. As a result, caste has never maintained its traditional forms.
The changes in the caste systems are –

• The decline in the supremacy of the Brahmin.
• Changes in status structure.
• Development in the socio-economic conditions of the Harijans.
• Changes in the functions of caste.
• Changes in rules regarding marriage.
• Change in restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse.
• Changes in restrictions regarding the choice of occupations.
• Changes in the ideas regarding the doctrine of karma.

The decline in the supremacy of the Brahmin:
Under the caste system, the Brahmin occupied the highest position. The whole system revolved around the prestige of the Brahmin. But today he does not enjoy the same high and dominant social position. For example, in the past, the Brahmin is only allowed to read Vedas, Epics etc. But now other lower caste people are enjoying the position of Brahmin.

Changes in the status structure:
Traditionally caste society was a closed and rigid society. Each caste had its own traditional status in the hierarchy of castes, which was more or less permanently fixed. Besides, every caste had its own style of life, followed exclusively by its members.

It was these differences in the styles of life that made the people of different castes appear distinct from one another. But at present people of lower castes are adopting the lifestyles of higher castes and claiming and actually achieving higher status in society. This process which Srinivas refers as Sanskritization.

Development in the socio-economic conditions of the Harijans:
Thirdly, as a result of the governmental policy of protective discrimination, the socio-economic condition of the Harijans has been considerably improved. As a result, the downtrodden people of the society namely the Harijans have been able to get higher status.

Changes in the functions of caste:
In the fourth place, there are changes in the functions of castes. For example, in a caste system, people get status according to their caste. So the caste system was the determinant of one’s status. But under the changed conditions of modem society, birth is no longer regarded as the basis of social prestige. Today wealth and achievement have replaced birth as the basis of social status. Asa result caste has lost its traditional function of determining the status of an individual in society.

Changes in the rules regarding marriage :
The other important change in the caste- system is marriage. Under the caste system, there were strict rules regulating the choice of mates. Every caste and sub-caste was an endogamous group, each caste was not allowed to marry outside one’s own caste. But nowadays inter-caste marriages are more prevalent in society. The Special Marriage Act and Hindu Marriage Act have removed all the restrictions and declared inter-caste marriage as legally valid.

Changes in restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse:
Sixthly, there are changes in the ideas of pollution and other restrictions on food, drink etc. The higher caste people i.e. Brahmin do not take food and drink from lower caste people. Similarly, if a lower caste people touch a higher caste then the higher caste people got polluted. So there were very many restrictions. But. today these rules have lost their significance in Hindu society.

Changes in restriction regarding the choice of occupation:
In the caste system choice of occupation was not free. Each caste had its own traditional occupation, which its members had invariably to follow. But now- a -days people follow occupations which are not their own caste’s occupation. Nowadays those occupations which arc profitable are followed by people irrespective of their caste. Now a Brahmin works in a leather factory whereas a Shudra is accompanied By a teaching profession, which in traditional society could not be imagined.

Changes in the ideas regarding the doctrine of Karma:
The family caste system has lost its grip on the minds of the people. People have begun to doubt the validity of the caste system. Now, they do not believe in the theory of Karma, or the doctrine of Karma, Karmafala etc. So also they do not believe that the caste system is a divinely ordained institution.

Question 3.
Do you think that the caste system is disappearing from India? Give reasons in support of your opinion.
(Or)
Discuss the present trends and future of the caste system.
Answer:
In India, we find a unique system of social stratification based on birth, the like of which is not found elsewhere in the whole world. This system is known as the ‘caste- system’ and divides Indian society into several groups. This caste system transforms into casteism in the evil hand. It has contributed a number of functions to its credit and is also not devoid of dysfunctions.

The caste system serves as a device of the division of labour in society. It integrates society and also brings stability to society. In a traditional way, it determines the status of the individual and it also guides the individual behaviour. The age-old system, i.e. caste system, under the impact of certain powerful factors is undergoing drastic changes in modem India.

At the same time it is right to say that due to modem education, industrialization, urbanization, development in the means of transportation, increase in the importance of wealth, political changes and the new legal system some changes have taken place in the caste- system. As a result, wide cracks have already appeared in the walls of the citadel of caste in India.

Encouraged by the visible changes in the system, some students of the institution have come to believe that the caste system is soon going to dis- integrate in India. But scholars like Prof. Ghurye and Prof. Srinivas do not agree with this view. They on the contrary assert that caste in modem India is becoming stronger and will continue to exist for some time to come.

Dr Ghurye, says that caste will continue to exist in India for some time due to certain factors that are active today in the country. He says that while democracy weakens caste, the method of elections at present strengthens the caste system. As the governmental machinery in a democracy is run by the elected representatives of the people, elections in India have become imperative.

But unfortunately, in this country elections are fought and won on the basis of caste. Candidates contesting elections seek support from their caste fellows by drumming the cause of casteism. These leaders maintain casteism even after the elections by showing special treatment to their caste members. Even political parties are not free from ‘caste politics’.

Political parties in India sponsor candidates having a social base, which is nothing but the numerical strength of the caste of a candidate in the constituency. Thus elections have actually encouraged casteism in India. So caste has assumed political functions and has become stronger today. Dr Ghuiye also says another factor encouraging caste in India, is the special constitutional protection accorded to the scheduled and other backward castes.

The Indian constitution makes special provisions for the protection of these castes in the form of reservations in the central and state legislative government services. In addition, it directs the government to provide many other facilities to them. These constitutional provisions have created casteism among the people of these castes.

Prof. M.N. Srinivas holds that the establishment of a national government for the whole country, the political boundaries of the small independent states, that hitherto acted as barriers and prevented the members of a caste, spread over a large- part of the country, from uniting have disappeared. As a consequence castes especially the larger ones have found it easier to organize themselves on an unprecedented scale.

Hence castes in modem India have become more organized and stronger.  Secondly, modem developments in the means of transportation and communication are regarded by him as another potent factor in strengthening caste in India. He is of the opinion that modem means of transportation and communication such as the railways, buses, printing press, postal services, newspapers etc. have enabled the members of castes, scattered all over the country, to come together and discuss problems concerning the interests of their own castes and organize more effectively into large caste associations.

As such, in modem India, castes have actually become more effective and stronger. Besides, no accurate predictions can be made about the future of the caste system in India. Therefore many thinkers would like to be non-committal about its future. But there are scholars like Prof, Srinivas, who believe, that caste is so an organic part of Hindu society and Hindu social organization that it is difficult to conceive of Hindu society without it.

There are other scholars like Prof. Ghurye, who think that caste has outlived its usefulness and therefore it should go. They also believe that Hindu society will sooner or later, be got rid of caste. In modem day, there are already some important changes in the salient features of the system like marriage, occupation, styles of life etc. brought about by forces discussed before.

But at the same time, there are equality powerful factors like the method of elections, protection of the scheduled and other backward castes etc. which encouraged casteism. From the above analysis, it may be said that some more changes will certainly take place in the system. But it is wrong to believe that the system. But it is wrong to believe that the system will altogether be eliminated from Indian social science. It may assume new forms and perform new functions in the changed conditions of modem society.

Question 4.
What do you mean by class? Write an essay regarding the emergence of the class- system in Indian society.
Answer:
If the caste system is found to be unique to India, the class- system is universal in nature. ‘ Social class’ is a principal type of social stratification found especially in the modem civilized countries. Sometimes the word ‘class’ is used to represent groups of professors, artists, engineers, doctors, students etc. The word ‘class’ is also used to refer to the quality of things whether good, better, best and so on.

But the concept of ‘social class’ is more used in sociology representing a kind of social stratification than anything else.  P. Gisbert says “A social class is a category or a permanently determines their relation to other groups.” Ogburn and Nimkoff say that “A Social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially the same social status in a given society.

Maclver and Page define “A social is any portion of the community marked off from the rest by social status”. A social class is understood mainly in two different ways. Firstly, there is the Marxian conception of class. The Marxists define a class in terms of its relation to the means of production. According to them, a class is determined by its possession of such objective, usually economic criteria like wealth, occupation and income.

Secondly, there are thinkers like Maclver, who view class as a status group. But there are also other sociologists like Max Weber who tried to reconcile these two divergent approaches to class in their studies of modem social organization.

Characteristics of social class:

• A social class is essentially a status group.
• Status in the case of the class system is achieved and not ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status. The achievement of an individual mostly decides his status.
• Class is almost a universal phenomenon which appears in all the modem complex societies of the world.
• A social class is not transitory nor unstable like a crowd or a mob. It is relatively a stable group.
• There is a feeling of equality in relation to members of one’s own class. Individuals belonging to the same social class are expected to maintain a similar standard of life.
• There is a feeling of inferiority and superiority in the social hierarchy.
• The class system is associated with class consciousness, Class consciousness is the sentiment that characterises the relations of men towards the members of their own and other classes.

The emergence of class, as we understand them today, is the direct result of British rule in India. The British in India established a new social economy and a new administrative system. It also introduced modem education and industrialization. These forces give rise to new social classes in Indian society. The British introduced drastic changes in the economy through legislation.

Firstly, private property in the form of Zamindari and Ryotwari systems was recognized and as a result of two classes, namely the zamindars and the peasants came into being. Secondly right to lease, the land created the tenants and sub-tenants. Finally, the right to purchase and sell the land and the right to hire and employ labour on land created conditions for the emergence of such classes as absentee landlords and the agricultural proletariat.

Under the agrarian economic system there developed new classes of intermediaries like money lenders, absentee landlords and merchants. However, it is not to say that merchants and money lenders did not exist in pre-British India They did exist but their position and function in the old economy were fundamentally different. After Independence, the agrarian class structure has undergone radical changes due to the abolition of the zamindari system, ceilings on land holdings, tenancy reforms etc.

As a consequence, the agrarian class structure, at present, consists of two principal classes namely land owners and agricultural labourers.
Under British rule production in India became more and more for the market. The internal market expanded and got linked up with the world market Thus, the class of commercial bourgeoisie came into being.

A large class of merchants grew who were primarily engaged in the import and export of goods from and into India. The new commercial class purchased the agricultural and industrial goods produced in India and sold them in both Indian and world markets. The profits and savings made by the trading class zamindars and wealthy members of professional classes served as the capital for the growth of Indian-owned industries like textile, mining etc.

With the growth of industries, the bourgeoisie and proletariat came into existence. There also grew professional classes comprising lawyers, doctors, teachers, managers, engineers, technologists, and journalists in response to the needs of the new society. In addition to the above-mentioned classes, another class of petty traders and shopkeepers also developed in every town and city.

Along with these new classes, some old classes like the village artisans and urban handicraftsmen also survived and existed side by side in India. C.H. Cooley opines that three principal conditions favour the growth of social classes. They are:-

Marked differences in the constituent parts of the population:
When the population is composed of different races, this racial heterogeneity facilitates the growth of social classes. Little communication and enlightenment: Lack of inter-communication among the people also favours the growth of social distances increase.

A slow rate of social change:
Perhaps the slow rate of society is the principal factor favouring the growth of social classes. When society does not change and condition remains much the same from generation, social classes develop. The Indian society remained static for about three thousand years with the result that untouchables were not permitted to use public wells or enter temples.

Question 5.
Distinguish between ‘Caste and Class’.
(Or)
Both ‘Caste’ and “Class’ co-exist in Indian society – Justify the statement.
Answer:
There are a number of points which have so far remained unclarified in regard to the nature of caste and class in India. Caste and class are polar opposites. Caste is being replaced by class; caste is a rural phenomenon whereas clan is found in urban industrial settings. Caste is an ascriptive system and class is based on the achievement principle.

Caste is a closed system and does not allow mobility for its members, whereas class is an open system and allows mobility for its members, India has/had a caste system, hence a ‘caste model’ for studying Indian society and the west has/had classes. Hence a ‘class model’ for studying western societies – is some of the familiar misconceived notions about caste and class in India.

However, these notions are rooted in the historicity of Indian society and its culture including British and post-independence academic colonialism. Battelle does not offer a ‘class analysis’ of Indian society as an alternative to the ‘caste – model’, In fact, he suggests a sort of modification of the caste model by putting an emphasis on the study of economic and political activities of inter-caste relations.

However, he points out that it could be wrong to consider India as a ‘caste society and the united states as a ‘class society and Europe as a ‘caste society. Bettie takes a clue from Leach, Bailey and Dumont who have offered a ‘caste- model’ of Indian society. The essence of the views of Leach, Bailey and Dumont is that caste is a non-competitive system, the castes are non-antagonistic strata.

Competition refers to class and cooperation refers to caste. This is really a very erroneous view about both class and caste and more so about the understanding of caste, in India. Bailey refers to caste groups which cooperate and do not compete. But western scholars including Leach look at the caste system from the viewpoint of class in western societies.

Leach finds competition within the ‘dominant caste’ and not between the dominant caste and other castes. Ketkar mentions hereditary membership and endogamy as the most striking features of the caste, system in India. Funeral, Hutton and Sherring observe that the caste system is ‘functional’ for Indian society. Ghurye refers to six features of the caste system and upholds the endogamy of its essence.

Other students of Indian society have also provided a view that either refers to the uniqueness of the caste system or they have viewed it from the viewpoint of their own society. Marx related to Asiatic mode of production to the stability of the caste system in India. H.J.S. Maine referred to caste as an example of a non-contractual4 status society’ Senate.

Hocart and Dumont have emphasized ritual Criteria and pollution Purity as the basis of Hindu society. Weber considered caste as a system of status groups based on the other world by doctrines of Hinduism.  At the same time scholars of the west glorified the class system with a view to establishing the superiority of western society and culture, Class was considered an open system, the individual was given freedom of movement under the system and achievement was the essence of the system.

In contrast to caste system was a closed system, the individual could not move up the hierarchy and it was a system based on aspiration. Caste and class were polar opposites. Caste was considered a feature of an archaic society like India and class was considered a characteristic feature of the industrially advanced achievement based on western society.

This clearly shows that western scholars mainly the American and the British tried to establish their hegemony by academic propaganda. Maclver and Page do not define class strictly in the economic sense. They refer to status’ as the basis of what they call the social class”. T.H. Marshall. T. Parsons, K. Davis and W. Moore. T.B. Bottomore and Richard centres decline class either in terms of status or in psychological terms.

The perfect example of the definitions of caste cis-a-vis class is found in India and class is a feature of the western world. Berreman recently published essay which has been written over a period of two decades emphasises that ‘caste-based’ inequalities in India are not different from race-based inequalities in the United States of America. Gough has been highlighting the class basis of the caste system in India.

N.K. Byse refers to the class genesis of the caste structure in Bengal. Changes from caste to class are noted by Mishra, Beteille, Miller and Kolenda. A class analysis of Indian society in general and the caste system and village community, in particular, is found in A.R. Desai’s edited work on rural sociology. D. Souza decisively concludes that class is replacing caste and the individual is replacing the group.

Beteille realized that caste alone is not the totality of social stratification and that caste is not being replaced by class. Class in India is generally seen as a consequence of a change in the caste system and not as a concomitant and co-existent system separate from caste. Dube and Singh both realize that the concepts of caste and class have been basically Western and therefore ignore the historicity of Indian society in their formulations.

Caste has been taken as synonymous with the social formation of Indian society and therefore class is treated as an alternative system to caste. However the fact is that neither does caste refer to the totality of social formations nor is class the polar opposite of caste, caste and class; caste, class and power, caste, religion and power and caste, class and politics do not provide a corrective to the caste alone approach.

These studies are rooted in the falsity of the western dichotomy of tradition and modernity and the trilogy of class, status and party. They do not incorporate the existence of Indian society into the concepts of caste, class and power etc. Hence they are inadequate in rescuing us from these aline concepts and theories. Class in India has existed along with caste and power.

Caste incorporates class and class incorporates caste in the Indian context. ‘Neither the ‘caste alone’ view nor the class alone’ perspective will help in a proper and fuller understanding of Indian society. Castes have been functioning as classes for all practical considerations. The Varna and the Jajmani system can be explained in terms of class relations.

The main classes today in India are – the agrarian classes, the industrial classes, the business and the mercantile classes and the professional classes. Industrial, business and professional classes characterize urban India and land owners, tenants, and agricultural labourers are found in the countryside.

Question 6.
What is a joint family? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
An Indian family is based upon the sanctity of domestic life and value commitments which make it intimate, personal and durable Family for an Indian is a sacred institution in which the interrelationship between husband and wife, father and son. brother and sister is booked by religious and spiritualists consideration notify more annexations of consanguinity. Thus, the family bond, the sense of duties and obligations toward each other continues even for generations together.

As such, an Indian family, more particularly a Hindu family becomes large, extended and of the type described as joint. Thus, now it is very much clear that a joint family is a large group of the members of two or more generations having a common ancestry, common – property, common culture, and common household, playing, different roles of father, mother, son, daughter, brother and sister and contributing towards the betterment of family as a whole.

Characteristics of a joint family:

Large size:
The members of two or more generations constitute a joint family. As Jolly puts it, not only do parents and children brothers and step-brothers live on the common property but it may sometimes, include ascendants, descendants and collaterally up to many generations. Hence, it is quite natural that the size of a joint family becomes large in comparison to a nuclear family in which a man lives his immediate family consisting of only his wife and children.

Joint property:
Another feature of a joint family is that all the members hold the property in common. Everyone works according to his capacity and brings the earnings to home. Mostly the economy of a family is based on agriculture. The adult members cultivate their inherited property. Whatever property is bought or sold, is added or subtracted from the common property of the family. The head of the family, generally known as ‘Karta’ manages the entire socio-economic affairs like a trustee.

Common Residence and Joint Kitchen:
All the members of a joint family generally live under one roof. The entire house is divided into many small rooms for the use of different brothers. Sometimes separate rooms are also constructed for grown-up children depending on the resources and condition of the family. All these members take their food cooked in one kitchen. Mostly there is a common arrangement for joint living and common dining.

Common rituals and ceremonies:
Every joint family has its own rites and rituals in accordance with caste norms and religious obligations. All the members participate in such common rites and rituals. Each family has its own ‘kula devata’ (family deity) which is worshipped by all the members.

Socialist system:
Functionally, the joint family is a sort of cooperative enterprise based on secularistic norms. Everyone works for the benefit of the family as a whole. The rights and privileges are distributed equally among all the members. Each member contributes according to his capacity and gets according to his necessity. The responsibility of children old am unable members are shared by all.

Mutual obligations:
In a joint family all the members, due to their common ancestry feel mutually obliged to each other. No one works against the interest of the other. Everyone is interested in the welfare of all the members of his family. A mutual understanding, co-operative spirit, and give-and-take informal relationship bind all the members together.

The ‘Karta’ as the authority:
The Karta or the head of the family acts as the formal authority in all the affairs of the family. Generally, the ‘Karta’ is the eldest male member. All the earning members keep their earnings with him and the entire property is kept under his control. All the family celebrations like marriage, birth and death anniversary are held under his direction and guidance. The disputes and dissatisfaction among the members are settled by him. All the members remain obliged to him and his decision stands final in all matters.

Question 7.
Define joint family and discuss its functions.
Answer:
A joint family is a large social group in which the father, mother, their children, uncle, aunt, grandfather and grandmother live together. According to Dr Iravati Karve, “A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.” According to D.G Mandelbaum, ‘Joint family consists of typically’ of a set of men related to each other as father and sons are brothers and live together with their wives and children.

Functions of joint family:
Following are the functions of the joint family

Social control:
Social control is the function of a joint family. In a joint family, the relations between the members are direct, intimate and personal. The social relationship of a joint family acts as an important means of social control of the parents and other elder members 6f the family. In a joint family the leaders have direct control of the activities of the members.

Socialisation:
A joint family plays a very important role in the socialisation process of the child. If fosters good qualities among its members. In a joint family, children learn social adjustment and other social virtues, like obedience, self-discipline, love, cooperation, self-sacrifice, self-confidence and patience. The youngsters always have a sense of respect for the elders in a joint family.

Development of personality:
It is one of the important functions of a joint family which work in close collaboration with each other. All the members sacrifice themselves for the sake of the family. In a joint family, the children can be brought up and regarded properly by the family members. All these lead to the development of the personality of the members.

Economic functions:
A joint family also performs some economic functions. It acts as both productions as well as consumption unit. A joint family fulfils all the economic needs on the principle of joint ownership of land. It saves land from being fragmented into small and economic holdings. All earnings in a joint family are pooled into a common fund, and every member gets an almost equal share irrespective of his income. In a joint family cooking and household, purchases are done jointly resulting in considerable savings.

Educational function:
A joint family imparts education to the members. It is from the family that children learn the first letter under the affectionate guidance of either parent and other members. A joint family provides vocational education of its members. All the social virtues of children are developed by members of the family regarded as the first school of children.

Division of labour:
A joint family system creates a division of labour among the members. Every member in a joint family is as signed with work according to his ability and none is overburdened.

Question 8.
Discuss the merits and demerits of a joint family.
Answer:
A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, eat food cooked at one hearth, hold property in common, participate in common worship and are related as some particular type of kindred.

Merits of joint family:

Economic merits:
From an economic point of view, joint family system has many advantages. It creates obstacles for subdivision and fragmentation of landed property. That means it prevents family property from being divided due to indivisibility and non-fragmentation of family property. Economic production increases considerably. In a joint family, all the members work together in the family property.

Division of labour:
The joint family system is based on the principle of division of labour. Every member of the family is provided work in accordance with his ability and capacity. For example, in joint families, women look after domestic affairs and care of children whereas men work in the fields. Similarly, in farming season all the members collectively work according to their abilities.

Protection of members:
Our late Prime Minister Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru had said that the joint family system is insurance for the family members which provides a guarantee of protection to those who are physically and mentally weak. It provides social security to those members who are sick, old, invalid, destitute, infirm and instance.

Cradle of social virtues:
A joint family is a storehouse of social virtues or good qualities like love, cooperation, affection, sympathy, sacrifice, tolerance, honesty, obedience, discipline, a broad spirit of selfless service generality, self-control, and mindlessness, for one among its members. These qualities are very essential for every individual in society. Joint family has checked the undesirable and anti-social tendencies of these youth through the care of elders. Thus, a joint family is a cradle of social virtues.

Means of Recreation:
A joint family is one of the best means of recreation. It creates friendly and stimulating taking of the children, mother’s love, love between brothers and sister and the like for the entertainment of the members. Joint family has formed many recreation and cultural institutions. At the time of the fifth, marriage and death, the joint family arranges many cultural functions. The joint family actually takes over the role of a club by providing recreation to all the members.

Sense of unity :
A joint family creates a sense of oneness and unity among its members. It is a strong ‘we feeling’ or belongingness among the members of a joint family. All the family members face a crisis collectively. It gives them a sense of security which is necessary for the development of personality.

Economy:
The joint family system is very economic in nature because there is a common residence and a common kitchen. It secures the economy of expenditure. The things consumed in large qualities are purchased at a wholesale rate and are secured as economically secure.

Socialism on wealth:
According to Sir Henry Maine, a joint family is like a cooperating trust where the father acts as its trustee. Every member in a joint family Works according to this necessity. Thus, the joint family achieves the socialistic form according to his needs. The fundamental of a joint family is to provide minimum needs such as food, clothing and shelter to every member.

Demerits of joint family:
In spite of the above merits, the joint family system has certain demerits also. The following are the main demerits of a joint family.

Hindrance to the development of personality:
The main demerit of a joint family is the hindrance to the development of the personality of its members. In the joint family, the head is the absolute ruler.He directly controls the behaviour of all the members. He regards them as children though they have turned adulthood. The head is the sole authority to take any decision in the family affairs. The members are not permitted to express their views independently or against the supreme administration of the head nor they can disobey the rules and regulations of the family when framed by the head.

Miserable conditions of women:
The miserable condition of women is yet another disadvantage of the joint family system. In a joint family, women are generally known as neglected and backward persons because they do not get any opportunity to develop their personalities. They are confirmed within the four walls of the house and deserve the entire family like slaves.

The women can neither talk nor express their views independently particularly. In a joint family, the condition of the daughter-in-law is very miserable. They are often ill-treated by their mother-in-law and sister-in-law. Some of them even commit suicide due to intolerable and unendurable oppression and suffering hence the condition of women is very pitiable in the joint family.

Increase of Idleness:
The point family system encourages idleness. All the members of a joint family are sure of economic security. lt is because whether a member works or not, a joint family provides minimum economic needs such as food, clothing and shelter to all members. Therefore, some members do not work for the progress of the family due to this facility. As a result of this laziness of the member’s increases. It hinders the economic prosperity of the family. Thus, a joint family acts as a centre of idleness.

Centre of quarrels:
A joint family is generally known as a centre of the conflict. It is a hotbed of quarrels and bickering, especially among female members. Due to their selfishness and jealous nature the mother-in-law, the sister-in-law and the daughter-in-law create conflict with each other frequently. The activities of children create tension in the family daily disputes and conflict make the family a bed for its members.

Lack of privacy:
In a joint family, there is a lack of sufficient accommodation for its members Newly married couples face great difficulty in a joint family. They do not discuss the- problems in the presence of their elders. The wife cannot meet her husband in a daytime. It imposes certain restrictions upon husband and wife by which they cannot enjoy their marital life fully. Due to these restrictions, they do not have the opportunity to develop their personality.

Uncontrolled reproduction:
A joint family is the centre of uncontrolled reproduction. The responsibility to bring up children and educate them is shared in a joint family. Therefore, no members brothers about the number of children he should produce. In a joint family, the individual does not feel the responsibility of individual members. Thus, uncontrolled reproduction is a serious demerit of disadvantaged or a joint families and it leads to poverty.

Hindrance to social change :
Joint family acts as a great obstacle to social change. The members are more conservative and they do not accept any change of society easily. They strictly follow the old traditional custom, folkways and modes in that way it hinders social change. The members of the joint family do not avoid old culture and values as a result of which new scientific inventions and discoveries are retarded.

Hindrances to economic progress:
A joint family hinders the economic progress of society because those who work hard are not properly rewarded. There is always satisfaction among the earning members. The wives of the earning members instigate their husbands not to manage the family and work in proportion to what they get from the family. It checks and hinders the economic progress of the family.

Social problems:
Lastly, a joint family disorganises society by creating social problems. Actually, the joint family is a solid place for social problems. Firstly, uncontrolled reproduction it increases the population of a country. Secondly, the joint family does not take proper care of the children. As a result of which children become juvenile delinquents in joint families. Thirdly, it increases the unemployment problem due to a lack of education and proper training.

Fourthly, on the basis of the dowry system, it leads to survival and bride-burning among young women. Fifthly, due to family quarrels, joint family increases divorce among the members. Lastly, it does not control its members directly. As a consequence, they indulge in various antisocial works. Owing to these reasons, the joint family system violates the peaceful atmosphere of society.

Question 9.
Describe the recent changes in a joint family.
Answer:
Changes in social conditions led to changes in social institutions. A joint family which was once upon a time created in response to certain needs of man is now undergoing a large number of changes. These changes in the institution of the joint family were due to the influence of a large number of factors like the influence of western culture, legislation, enlightenment of women, modem education, economic freedom, industrialisation, overpopulation etc.

Thus, as a result of the impact of the above-mentioned some changes in the joint family structure; features and have become inevitable. These changes are as follows. The first change in the institution related to the common residence. Nowadays members of a joint family are no more living in a common residence but still, but live in a joint family.

In spite of living under one roof, they also remain as a member of a joint family. The second kind of change is related to a common kitchen. Because of industrialisation and urbanisation members of joint families are living in far-off places as they are working in different places. Hence, in spite of their separate kitchens they still also remain in a joint family.

Thirdly, there is also a change in the concept of common worship. Members of joint family are no more gathering in everyday morning and evening, for worship. They are only coming together at the time of common festivals. Fourthly, change is also occurring in the large size of joint families. Joint family has ceased to be very large in size. It does not have more generation depth, than before.

Fifthly, a great deal of change is also being noted in the authority of the head or in the rule of the Karta. The eldest male member of the joint family is no more enjoying his previous power. He is no more exercising such absolute power over the members of the joint family. Sixthly, there is a change in the functions of the joint family. The joint family instead of developing good.

Questionuestionuestionuestionualities among its members create jealousy, self- centredness etc.  Now- a – days joint family ceases its role of providing healthy recreation in its members. Even in many places, joint families failed to provide all sorts of social security to their members. Thus, these are the changes found in the institution of a joint family.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-1.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 2 Indian Social Structure Long Answer Questions Part-1

Long Questions With Answers

Question 1.
What are the factors responsible for the different changes in the village community?
Answer:
Change is universal.
Every society and culture no matter how traditional and conservative is constantly undergoing changes and transformations are part of over lives Indian village community is not an exception to this. The village community is less dynamic than the undergoing change, no doubt but this does mean that the cultivators have absolutely no mobility. The village communities to are changeable even though the rate of change within them is very slow.

The characteristics of village community which have been eliminated above can be found to exist in those villages which have remained unaffected by the influence of the town. Otherwise, these elements are vanishing from the village community. Some important aspects of the village community in which changes are taking place are discussed below.

Change in caste system :
Changes in the elements of caste have brought changes in the different aspects of the village community. They are the following.

Caste is no more closed in today’s society. During British rule, the caste in the village community has lost its eight. The linkage between caste and occupation is no longer because the people are adopting new vocations in large numbers. This has happened because traditional occupations are unable to provide jobs to all its members in the context of the technological advances in agriculture. So many Brahmins and Kshatriyas have started farming.

The members of the untouchable castes have become agriculture labourers so in these days members of different. Caste, high and low, taking to factory work and other manual jobs. Regarding the status of an individual now it is determined no through his birth in a family but by his personality, financial conditions and activities as well. The Caste Panchayats have lost their power.

It has completely died away although some castes have formed their organisation for the protection of their interests. Although the caste system appears to be growing weak on the one hand. It seems to go in strength upon the other casteism is increasing due to political and other interests. Government as well as non-government authorities think it desirable to employ only the members of their own caste in elections who would try to gain advantages for their own caste.

Marriage:
The institution of marriage in the village community has completely changed. Marriage is no more endogamous Marriage is now contracted between members of neighbouring villages and groups. Marriage which was treated as a religious sacrament now it is found that a sacred base of marriage is gradually det deteriorating. Because the customs of marriage are undergoing changes. The area of selection of mates is increasing. Although the parents decide on the marriage.

It is considered quite proper to take the consent of the boy and girl. In today’s society, there is heavy demand for dowry which is increasing day by day among Hindus. So is that of Mehar in Muslims. Apart from it, the education and qualities of girls are still an important factors in marriage. The growth of divorce is very high in the village community. There is also a decline of child marriage and acceptance of widow remarriage in modem village communities.

Joint family:
The joint family which was previously treated as the unit of the village community has been replaced by the nuclear family. So the size of the family is being smaller and smaller and there is the growth of individualization, and materialisation showing the sign of disintegration. The role of elders in family decision-making has been weakened. Each and every member wants to become stronger by which the family ties are discarded.

The enlightenment of women has made them conscious of their position in the family. Their lives are no more confined to the four walls of the house and they have taken many activities inside the family, which is sometimes responsible for the breakdown of the family in the village community.

Jajmani system:
The jamjar system in the traditional village community was closely connected with the caste system. Due to changes in different aspects of caste the growth of the Jajmani system has been affected. As a result of different efforts made by the government, the lower castes have now gained a certain degree of self-respect and their Jajmani relations with other castes are in the progress of being broken.

The occupations are no longer based on caste and the caste panchayats have lost their power which leads to the elimination of the Jajmani system. The circulation of money in place of services in the village has a degenerating effect on the Jajmani system.

Food and Dress:
Many changes have been noticed in the mode of living of the village community, particularly in the dress and food habits, many changes have been taken place. There is a quick change in the dress of the village. They use modem-fascinated dresses by imitating the urban civilisation. It has given emphasis to the will-made cloth which has replaced the handspun cloth.

They have a liking towards western dresses. The village women are now consuming more clothes of artificial silk, artificial jewellery and cheap cosmetics. So there is an unexpected change not in food habits but in dresses also.

Recreation:
A great change has been noticed in the village communities. In traditional society, the family was treated as main centre of recreation. But today the young men of the village have developed a liking for cinema, newspapers, clubs, hotels, and parks. So the means of recreation are gradually getting into life patterns of village communities. The organized facilities like radio, television, and video have attracted the villagers in the village community on the place of old music sing theatre and drama.

Economic life:
There are rapid changes in the economic life of the village community. The development of industries, factories, factories and mills are the main cause of change in the economic condition of villagers. The use of modem machinery in agriculture has increased the agricultural products Establishment of a cooperative society and facilities of loans to them have brought changes and have brought changes and have improved the condition of financial capital.

The standard of living is rising creating a demand for new things. There is a quick change in the food, dress and housing etc. The education of young -men are preferring to towns in search of jobs instead of agriculture. The cottage industries have been encouraged by government aid.

Political changes:
Political change has deeply influenced the village communities in today’s society. The political consciousness of the people has increased because of the introduction of panchayats in the village communities. The knowledge of politics has emerged among the villages due to the availability of newspapers along with radio and television.

So the number of participants of the people with politics is increasing. The village community has been divided into many groups on the basis of political parties as a result of which individualism and community feelings have increased along with cooperation. So modem Indian village communities are not free from politics.

Health:
The modem age is the age of science and technology. Due to the development of science and technology, changes in health in the village communities are easily visible. There is progress of sanitation and an increase in the number of doctors in the village community. The number of PHCs and dispensaries have been increased.

The health condition of women including children is improving by the proper arrangement made by the Government. Control of Government over Malaria, T.B. Small Pox has been successful. But the excessive use of tea, opium and tobacco etc. has undermined the health of the villages.

Social Control:
A great difference is evident in the social control of the traditional villages and modem villages. The village community have much control over its members. But this has decreased to a great extent The means of control like customs traditions, folkways and modes have become weak due to the spread of education and the decrease in superstition. The primary groups like family neighbourhoods have lost their hold over their members.

The control is now in fact normal and is exercised through most police and law. anti-social activities like crime juvenile delinquency, prostitution and suicide have become common. From the above discussion, it is clear that the village community is not free from changes. It is also not correct to say that it is static. It is changing and it will keep on changing in future. So the change in the village community is quite inevitable and easily justified.

Question 2.
Discuss the important classification of the village community.
Answer:
With differential climatic and historical conditions different types of village communities have emerged in different periods of human history. They are different from each other in their social systems, folk- culture, traditions etc. For example, a wide variance is marked between a Saxon village the German murk Russian mi Indian Gram, a Village of feudal Europe, a U.S.A. village western – Eur or village etc. Different social thinkers and sociologists have classified village communities into different types on the basis of several factors. The major types may be discussed as follows.

On the basis of Residence:
On the basis of residence, H. J. Peake has classified village communities into three types such as:

Migratory village:
The people of this type of village live for months or for a season in a particular locality and arrange their food from wild fruits animal meats etc. When the food supply at a place exhausts they shift to another place where they can find an adequate amount of food.

Semi-permanent village:
In semi-permanent agricultural villages, people reside for a few years at a particular place and migrate to another place due to the exhaustion of the productivity of the land. The duration of residence is larger in comparison to the migratory type of villages. In this type of village, people keep domestic animals like cows and goats but do not cultivate the land for agriculture.

They generally bum down the small trees and bushes etc and sow seed over the earth which gives them some coups after rainfall. And when people find that, the land is not yielding the required amount of food grains, they leave the place for another new settlement.

Permanent Agricultural villages:
In such a type of village, people live permanently for generations. They develop their farm practices village organisation and social relations within their own village as well as with their neighbouring villages. Usually, they do not change their place of living and place of cultivation. In such types of villages, permanent households are created the number of households may vary from a little number to hundreds or thousands.

On the basis of settlements:
On the basis of settlement, the citizen classified the village community into two heads such as nucleated and Dispersed villages.

Nucleated village:
In the nucleated villages, the residents dwell in one cluster and it has a dense population. The different families live in physical proximity to each other and land a common life. Their forms are spread around the village dwelling. Their farmland may be scattered in many plots or may be consolidated in blocks.

Scattered village:
In this type of village, families are scattered over a relatively large piece of land. The villagers live separately in their respective farms which is away from one another. Since their homes are dispersed they have a lesser degree of contact with each other. Their social life assumes a different form. However, some sort of relationship binds all the families together. Generally, they participate in common festivals and observe common functions.

On the basis of organisation:
On this basis villages may be classified as follows:

Co-operative villages:
In this type of village, the land is owned individually and people pull their resources together for common cultivation and farming. Generally, cooperative villages in India and Saxon villages in Germany fall in this group.

Semi-collective villages :
In such villages, the land belongs to the collective body. All means of production and resources are owned collectively. The people work together for the production of food grains and other essential goods. For consumption they get their monthly or annual dues fixed according to the income of the village. The income of the villager is not associated with the hours of labour but in by him. The families receive their quota according to the numerical strength of the family.

Collective villages:
In this type, villages live in a communal settlement where all property is collectively owned and all the arrangements are done on a collective basis. Members of the village only render their labour to the common pool and get all the necessities of life like food, clothing, housing education etc. There is a common dining hall, common store and communal kindergarten in the village. The old and disabled persons are also maintained from the common fund. As a whole such type of village gives full security for the whole life of a person, his children and dependents.

On the basis of land ownership:
On this basis, villages may be classified into two categories such as:

Landlord village:
In such villages, the land is owned by individuals, families or a few families known as landlords. The landlords possess the rights over the land but give the land to the tenants. The landlords also impose rent on the land which tenants usually pay. The landlords give a certain percentage or rent to the Government and keep a good percentage for themselves. Such types of villages existed in India before the abolition of intermediaries in agricultural sectors.

Ryotwary villages:
In rotary villages, farmers are the owners of the land and they cultivation it. They directly pay the rent to the Government without any intermediary. Such villages are known as ryotwari villages where land is owned by ryot or cultivators.

Question 3.
Discuss the main characteristics of the urban community.
Answer:
A close examination of dominant features of urban life shows that there are significantly different between those who live in cities and those in rural areas. Urbanism as way of life, following is characterised by an extensive conflict of norms and values by rapid social change by increased social differentiation, greater social mobility, by a higher level of education and income.

By emphasis on material possessions and individualism. Urban values discussed by birth and other sociologists on western countries are not yet completely pre-dominant in India. In can be said that they are beginning to take root in Indian cities. Thus in the Indian context, the following description may not be wholly relevant.

Formal and impersonal Human relationship:
The large size and heterogeneous composition of urban areas prevent intimacy and purpose, for example, buyers and sellers in a store, and doctors and patients in a clinic. They are not usually concerned with all aspects of a person’s life. Apart from their family members and friends, urban people do not normally interact with others. This feature among the urban dwellers results in formal, impersonal superficial and secondary contacts.

Materialism:
In urban communities, external appearances and material possessions are of primary importance. Urban dwellers have often known for their status symbols such as the number of their financial assets or salaries the costliness of their homes and its furnishing T. V. or Video etc.

Individualism:
Urban dwellers give primary emphasis on their own interests and personal happiness. Urbanities do not show any concern for others and they do not think about the interests of others.

Mobility:
One of the distinctive features of urban life is greater mobility. People move again and again from one job to other from one locality to other. Residential mobility tends to weaken ties to the local community.

Formal Social Control:
Social control in Urban communities is more formal. Control in the urban community depends to large extent on large – scale super-local institutions. Responsibility for controlling behaviours in cities is largely shifting to police the court and other agencies of government to enforce the norms.

Norms and Social Role Conflict:
The diversity of social life is the most important characteristic or urbanism. It springs from the size, density and heterogeneity of the extreme specialisation of various occupations and the class structure existing in the larger communities the latter factors in farms generally result in divergent group norms and values and complicating social rules.

In urban communities, the ends sought by different groups are so differentiated and divergent that individuals often do not know in many areas of life exactly what are the norms are standards of behaviour and suitable social roles. The clash of norms and social rules creates a situation where no single standard is wide to be upheld and where deviation from it is not penalised.

Rationality:
With the impersonal nature of urban relationships, urban orientations tend to be utilitarian. That is people then enter into relationships after calculating potential gains from these associations. Here relationships are generally of the contractual kind where profit and loss are carefully evaluated. Once the contract is over the relationship between the people tends to end. Of course, there exists a wide range of variety in an individual relationship and all relationship is pointed out.

Secularism:
Heterogeneity of physical such as racial, social and cultural elements in urban life results in routine exposure to divergent styles and values. People become accustomed to seeing others very differently from themselves. As a result, they become more tolerant to differences. This rational and tolerant attitude produces a secular orientation in life. It is assumed that secular as opposed to religious orientation have been associated with urban social structure.

The decline in the functions of family:
Many of the educational recreational and other functions, performed within a rural joint family context are taken over by the institutions such as schools, clubs and other voluntary organisations in the urban social context, In urban society, there is generally a clear demarcation between the home and place of work which is not always found in rural society. Because of greater geographical mobility, regular contact between kins is often difficult if not impossible on these families.

Rapid social and cultural change:
Rapid social and cultural change also characterises urban life. Urban life itself also tends to facilitate changes in norms and ideologies as well as systems of behaviour which may greatly change the social structure and relations of the people to one another. The above description of the characteristics of the urban way of life should, however, be regarded as an ideal type. Cities vary in the extent or the degree to which they are characterised by urban qualities.

Question 4.
Discuss the important characteristics of the village community.
Answer:
The village community has certain basic and specific characteristics. This nature of the village community can be properly understood by an analysis of its characteristics. The important characteristics are as follows:

Agriculture as the dominant mode of occupation:
Agriculture is the main occupation in the village community. It is not only a mode of production, but also away of life. The entire village life is influenced by it. Smith remarks that “agriculture and the collective enterprise are the bases of rural economy. The ‘Farmer’and the ‘Countryman’ are almost synonymous terms”.

Maclver also proclaims that “the predominant occupation of agriculture has other attributes which impress themselves on the mentality of the countrymen and are reflected in his social life. He is not like urban wage earner, an employee working under immediate supergvision of a task specially assigned to him.

Whether he is tenant or free holder even where he is a serf his time and season, his vaiying tasks,his alteration of work and rest are set for him not by the community of a master by the exigencies of nature,” Thus, agriculture is the predominant mode of occupation of villagers which influence the entire gamut of relationship in rural setting.

The small size of the viallage community:
Village communities are comparatively small in size. Due to it a sense of belongingness and primary group relationship develop among the villagers. Smaller the group the more intimate it is. Thus, in village community a deep, intense and enduring type of relationship is found among the people. A deeper sincerity in affairs of fellow beings, intensity of community sentiment, we feeling, role feeling, feeling or dependence, are all due to the small size of village community.

The dominant role of family and neighbourhood:
Family occupies a very dominant position in village community. It acts as the main agent of social- control. It also determines the various activities of the people like marriage, religious performances, political affiliations etc. Such dominant position of the family also provides impetus for masked stability of village community. About the role of family Maclver says, “In rural life where the family is relatively dominant and self contained a group responsibility prevails.

The status of an individual is likely to be the status of the family. Property is likely to be thought of as family possession. Family opinion develops about most matters of interests of interest and is apt to permeate all its members. Neighbourhood plays a very important role in village community. It is constituted of almost identical cluster of huts and houses.

Neighbours are intimately connected with each other. They assist each other during the time of difficulties. Their topic of gossip is common. Everybody is under constant guidance of the whole neighbourhood. This reciprocal relationship in community marked ever one to act according to the prevailing ways.

Homogeneity of life:
The village community has comparatively a greater homogeneity. It means that people are more or less like in a village community and have relatively similar way of life. It is mainly due to the agriculture as predominant mode of occupation. Other occupations also exist in rural communities. But they are in a small scale and more or less linked with the agriculture. Thus, the predominance of single occupation and the common ways of living in a particular area for generations together makes the village life relatively homogeneous.

Simplicity and frugality of living:
Simplicity and frugality of living is another important characteristic of village life. Most of the individual farmers possess small size of the cultivable land. The agricultural production is limited due to many natural as well as man made factors. By didn’t of his hard labour and sweat, the farmer gets the substantial amount of crops by which he maintains his family.

The ill practices like theft, robbery, misconduct etc. are not significantly visible in villages. The villagers lead an idealistic life in accordance with the traditions of family and caste. Generally, they, do not make false pretentions’and boasting. Their life is plain and open. They are not so much mad after the material possessions and are satisfied with their hand. All these make them relatively simple, sober and soft.

Faith in God and religion:
Most of the village people are illiterate and ignorant. So they have strong belief on God and religion. They are nearer to nature. Nature causes heavy loss and devastation for the rural people.Thus, villagers develop a kind of fear for the natural forces and start worship in them with a view to escape for their wrath. Such nearness to nature also determines the attitude of farmers towards land, animals, wealth, natural calamities etc. Thus, religion becomes part and parcel of rural, social life.

Group feeling and natural co- operation:
In village life group feeling or feeling of occupies a important place. Villagers are ready to sacrifice their own interests or even life for the sake of village. They led a life based on co- operation and mutual understanding. Agriculture, the main occupation of the villagers is a sort of cooperative enterprise.

It needs a lot of man power, necessitating the people to co- operate with each other. Therefore, co- operation is a natural necessity of the village community. This co- operation is based on love, affection, goodwill and fellow feeling. Due to these things the social relationship in a village community, becomes genuine, sacred and permanent.

Common ideology and culture:
In village community people have common ideology, due to their compact living in a definite locality for years together over generations, a common ideology or belief naturally emerges out of their association and interaction. Generally in village, people have common views on politics, religion, customs etc. Thus, the people of a village cultivate some common cultural traits, behavioural patterns and follow common customs and traditions.

Lack of specialisation:
In village community there is no or little specialisation. Even in occupational activities, although different sectors of population are supposed to practice different types of occupations, there is no such specialisation in modem sense of the term. For example, agricultural occupation is a common occupation in rural community. Person belonging to different castes are engaged in agriculture. Due to lack of specialisation there is less innovation and discovery. People are governed by traditional norms and heritage.

Low density of population:
Comparatively, the concentration of population at a particular space is very low in a rural area. In urban centres a large number of people concentrate within a specified territory which leeds to high density of population. But in rural areas people are scattered over a large stretch of land living near to their agricultural fields. Again, due to heavy migration of people to urban areas, the number of village community decreases resulting in low density of population.

Hard-working and painstaking :
Village people are very hard- working and painstaking. Their life is governed by nature. Neither they feel suffocated in summer, nor chilled in winter, nor afraid of the lighting and thunders of rain. Hard conditions of life and the hardship of agricultural activities make them more pain staking from the very childhood.

Poverty and illiteracy:
Poverty and illiteracy are the constant friends of village life. Owing to pressure on lands it is fragmented in to small holdings which results in poor productivity. Besides there are also a number of landless labourers in village community. The agriculture is often affected by natural calamities. Villagers do not have other sources of income.

The ever increasing poverty, deprives them even from elementary education what to speak of highly expensive, technical, specialised education. Those minority who can afford for such are led by blind belief and religious dogmas which kills their initiative for higher education.

Caste System :
Caste system is another unique characteristic feature of village community. The whole village community is divided in to many groups on the basis of caste system. All the important aspects of social life are governed by the caste norms. Social life is governed by the caste norms. Social intercourse, ritual performance occupation- everything is decided by Caste Panchayats.

Less intensity of mobility and change:
Mobility of population in village community is less intensive. Because people generally follow the same occupation. The change of occupation or change of caste is not permissible. One’s status and position is permanently fixed on the basis of birth in a particular caste and family. The speed of social change in village community is very slow due to the rigidity of customs, traditions and value system.

Therefore, the village community is comparatively less dynamic. Smith has remarked that “Urban community may be said to resemble “swiftly moving river, where water chums about incrssantly, rural community is a quiet pond with small waves created by cool breeze. “Zimmerman, comments “rural community is similar to calm water in apail and the urban community, to boiling water in a kettle.”

Local Self- Government:
In early, days, village was a independent, self- sufficient and autonomous organisation. The villagers tried to manage their own affairs by themselves through the traditional institutions like Caste Panchayat or Village Panchayat. Village as a “Little Republic” have every thing for its member. Now- a – days a number of steps are being taken by this Govememnt to reorganise these “republics”, which had lost their vitality during British rule. These local self- governing bodies run the day- to- day life of village community through informal methods and thereby preserves its socio- economic identity.

Rigidity of social control :
In village community, the primary institutions play a very significant role in exercising social control. Such primary institutions are family, Caste- Council, neighbourhood, religious opinion etc. These institutions regulate the behaviour of individuals through informal means. Due to the rigidity of value system, customs, traditions etc. the observance of the information rules becomes obligatory etc. the observance of the information rules becomes obligatory for members. There is little chance of deviation from it. and such’deviation is severely criticised and published by the people in most informal manner.

Tradition:
The age- old tradition is peculiar characteristic of village community, Village community is custom bound and tradition- ridden. The minds of villagers are so much pre- occupied with traditional beliefs and faith that the diffusion of new ideas and beliefs take place very slowly.

Question 5.
Describe the various types of village communities.
Answer:
With different climates and historical conditions, different types of village communities have emerged in different periods of human history. They differ from even others in their social system folk- cultures, traditions etc. For example, a wide variance is marked between a Saxon village, the German Mark, a Russian city- Indian Gram, the village of Feudal Europe, a U.S.A. village, a Western Europe village etc. Different social factors. The major types may be discussed as follows

On the basis of Residence :
On the basis of residence, H.T. Peake has classified village communities into three types such as:

Migratory village:
The people of this of villages live for months or for a season in a particular locality, arranging their foods from natural resources in the form of wild hunts, animal meals etc. When the food supply at a place exhausts, they shift to another place where they can find an adequate amount of food.

Semi-permanent village:
In semi-permanent agricultural villages, people reside for a few years at a particular place and migrate to another place due to die exhaustion of the productivity of the land. The duration of residence is more as compared to the migratory type of village. In this type of village, people keep domestic animals like cows and goat but do not cultivate the land for agriculture.

They generally bum down the small trees and bushes etc. and sow seed over the earth which gives them some crops after rainfall. And when the people find that the land is not yielding the required amount of food grains, they leave the place for another new settlement.

Permanent agricultural village:
In such type of village, people have lived permanently for generations. They develop their farm practices, village organisations and social relations within their own village as well as their neighbouring villages. Usually, they do not change their place of living and place of cultivation. In such types of villages, permanent households are created. The number of households may vary from any little number of hundreds or thousands.

On the basis of settlement:
On the basis of settlement, we have classified village communities into two heads as Nucleated and Dispersed villages or scattered villages.

Nucleated village:
In the nucleated village, the residents dwell in one cluster and it has a dense population. The different families are in physical proximity to each other and lead a common life. Their forms are spread around the village dwelling. Their farmland may be scattered in many plots or may be scattered in many plots or may be consolidated in a block.

Scattered village:
In this type of village, families are scattered over a relatively large piece of land. The villagers live separately in their respective farms which is away from one another. Since they are dispersed they have a lesser degree of contact with each other. Their social life assumes a different form. However, some sort of relationship binds all the families together. Generally, they participate in common festivals and observe common functions.

On the basis of organisation:
On this basis villages may be classified as follows:

Co-operative village:
In this type of village, the land is owned individually and people pull their resources together for common cultivation and farming. Generally, co-operative houses are organised to supply them with their necessary commodities. The Mosawdion type of village of Israel, Co- an operative village in India and a Saxon village in Germany fall into this group.

Semi-collective village:
In such villages, the land belongs to the collective body. All means of production and resources are owned collectively. The people work together for the production of food grains and other essential goods. In respect of the consumption side, they get their monthly or annual duties fixed according to the income of the village. The income of villagers is not associated with the number of hours worked by a member of a particular family. The families receive their quota according to the numerical strength of the family.

Collective village:
In this type of village, villagers live in a communal settlement where all property is collectively owned and all the arrangements are done on a collective basis. Members of the village only render their labour to the common pool and get all the necessities of life like food, clothing, housing, education etc.

There is a common dining hall, common store and communal kindergarten in the village. The old and disabled persons are also maintained from the common fund. As a whole such type of village gives faith secretly for the whole life of a person, his children and dependents.

On the basis of Land Ownership:
On this basis, villages may be classified into two categories such as:

Landlord villages :
In such villages, the land is owned by individual families or a few families known as landlords. The landlords possess, all powers over the land but give the land to the tenants. The landlords also impose rent on the land which tenants usually pay. The (landlords) give a certain percentage for themselves. Such types of villages existed in India before the abolition of intermediaries in the agricultural sector.

Ryotwari villages:
In Ryotwari villages farmers are the owners of the land and they cultivate they directly pay the rent to the government without any intermediary.

Question 6.
Bring out the distinction between rural and urban communities.
Answer:
The rural and urban communities differ from each other on the basis of social, economic, religious and cultural standpoints. The sociologists like E.S. Bogardus, K. Davids, E.A. Ross, P. A. Sorokin and so on the point out the following distinction between rural communities and urban communities.

The difference in size:
The size of village community is small.Its scope is very narrow and limited because it is constituted by a small number of people.Due to the small size, the people of village can identify each other and create personal relations among them. But the size of urban community is large. Its scope is very wide and vast because it includes a large number of people of different religions. As a result the people can not identify each other personally.

The difference in Environment:
The environment of die rural community is pure, peaceful and natural than that of the urban community. The villages carry on agricultural works being constantly is struggle with sun, rain and winter. The environment becomes pure and healthy by cultivation instead of being polluted.But the environment of urban community is polluted and artificial. The city is the centre of factories and motor vehicle. The movement of vehicles, smoke and poisonous gas from the factories and the water of the drains make the environment polluted.

The difference in occupation:
Agriculture is the main occupation of the village community.lt is the life and soul of Villagers. Most of the people in the village depend directly on agriculture to earn their livelihood. Though a few landless people depend to cottage industries, yet agriculture is the main occupation from the economic stand point. But the only dwellers generally do not depend on agriculture, trade and commerce and job in government and private sectors is their main occupation. They earn their livelihood by depending directly on some non-agricultural occupation.

The difference in family system:
The family life of the village community is very simple and peaceful. Joint family system is mostly seen in villages. Most of the people in village live together in one house and take part in sorrow and joys of each other. Joint family is the main basis of rural unity. But on the other hand, the family of urban community is indisciplined, hard, rigid. The families or urban areas are nuclear type.

The difference in marriage:
The rural and urban communities differ from each other on the basis of marriage systemin village community marriage is performed according to the approval and consent of two families. Marriage outside the caste, is strictly prohibited in village. The son or the daughter has no right in the selection of mates. The marriage which is fixed by the parents and relatives is unanimously accepted. From this stand point, love marriage in urban community is performed according to the will and choice of two persons. The role of son and daughter is more important than the parents in the selection of mates.

The difference in caste system:
In village community, caste system is very hard and rigid. The villagers are distinguished from each other on the basis of caste. They deeply believe in caste system and create many restrictions in food, drink and social intercourse. The higher caste people village enjoy all kinds of social, economic, religious and cultural privileges and the lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities. But on the other hand, caste system has no importance in urban community.The city dwellers do not believe incaste system. They uproot all restrictions of caste system.

The difference in Religion:
The village community is deeply influenced by religion. The villagers are more religious-minded. They worship many Gods and Goddesses. Different rituals and worships are the fundamental principles of rural life. The villagers fear honour and believe God. But the urban community is not much more influenced by religion. The city dwellers have less religious belief. They consider religion as a symbol of superstition. From this stand pointmany anti-social works happens in urban communities.

The difference in cultural life:
The cultural life of both rural and urban communities are different from each other. The rural culture is more static than that of the urban culture. The belief, art, law,customs and traditions of the rural people are rigid. The cultural life of the villagers is motivated on the basis of the caste system. The caste feeling controls and guides the day- to day life of the people. But the culture of the urban community is simple, flexible and changing. It is always based on the secular principles.

The difference in social relationship:
Village community is mostly characterised by primary relationship. There is a strong we feeling among the people. The villagers help each other and share the joys and sorrows. Their relationships is fundamental to the case. Tins relationship is direct, intimate, face- to- face, informal and stable. But, on the other side, the urban community is mostly characterised by secondary relationship. The city dwellers rarely know each other. The relationship among the people in an urban community is indirect impersonal, formal and short.

Question 7.
Define caste and discuss its various characteristics.
(Or)
What is caste? Point out its distinctive features.
(Or)
Examine the structural and functional features of caste in India.
Answer:
Stratification is a general feature of every society. An “unstratified society with a real equality of its members is a myth, which has never been realized in the history of mankind. Indian society presents a unique system of stratification based on birth, which is not found elsewhere in the world. This form, with other forms of social stratification, is the caste system.

The English word ‘caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word ‘Caste’. ‘Caste’ means breed, race or kind. The Hindi equivalent of caste is ‘Jati’ or ‘Jat’. Jati means birth or descent. Risley defines caste as “A collection of families or groups of Families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and is regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.

Ketkar defines caste as “A social group having two characteristics.

• Endogamy and
• Membership is confined to those who are born of members and includes all persons so born.

According to Anderson and Parker, “Caste is that extreme form of social class organization . in which the position of individuals in the status hierarchy is determined by descent and birth”. Prof. Ghurye discusses some of the important characteristics of caste N.K. Dutta also gives a list of the salient features of the caste system, which is an essence not very much different from the one given by Prof. Ghurye. The general features of caste are:

Segmental division of society:
Society is divided into several small social groups under the caste system. Each social group is called a caste. The membership of a caste is based on birth, so mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Thus, each caste is a social world by itself.

Hierarchy:
Prof. George says that all the castes are arranged into a hierarchy on the basis of their social precedence. At the top of the hierarchy, there is the Brahmin caste and followed by Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra castes. The relative position of all these castes are not always very clear.

Restrictions on food, drink and social intercourse :
Every caste imposes restrictions on its members, with regard to food, drink and social intercourse. The members of a higher caste do not accept water or food from the lower castes or untouchables. For example, the Brahmins do not accept water and food from the Harijans. Likewise, there is restrictions on social inter¬course. There are widespread beliefs of pollution by touch which require the members of different castes to maintain social distance from one another.

Differential civil and religious privileges and disabilities:
In a caste society, there is an unequal distribution of privileges and disabilities among its members. While the higher caste people enjoy all the privileges the lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities. The un- touchable castes live far away from the residential areas of the higher castes. They are not allowed to move freely in the community.

The untouchables along with the Shudras, are not permitted to study the Hindu scriptures like the Vedas. Punishment for crime varies not according to the caste of the criminal. They are not allowed to participate in public fairs etc. They are even not allowed to use public fairs etc. They are even not allowed to use public wells, ponds, roads etc.

Restrictions on choice of occupation:
The choice of occupations in a caste system is hereditary and the members of a caste are expected to follow their traditional occupations without fail. Thus, a Brahmin should be a Priest and Chamar should always cure hides and make chappals.

Restrictions on marriage:
Each caste is an endogamous group. Every caste or sub-caste imposes restrictions that its members should many within the group. Marriage outside one’s caste is strictly prohibited. Any deviation of this rule is viewed as a serious offence and results in ex-communication from the caste or severe punishment.

Sub-caste:
Each caste in Hindu society is subdivided into a number of sub-castes. Each sub-caste, like a caste, is an endogamous group.

Caste- panchayat:
Every caste has its own panchayat or praise. It discusses various matters and problems of its own caste. It functions like a governing body. It settles various disputes of caste and punishes the offenders who violate the rules of the caste.

Question 8.
Discuss various theories of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
The English word ‘Caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word ‘caste’. ‘Caste’ is derived from the Portuguese word ‘caste’. ‘Caste’ means breed, race or kind. The Hindi equivalent of caste is ‘Jati’ or ‘jaf. Jati means birth or descent. So caste of a person is determined by his birth. A number of theories are found in India to explain the origin of the caste system in India. Some important theories of the origin of the caste system are

• Racial Theory
• Political Theory
• Occupational Theory
• Traditional Theory
• Theory of Mana.
• Functional – Racial Theory
• Theory of cultural integration.
• Evolutionary Theory

Racial Theory:
The racial theory is regarded as an important theory of the caste system. Sir Herbert Risely, GS. Ghurye and D.N. Mazumdar are the main propounders of racial theory. Sir Herbert Risely points out that the Caste system originated in India after the entrance of Aryans from Persia to India. He points out that when Aryans came to India, at that time there was a scarcity of women among them.

So they started marrying from non-Aryans or lower vamps. But the Aryans refused to give their women in Marring to the non-Aryans. Later on, when the Aryans had enough of women they closed to marrying women from the non-Aryans or lower vamps. Hence they married women among their Aryans and the custom of endogamy was founded.

Risely argues that the caste system originated due to this attitude of Aryans toward non-Aryans. Prof GS- Ghurye argues that the Aryans invaded India and conquered the original non-Aryan races. Later on, these non-Aryans were regarded as ‘Sudras’. The Aryans did not give permission to the non-Aryans or the Sudras to participate in all their religious and social activities.

Even the Aryans did not allow the non-Aryans to reside near their houses. This racial conflict is the cause of the origin of the caste system. Mazumdar points out that the caste system originated in India after the entrance of Aryans to India. After their arrival, hierarchy increased gradually in India. This hierarchy is the basis and origin of the caste system. Hutton criticises the racial theory of the origin of the caste- system.

He says that it is very difficult to believe that hypergamy has created the caste system in India alone. Secondly, the existence of two races cannot convincingly refer to the existence of untouchability in India Lastly, this theory only stresses race while it neglects many other possible factors which contribute to the formation of the caste system.

Political Theory:
Some early European observers point out that the Caste system was a creation of the clever priesthood on a single law- given for the division and subjection of the masses. Dr Ghurye says that the “Caste system in India is a Brahminic child of the Indo- Aryan culture.” But the critics of this theory says that caste system is so widespread and deep-rooted in Hindu society that it could not have been imposed upon the public either by a clever priesthood or by an administrative measure.

Secondly, the caste system is so co-related with Hindu society that it is difficult to conceive of Hindu society without a caste- system. Hence caste system is organic rather than artificial to Hindu society.

Occupational Theory:
Nesfield is the main propounder of this theory. According to him, some occupations were regarded as higher than others occupations. So occupation or function alone is responsible for the origin or caste- system in India. The critics of this theory say that if the occupation is the sole basis of the caste- system then why agricultural castes in the south are considered lower castes whereas they are regarded as respectable in North India.

Traditional Theory:
The traditional theory explains the caste- system in terms of divine origin. Rigveda states the four varhas have emerged from the four limbs of the supreme being. The Jatis or castes have been formed due to the prevalence of hypergamy and hypogamy marriages between the four original games.

The mixed offspring of such unions created many different castes. The critics of this theory say that from a scientific point of view it is wrong to believe that the four games are the creation of divine beings. Secondly, it is also wrong to believe that all the various castes have been formed by vamasankara.

Theory of Mana:
J.H. Hutton is the main propounder of this theory. He says that the belief in “Mana” has given rise to the caste system. Mana is a supernatural power in which, the tribal people believe. Mana has the power to do good or bad, profit or loss to people. It is also believed by the tribal people that “Mana” can be transmitted through contact and social- intercourse.

Functional Racial Theory:
Slater has tried to explain the origin of the caste system by functional and racial elements. According to him, the caste system developed in India much before the Aryans came. He says the caste system arose in India as a result of occupations becoming hereditary and marriage being arranged by parents to safeguard craft secrets. Further, the occupational groups were created because of magic and religious ceremonies attached to crafts. He says, the Aryans came and strengthened the existing tendency by associating a colour to castes.

Theory of Cultural Integration:
Sarat Chandra Roy is the main propounder of this theory. In his opinion, the caste system arose due to geographical intimacy and equality of social ideas of different races. He says the caste system evolved as a result of the integration and assimilation of different cultures. For example, the Aryan “Varna system us a cultural entity which is based on ‘Karma’, and the Dravidian division of society is<a culture which is based on occupation.

Evolutionary Theory:
Denzil Ibbetson is the main propounder of this theory. He points out that the caste system evolved as a result of the interaction of tribes, occupational guilds and religion. Therefore, from the above discussion, it is very clear that a number of theories are found to explain the origin of the caste- system.

But no theory has yet been able to explain its origin convincingly. The caste system is so complex that it is not easy to explain it in terms of any one factor. The Indian caste system is not the product of any one single factor. This system is a natural result of the interaction of geographical, social, political, economic and religious factors.

Question 9.
Discuss various merits or advantages of the caste system,
(Or)
Discuss different functions of the caste system.
Answer:
Risley says caste of “A collection of families or groups Of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and is regarded by those who are competent to give opinions as forming a single homogeneous community.” Under the caste, system society is divided into a number of castes.

Though the castes are hierarchically ordered hence the relative positions of different castes are always not very clear. The membership of a caste is based on birth, so mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Each caste has its own traditional social status, occupation, customs, rules and regulations. Each caste is an endogamous group. So a marriage outside one’s own caste is prohibited.

Every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food, drink and social- intercourse. Each caste also has its own occupation. Freedom is not allowed for the members of the different castes to choose their occupations freely. Similarly, each caste has its own governing body called the ‘caste council’ of ‘ Jati’ Panchayat’, which enforces the caste rules. Thus, each caste is a social world itself. But in all activities, all the castes are dependent upon each other and serve as the device in our division of labour for the smooth functioning of society.

The caste system has certain merits and demerits:
The merits of the caste system can be viewed from two angles. One from the individual’s point of view, the other from social point of view. So the merits or advantages on functions of caste system from an individual point of view are:-

Determines Social Status:
As caste- system is based on the principle of birth an individual automatically becomes a member of it and gets the traditional status of that caste. For example, a Brahmin occupies the highest position in Hindu society not because of his extra- ordinaiy qualities or achievements, but because of his birth in a Brahmin caste. So in the caste- system the ascriptive status of the individual is fixed.

Provides Social Security:
A caste offers social security to the individual from his birth to death. It provides him with an occupation, acts as a trade union, a benefit society, health insurance and also provides for his funeral if it is needed.

Guides the Individual behaviour:
Caste- system controls the behaviour of the individual. Every caste has its own behaviour patterns. The members of each caste obey this behaviour patterns in matters like dress, diet, ceremony, rituals at birth, initiation on Upanayana, marriage, death etc.

Functions of the caste system from the social point of view –

Caste – system preserves culture:
Every society for its stability passes its culture from one generation to another generation. The caste system is specially, fit for such a task of handling over cultural patterns like skill, knowledge and behaviour from one preceding generation to the other succeeding generation with little change. In the caste- system the hereditary occupation and the caste customs are safeguarded and handed over to the next generation.

It integrates Society:
Caste system has acted as an effective means of integrating the diverse racial, religious, national and ethnic groups in to a vast Community. The caste- system is capable of integrating these groups in such a way that it becomes a part of the social whole and yet retains its own distinctive character and identity.

Caste – system establishes stability in society:
The caste- system has also been responsible for the stability in society. Hindu society has proved stable because it is firmly based on a caste- system, which survives even conversion to Islam or Christianity. It has also saved Hindu society from being disrupted under the pressure of alien invasions, famines and upheavals of all kinds.

Caste- system brings Political – stability in Society:
The caste- system has acted as a political stabilizer in the country. It acts as a constitution for the Hindu. The caste- system is responsible for the preservation of India from complete barbarism, a sure basis of orderly government, a defence against despotism and as a means for preserving the arts as a sure means for preserving Hindu pattern of culture under the regime of alien conquerors.

It serves as a device for the division of labour:
caste- system acts as a unique system of division of labour in Hindu society. It provides to the individual, with all functions ranging from education to scavenging. One important feature of this system is that it believes in the religious dogma that is belief in ‘Karma’. This belief in Karma makes in-equitable division of labour acceptable to the people. It is said that the present position and occupation of the individual is the result of his past life, and if he performs his caste duties perfectly in present life then he will maintain a better life in future.

The caste- system maintains the purity of blood:
The caste- system has served as a method for preserving the purity of blood by its instance on endogamy. Because the caste system prohibits marriage outside one’s own group. So this endogamy prevents hybridisation and thereby maintains the purity of blood.

Question 10.
Discuss dysfunctions of caste-system Or. Discuss the demerits of the caste- system
Answer:
‘No doubt’ caste- system has certain merits. It is not altogether devoid of dysfunctions or demerits. The system has been responsible for various evils in Hindu society. The main disadvantages or demerits or dysfunctions of caste- system are:-

Hinders Social Progress:
Caste-system is a hindrance to social progress. Because it does not easily allow the changes in society.Under caste system the individual has no freedom.He is bound to conform to his age old customs of his caste. If some one violates the age old customs, then he is published. Since the members of caste believe in the law of Karma, they become conservative in society. This rigidity of the system has almost paralysed Hindu society. Innovation has no place in it. So caste system hinders social progress in Hindu society.

Caste – system creates un- touchability:
Un- touchability is the ugliest expression of caste- system. Caste- system is mainly responsible for the prevalence of untouchability in Hindu society. These untouchables suffer from all kinds of disabilities. They are economically suffered, specially disabled, politically have no rights in the society.

Caste- system hinders the national unity:
Caste- system creates love and loyalty towards one’s own caste and hatred attitude towards other castes. This sense develops casteism among the people. Under caste system the lower caste people become dissatisfied with the behaviour of upper caste- people. As a result conflict takes place between different castes, which ultimately hinders the national unity.

Caste- system leads to political disunity:
Under caste- system an individual is required to be more loyal to his caste than to any other group. As such, it fosters casteism rather than nationalism among the people. It is for this reason that the Indians could not develop nationalism and combine against foreign invasions. In fact, disunity and lack of patriotism among the Indians encouraged many foreigners to invade India.

The past two hundred and fifty years of India’s recorded history reveals that India was a victim of foreign invasions for atleast hundred and twenty five times. In other words, India was attacked by foreign powers in every 20 years on an average. Even now, caste seems to be one of the most disruptive forces in India.

Caste- system perpetuates social in- equality :
Caste system has served as an instrument in the hands of the upper castes to maintain their own privileged position in society. It led to the disposition of the upper castes and created permanent feelings of inferiority and insecurity in the minds of the lower caste people.

The caste system imposes hardships on women:
Under caste system, a caste wishing to raise its status in the caste hierarchy, should follow certain customs like child marriage, prohibition on window remarriages and seclusion of women, which entails hardship for women.

Caste system hinders economic progress:
Caste – system acts as an obstacle on the path of economic development. Under the caste- system a person is not freely allowed to choose any occupation. Because there is fixed occupation for every caste and this custom is transmitted from one generation to other. Hence it leads to immobility and inefficiency of labour and there by to economic backwardness.

Odisha State Board CHSE Odisha Class 12 Sociology Solutions Unit 4 Social Inequality, Exclusion and Movement Objective & Short Answer Type Questions.

CHSE Odisha 12th Class Sociology Unit 4 Social Inequality, Exclusion and Movement Objective & Short Answer Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions With Answers

Question 1.
In the caste system, occupation is
(a) Changing
(b) Fixed
(c) Discontinued
Ans:
(b) Fixed

Question 2.
Status in the caste system is
(a) achieved
(b) ascribed
(c) None of the above
Ans:
(b) ascribed.

Question 3.
Marriage is the caste system is
(a) Endogamous
(b)Exogamous
(c) None of the above
Answer:
(a) Endogamous.

Question 4.
The word caste owes is the origin to which word.
(a) Greek
(b) Spanish
(c) French
Answer:
(b) Spanish.

Question 5.
Warner and Hunt had not given one of the following classifications of classes.
(a) Upper – middle class
(b) Lower-lower class
(c) Capitalist class
Answer:
(a) Upper – middle class

Question 6.
Who said this waste as a closed class?
(a) MajumdarandMadan
(b)MacIver
(c)Kingsely
Answer:
(a) Majumdar and Madan

Question 7.
Who said this “When the status is wholly predetermined so that men are born to their lot in their life without any hope of changing it then class takes the form of caste”.
(a) C.H. Cooley
(b) Madan
(c) Majumdar
Answer:
(a) C.H. Cooley

Question 8.
Who write in “History of Caste in India”?
(a) Ketkar
(b) C.H. Cooley
(c) Madan
Answer:
(a) Ketkar

Question 9.
Who said this “Classes are aggregates of individuals Who have for same opportunities of acquisition goods, the same exhibited standard of Hv
(a) Max-Weber
(b) MacIver and Page
(c) P. Gisbert
Ans :
(a) Max-Weber

Question 10.
A social class is any portion of a community marked off from the rest by social status”.
(a) Maclver and page
(b) Max-Weber
(c) P. Gisbert
Answer:
(a) Maclver and Page

Question 11.
Who said this “A social class is one or more broad groups of individuals who are ranked by the members of the community in socially superior and inferior positions”.
(a) OgbumandNimkoff
(b) Maclver
(c) P.Gisbert
Answer:
(a) Ogbum and Nimkoff

Question 12.
Who said this “A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status in society which permanently determines their relation to other groups.
(a) P. Gisbert
(b) Maclver
(c) Max-Weber
Answer:
(a) P. Gisbert

Question 13.
Who said this, “The untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social and political disabilities many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced by the higher castes”.
(a) D.N. Majumdar
(b)Dr. B.R.Ambedker
(c) Mahatma Gandhi
Ans :
(a) D.N. Majumdar

Question 14.
Who said this, “Tribal society is a collection of families bearing the name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and it is not usually endogamous though originally it might have been so”.
(a) Imperial Gazette
(b) D.N. Majumdar
(c) W.W. Hunter
Answer:
(a) Imperial Gazette

Question 15.
Who said this “A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, members of which occupy of the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage profession or occupation and hence developed a well-assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation”.
(a) D.N. Majumdar
(b)W.W. Hunter
(c) Imperial Gazette.
Answer:
(a) D.N. Majumdar.

Question 16.
Who said this “The tribe is a well-organised social structure where the human group lives in the defined physical environment. It is a collection of families which have a common name, which normally claims descent from a common ancestral living in a defined territory speaking a common dialect and is endogamous”.
(a) Imperial Gazette
(b) D.N. Majumdar
(c) W.W. Hunter
Answer:
(c) W.W. Hunter

One Word Answers

Question l.
A system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status ladder at least ideally may not occur.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 2.
An endogamous group membership of which is hereditary.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 3.
A class is somewhat strictly hereditary.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 4.
Restrictions in social intercourse.
Answer:
Caste system

Question 5.
Mention any one characteristic of the caste system.
Answer:
Endogamy

Question 6.
Mention one demerit of the caste system.
Answer:
Hinders social progress

Question 7.
Mention any one merit of the caste system.
Answer:
Helped in the integration of society.

Question 8.
Mention any one factor responsible of the caste system.
Answer:
Industrialisation

Question 9.
Mention any one changing aspect of the caste system.
Answer:
Change in endogamy.

Question 10.
Mention any one characteristic of the class.
Answer:
Universal

Correct The Sentences

Question l.
Caste is based on wealth.
Answer:
Caste is based on birth.

Question 2.
Class is based on birth.
Answer:
Class is based on birth

Question 3.
Class in an open system.
Answer:
Caste is a closed system

Question 4.
Class is a closed system.
Answer:
Class is an open system.

Question 5.
Caste choice of occupation.
Answer:
Caste determines occupation.

Question 6.
Class system determines occupations.
Answer:
Class system is the choice of occupations

Question 7.
Caste prescribes on such rules regarding eating, drinking and social interaction among its members.
Answer:
Caste prescribes certain rules regarding eating, drinking and social interaction among its members.

Question 8.
Caste is a simple social system.
Answer:
Caste is a complex social system.

Question 9.
Caste is old to Indian society.
Answer:
Caste is unique to Indian society.

Question 10.
Caste and class close in Indian society.
Answer:
Caste and class co-exist in Indian society.

Question 11.
Caste is a secular system.
Answer:
Caste is a sacred system.

Question 12.
Class is a sacred system.
Answer:
Class is a secular system.

Question 13.
Class consciousness is an important feature of the caste system.
Answer:
Class consciousness is an important feature of the class system.

Question 14.
A social class is a relatively temporary group.
Answer:
A social class is a relatively permanent group.

Question 15.
In a class system, there are two modes of feeling.
Answer:
In a class system, there are three modes of feeling.

Question 16.
A social class is a social phenomenon.
Answer:
Social class is a universal phenomenon.

Fill In The Blanks

l. Caste is based on ______.
Answer: Birth

2. Caste is based on _______.
Answer: Wealth

3. Caste is a _______ system.
Answer: Closed

4. Caste is a _______ of its members.
Answer: Occupation

5. Caste is a ________ social system.
Answer: Complex

6. Caste and class _______ in Indian society.
Answer: Co-exist

7. A social class is _______ a permanent group.
Answer: relatively

8. A social class is essentially a _______ group.
Answer: status

9. The term varna literally means ________.
Answer: Colour

10. Caste groups are _______ groups.
Answer: Open

11. Caste which means ______ of ________.
Answer: Breed, Lineage

12. A social class is an ______ group.
Answer: Open

13. Class is a ______ phenomenon.
Answer: Universal

Very Short-Answer Type Questions

Question l.
What do mean by caste?
Answer:
The word caste owes its origin to the Spanish word Cast which means breed, race, strain or a Complex of hereditary qualities. The Portuguese applied this term to the classes of people in India known by the name of Jati.

Question 2.
Caste taboos
Answer:
Caste are required to observe certain taboos and moral rules. Castes that fail to observe these rules lose status, while the caste that follows them gains status. For example, taboo, eating, taboo and the commensality taboo (Which is concerned with the persons from whom one may accept cooked food or with whom one may take food, the food taboo which prescribed what kinds of food a man may eat).

Question 3.
Class
Answer:
Class is a major type of stratification found especially in the modem civilized countries. It is a social group within the collectivity. It is a product of economic process and division of labour. It emerged in its present form as the result of industrialisation. It is based upon rule and differentiation.

Question 4.
Define caste
Answer:
“When the status is wholly predetermined so that when are home to their lot in their life without any hope of changing it then class takes the form of caste”.

Question 5.
Define class.
Answer:
Max- Weber “classes are aggregate of individuals who have the same opportunities of acquiring goods the same exhibited standard of living”.

Question 6.
What is Scheduled Caste?
Answer:
The Scheduled Castes who comprise the bulk of untouchables are technically outside the four-fold vama scheme. These castes were imputed with the maximum degree of ritual and social impurity while their occupations were treated as the lowest defiling occupation in the hierarchy.

Question 7.
Define Schedule Caste.
Answer:
The untouchable castes are those who suffer from various social and political disabilities, many of which are traditionally prescribed and socially enforced by the higher castes”.

Question 8.
Who are the Tribes?
Answer:
Tribe refers to the indigenous Janas. They are commonly designed as Adivasi (original settlers) and Girijan (hill dwellers.) Girijan (hill dwellers. Vampjati( forest caste men), Adimjati (primitive castes Janjati (folk communities), Anusuchit janjati (Scheduled Tribes).

Question 9.
Define tribe,
Answer:
According to the Imperial Gazette “Tribal society is a collection of families bearing a name, speaking a common dialect occupy a common territory and it is not usually endogamous though originally it might have been so”.

Question 10.
Hierarchy and Hereditary:
Answer:
Hierarchy is one of the most original and basic features of the caste system. Hierarchy refers to an organisation with grades or classes ranked one above the other. The castes are arranged on the basis of superiority and inferiority to each other. Each caste is a hereditary group. The membership of the caste is confined only to those who are born into it by an endogamous marriage relation. The status of an individual is determined by virtue of his birth. The rights and privileges that is socially due to an individual is determined hereditarily.

Question 11.
Openness Vs. Closeness.
Answer:
The caste system is strictly a closed structure. One’s position and status is determined once for all by virtue of his birth in a particular caste. No amount of material possession or personal qualities can bring him up in the social hierarchy or caste. On the other handed class system is an open structure. Here the status and position of a man is determined on the basis of bis personal qualities, material possessions and achievements in different aspects of social life, the class system gives enough scope for upward and downward mobility.

Question 12.
Divine Sanctions Vs Secular Norms
Answer:
Whatever may be the origin of caste, it can be told without the fear of contradiction that it derives its strength of continuity from divine sanctions. The beliefs like, one has to observe Jati, Dharma (Caste duties) to have a better birth till future, life, it is the God who has created caste distinctions to punish those who had done bad deeds in past life etc.

Have given a religious and divine sanction to the caste system. But there is no such dogmatic belief in the class system. It is based on purely objective things like wealth, power and position and it is quite free from religious considerations or controls.

Question 13.
Rigidity Vs Flexibility.
Answer:
The caste system is too rigid with regard to the rules of social intercourse. The taboos of eating and drinking and norms of inter-caste marriage are strictly followed. A lot of restrictions are imposed upon the members of a particular caste with regard to their relationship with the members of other castes. Taking of water or cooked food from the hands of a man of a lower caste is punishable. Caste endogamy is strictly maintained by prohibiting inter-caste marriage.

Question 14.
Caste and Democracy.
Answer:
‘Caste is basically a social institution. Politics and Government are related aspects. It plays its role in these areas of democracy. On the other hand, democracy is basically a political system, with social justice and equality as its main objective. But since both these systems emerge from social life, it is quite natural and inevitable that they get interrelated.

Question 15.
Segmental division.
Answer:
Caste groups are segmental groups. They have well-defined boundaries. So to say, each caste is an autonomous group independent of the other. The status of an individual is determined by his birth. No amount of power, prestige and wealth can change the position. The membership of a caste, therefore, is unchangeable and immutable. Further, each, in a way has its own way of life.

Question 16.
Caste Council
Answer:
The Caste Council consists of elder members of the caste, the recognised leaders who command the respect and confidence of their community. It functions to settle caste disputes. Matter- such as breaking the marriage promise, refusing by the husband to take his wife to his house adultery by the wife, killing cows insulting Brahmins, having illicit sexual relations with people of other castes, non-payment of debt, defying the customs of the caste regarding feasts etc.

Question 17.
Hierarchy.
Answer:
The concept of hierarchy forms the crux of the caste groups. Dumont believes that the hierarchical division of caste is based on the concept of purity and pollution and according to, the given caste occupies a particular position in the caste hierarchy.

Short-Answer Type Questions

Question 1.
Analyse the characteristics of the caste system.
Answer:

Segmental Division:
A caste group is a segmental group. Under the caste system, society is divided into several small social groups known as castes, each caste is a well-developed social group.

Hierarchy:
In a caste society, all the castes are arranged into a hierarchy on the basis of their social importance. At the top of the hierarchy is Brahmanism whereas untouchable castes are at the bottom. In between them, many other castes exist.

Restrictions on Food:
Under the caste system caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food, drink and social intercourse.

Restrictions in civil and religious privileges:
In a caste-based society, there is an unequal distribution of privileges and disabilities along its members. Higher caste people enjoy all the privileges while lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities.

Restrictions on occupation:
Under a caste system choice of occupation is not free. Each caste is traditional with a particular occupation.

Caste endogamy:
Every caste imposes restrictions on its members to marry one’s own caste or sub-caste.

Question 2.
Analyse the functions of caste that do not perform for individuals.
Answer:
Caste provides fixed social status to individuals. Under the caste system, the status of an individual is determined by their birth. His status is constant at all times. Caste provides social security to individuals. Every caste provides necessary social security to its members from its birth to death. It acts as health insurance. Caste guides an individual in his day- to day activities.

Every caste provides a specific behavioural pattern for its members to be followed on different fixed occasions. Caste determines the occupation of the individual. Every caste provides specific occupations for its members to follow. Caste provides mental security to individuals. Caste by prescribing and providing facilities to its member guarantees mental security to individuals.

Question 3.
Analyse the functions of caste in social life.
Answer:
Caste transmits and preserves culture. Every caste has its own culture to which it transmits, from generation to generation. At the same time, it also preserves culture. The caste system establishes social unity. It unites different people in a larger society and at the same time maintains their separate identities.

The caste system brings stability to society. It saves Hindu society from outside invasion, internal conflict and all sorts of problems. It makes religious conversion almost impossible. The caste system brings political stability to society. It acts as a constitution for Hindus. It saves Hindu culture from foreign forces. It continues to maintain political unity since ancient times.

The caste system serves as a unique system of division of labour. It makes provisions for all funds of work. It distributes all works among different castes. It also provides a religious explanation for the social division of labour as a result all perform their work smoothly.
By prescribing marriage within one’s own case or group it maintains the purity of blood.

Question 4.
Briefly discuss the different dysfunctions of caste.
Answer:
The caste system retorts social progress. Under the caste system individual has no freedom of any sort. At the same time, it does not accept change easily. With all the above, its rigidity stands as an obstacle to social progress. The caste system hinders economic progress. Under the caste system, an individual cannot choose his occupation freely.

Individual occupations are determined by caste, as a result, their efficiency suffers and thereby hampers economic progress. The caste system creates political disunity in society. It encourages individuals by loyalties towards one’s own caste and thereby casteism is created which ultimately threatens the unity and integrity of Indian society. The caste system perpetuates social inequalities in society.

Members of higher caste use castes as an instrument to keep their position in that as a result of which inequalities persist. The caste system also creates untouchability in society. It is the ugliest expression of the caste system. It keeps some members of Hindu society as untouchables. The condition of women was very pitiable under the caste system. The caste system also stands as an obstacle in the way of modernisation.

Question 5.
Briefly discuss the factors affecting caste systems.
Answer:
Modern education has played an important role in undermining the importance of caste in Indian society. it is based on democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity. Industrialisation also quality affects the caste system. Caste is based on the rural economy. Hence, the industrial economy cuts to the roots of the caste system. Occupational caste cannot serve large-scale industrialisation.

The spread of urbanisation has made it impossible to practise caste restorations. Caste rules cannot be observed in urban society. Modem means of transportation also help in weakening the caste system by making it impossible to observe caste rules while travelling through it. A number of new social movements were launched against the caste system which helps in its disintegration.

Indian constitution has posed a grave threat to the very continuance of the caste system in Indian society. It makes many special provisions for its disintegration. The new legal system established by the Britishers also helps in weakening caste rigidity and its influence. The increasing importance of wealth also helps in weakening the observance of caste rules.

Question 6.
Briefly analyse a few changes that are being brought in the caste system in recent years.
Answer:
In recent years a number of changes are being introduced in the caste system as a result of the impact of many factors. These changes are discussed below. There is a change in the restrictions regarding the choice of occupation. Now every member of every caste is free to choose the occupation of his liking. There is a sharp decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins in society.

They are no more enjoying their traditional highest position in society. There is also a change in caste rigidity. It becomes more flexible. There is a change in the status of lower caste people as a result of a number of governmental efforts. There is also a change in the restrictions imposed on mental selection. Inter-caste marriages are encouraged. The caste system lost its control over its members. People are to more obeying their caste rules.

Question 7.
What is the class like? Discuss its characteristics.
Answer:
Social classes constitute an important aspect of social structure in modem Indian society. These social classes have always been present throughout the age, but the social classes as we see them today originated under British rule. Social class refers to the horizontal division of people who share a similar position in society.

Wealth, income, education, and occupation are some of the dying basic determinants of class. Social class is relatively open. There are social classes in society. These classes are hierarchically ranked in the forms of wealth and income.

Characteristics:
Class is a status group:
A social class is essentially a status group. Class is related to the status of the position of an individual in relation to others.

Achieved in nature:
Class is achieved and not ascribed like that of caste factors like income: occupation, wealth, and education.

Question 8.
Discuss the characteristics of the Tribe.
Answer:
The following characteristics of the tribe may be noted.

Definite common topography:
A tribe lives within a definite locality having similar physical features and natural environment it is because of this common habitat they develop similar socio-psychological traits.

A sense of unity:
The individuals of a tribe have a strong sense of unity. Because of the same habitat, and socio-psychological traits they develop a strong sense of solidarity among themselves.

A common name:
Each tribe has a name of its own. Its individual members are identified by the same common name outside the tribe.

A common language:
Each tribe becomes distinct from the others in its language and dialect. Because all the members speak a common language, their sense of unity and solidarity becomes more strong.

Common religious belief:
Each tribe claims a common ancestry and worships the ancestor in the form of a tribe. Religious beliefs and practices have great authoritative control over the members of the tribe. Religions guide the socio-economic as well as the political life of tribes to a great extent.

Endogamic practices:
Generally, a tribe is an endogamous group. The members of a tribe are usually many within their own tribe. But now- a – days because of the frequency of inter¬tribal contacts, the inter-tribe marriage rate is increasing. Even the tribes are also being seen marrying people from other religions like Christianity, Hinduism and Islam.

Political organisation:
Each tribe has a political organisation. This is helped and assisted by a group of other dominant members. The political organisation has its roots in the common need of the people for protection. All the intra- group conflicts are resolved by this organisation. All the important decisions about the tribe’s way of living are taken in this organisation. The authority of the chief is questionable and binding on the members.

Common culture:
Because of a common habit, common language and common religion, a tribe develops a common culture with a distinct way of life for itself.

Question 9.
Distinctions between caste and class.
Answer:
Caste is based on birth while class is based on wealth. Caste determines the occupation of its members. But on the other hand, there is no restriction on the choice of an occupation in the caste system. Caste is a closed system but class is an open system. The caste system is believed to be created by God and supported by religions while the class system is secular in nature. Caste society has a Caste Council but class society does not have such a council.

Question 10.
Distinguish between Caste and Tribe.
Answer:
A caste is a social group whereas a tribe is a territorial group. There are differences in the rank and status of the members of a tribe. But in caste, the status of all its members is generally conceived to be equal. Though a tribe, like a caste, is an endogamous group, endogamy is not strictly enforced in a tribe as it is in a caste. A tribe is always a politically organised group whereas a caste is never a politically organised group, though it performs many political families.

Question 11.
Write a short note on tribal problems.
Answer:
Trials in India are facing a large number of problems which continue to greaten. The very existence of tribes. Some of these important problems are as follows. Integration or assimilation of tribes with the national mainstream is an important problem for the tribes in India. Alienation of the tribes from their own land is an important problem of the tribes in India. Landlords or moneylenders of the plains gradually replaced the tribal landlords. Tribals nowadays are also suffering from many, socio-cultural problems.

Question 12.
Write a short note on tribal welfare programmes.
Answer:
The main aim of the tribal welfare programme was to solve different problems of tribal people arising mainly out of uncontrolled cultural contracts. However, at different times as well as non-government agencies. These measures are as follows:

• Elvin suggested the creation of national parks for tribals.
• Indian constitution had made a number of special provisions for the welfare of the tribal people.

Question 13.
What is the peasant movement? Discuss outs types.
Answer:
Agrarian unrest or peasant unrest is not a recent phenomenon since agriculture and land are regarded as the most important subjects the issue of agrarian unrest is to be taken up and handled carefully by the government. A.R. Desai has used the term peasant struggle to refer to agrarian unrest.

Doshi and Jain have pointed out the root of peasant unrest, therefore, lives on the social structure of the peasantry out history and processes of agricultural modernisation. Some of the peasant agitations have taken place in different places mostly for one or the other local causes. Some of these agitations were revolutions, peasant movements and so on.

Peasant discontent as recorded by historians has been a familiar feature of the 19th and 20th centuries. During the first quarter of the 20th century, pie peasant movements became much more violent. These movements were deeply influenced by the struggle for national freedom. While some of these had taken place prior to independence and a few others took place after the Independence.

Types of peasant struggles :
There are different types of peasant struggles depending upon the purpose ideology, organisational base, working style etc.

• The Santhal insurrection was one variety whereas Bardoli Satyagraha represented another variety.
• The Naxalbarti peasant struggle was actually a violent armed struggle.
• In the Moplah Rebellion of Malabar was the influence of Muslim religious leaders.
• The Champaran movement led by Mahatma Gandhi was absolutely a peaceful non-violent struggle.

Question 14.
Kathleen Gough’s classification of peasant struggle.
Answer:
Restorative Rebellion:
Agitations of this type usually consist of an attempt on the part of the agitations to right for the restoration of one-time existing privileges and statuses. Example The Santhal instruction. The Santhals fought against the British not very much for driving them away from India but for restoring their traditional rights. According to Ganga as many as 29 such rebellions took place in India prior to 1857.

Religious movements :
These types of movements took place under the active leadership of religious leaders. People supported and Joined in these agitations with the hope, wherein social equality Justice and brotherhood would be assured for all Example. The Moplah Muslims of Malabar revolted against the Hindu landlords and also the British.

Social Banditry:
It means a type of robbery in which the leaders loot the properties of the rich people and distribute the looted property among the poor, for example, the banditry led by Narasimha Reddy of Karmol in Andhra Pradesh.

The Terrorist Vengeance:
It is based on violence and armed revolt. Here the agitators make a frontal attack on the opponents who are regarded as their enemies. Here the enemies are tortured tyrannized and finally killed Example Noxalite agitations.

Mass Insurrections:
These take place suddenly and came to an end abruptly. They arise without any leader or any organisational base. Whenever they get a solution, may be temporary in nature, and the agitations may come to a sudden end, For Example, The so-called Deccan Revolt that took place in Poona, Ahmed Nagar, Satara and Solapur.

Liberal reformist movement:
Examples are the Champaran Satyagraha, Bardoli Satyagraha, and Kheda Satyagraha in Bihar and Gujurat, etc. This type of movement helps in removing some of the dangerous or at least harmful lords/ legislations. There is no use of violence, bloodshed, or attraction. These movements do not have the intention of creating any conflict or enmity between different communities.